PROFILE
Large-Scale Shrimp Farming in Coastal Wetlands of
Venezuela, South America: Causes and
Consequences of Land-Use Conflicts
MIRADY SEBASTIANI*
SARA ELENA GONZALEZ
MARIA MERCEDES CASTILLO
PABLO ALVIZU
MARIA ALBERTINA OLIVEIRA
JORGE pI~REZ
ANTONIO QUILICl
MARTIN RADA
MARIA CAROLINA YABER
Departamento de Estudios Ambientales e
Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables
Universidad Sim6n Bolivar, Apartado 89000
Caracas, Venezuela
MIGUEL LENTINO
Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela
Apartado Postal 80450
Caracas 1080A, Venezuela
and Natural Resources (MARNR) had received 14
proposals for approval. A developer illegally started the
construction of ponds at the Piritu Lagoon in the State of
Anzo~tegui before the authorization process was
completed. This action triggered a land-use conflict. This
study identifies the causes for public protest and
determines the consequences of this conflict for land-use
management. The results show that public protest was
based on the impacts of the partial construction of ponds.
These impacts were related to direct removal of wetlands,
interruption of natural patterns of surface flows, and
alteration of feeding grounds of some bird species with
migratory status. Consequences were identified in relation
to the role that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
play in land-use conflicts and the actions that MARNR
could take in the future to prevent and solve similar
situations.
ABSTRACT / In Venezuela, large-scale shrimp farming
began in the 1980s. By 1987, the Ministry of Environment
In Venezuela, projects for large-scale shrimp
farms emerged in the early 1980s. By 1987, 14 proposals were submitted to the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resources (MARNR: Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables) for
authorization to build such farms (MARNR 1992).
MARNR followed several steps to issue authorization. T h e first step was to establish whether the
project was compatible with MARNR's guidelines for
the site's potential land use. Based on this preliminary
screening, a certificate of land-use compliance ("conformaci6n de uso') was granted. This certificate was
needed to pursue further steps in the process. Afterward, MARNR could ask for an environmental ira-
*Author to whom correspondenceshould be addressed.
pact assessment (EIA), which had to be reviewed and
approved at MARNR's central office.
Next, MARNR set up guidelines for resource alteration at the selected site to support the authorization.
These guidelines were based on the characteristics o f
the selected site and on the results of the EIA, whenever this had been required. Finally, the permission
was granted and the continuity of the project depended on the observance o f the set guidelines.
Among the 14 proposals for large-scale shrimp
farms submitted to MARNR for authorization in
1987, three shrimp farms (A, B, G) were to be located
on the western end of the Piritu Lagoon in the State o f
An zo~tegui ( 10~
10~ 57" north latitude and
65~176
west longitude) (Figures 1 and
2). This area is part of the coastal system formed by
the Unare River flood plain and the two adjacent lagoons of the Unare and Piritu (Figure 1). This coastal
system offers suitable conditions for the development
of fry, juvenile fish, and larvae of crustaceans and
Environmental Management Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 647-661
9 1994 Springer-Vedag New York Inc.
KEY WORDS: Coastalwetlands;Large-scaleshrimpfarming; Landuse conflicts; Nongovernmentalorganizations; Legal
procedures
648
M. Sebastiani and others
Figure 1. The coastal system.
mollusks that are the basis for traditional fishing activities. It is also inhabited by migratory and resident
bird species.
During the authorization process, shrimp farm A
started the construction with the land-use compliance
certificate but without the approval o f the required
EIA and the p r o p e r project authorization (Figure 2).
T h e alteration o f the selected pond site triggered an
unusually aggressive land-use conflict that significantly involved public opinion.
Local fishermen voiced their arguments against
the shrimp farm on the national press. T h e y opposed
shrimp farm A for several reasons (Garnica 1988a):
T h e selected pond site was in an area o f the Piritu
Lagoon that temporarily dries out during the dry season. In their opinion, such areas could not be privately owned by law. In addition, the construction had
an impact on the main natural spill channel of the
Unare River toward the Piritu Lagoon (madre vieja).
This channel is considered the most important natu-
rai reservoir for organisms coming from the sea to the
Piritu Lagoon on the wet season. Moreover, once in
operation, the water intake channel would have
blocked the natural water flow from the Unare River
to the Piritu and Unare Lagoon in o r d e r to fill up the
shrimp ponds. In their opinion, this action would
have altered the natural balance of salt and fresh water in the lagoons. In turn, this would have reduced
the potential of these waterbodies. Finally, they
pointed out that there was cutting of mangrove in the
construction. On the basis of these arguments, the
fishermen triggered the conflict requesting the intervention of government authorities.
Simultaneously, the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela got involved in the conflict because
o f their history of research, lobbying, and conservation activities regarding wetlands. T h e society is interested in wedands because o f their importance as productive ecosystems and habitats for bird species,
especially shorebirds. In their opinion, the land alter-
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
649
Figure 2. Shrimp farms at the Piritu Lagoon.
ation caused by shrimp f a r m A had a negative impact
on the habitats of some bird species such as migratory
shorebirds and flamingos (Alvizu and others 1988).
After the public protest, MARNR o r d e r e d the immediate halt of shrimp farm A (Marin 1988). Nevertheless, authorities did not offer a solution to restore
the alteration caused by the construction of the Unare
spill channel. This situation caused an aggressive re-
sponse f r o m fishermen, who destroyed a portion of
the constructed levees to restore the water flow towards the Piritu Lagoon (El Nacional 1988).
T h e shrimp farm company, on the other hand,
attributed the conflict to potential issues and tactical
arrangements with fishermen. A c o m p a n y representative pointed out to the press that their purposes
were to: industrialize shrimp harvesting, decrease the
650
M. S e b a s t i a n i a n d o t h e r s
STEP
'I
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COASTAL SYSTEM
STEP
2
IDENTIFICATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
D
OF THE _
_
D
SELECTED SITE FOR SHRIMP PRODUCTION
STEP
3
STEP
4
IDENTIFICATIONOF THE CHANGES AT THE SELECTED
SITE CAUSED BY THE SITING OF THE PONDS
D
IDENTIFICATION
.l>
THE
STEP
5
OF THE SPATIAL KNOWLEDGE OF
FISHERMEN
IDENTIFICATION
OF THE
SPATIAL
PREFERENCE
OF THE RESIDENT AND MIGRATORY BIRDS
~7
STEP
6
CAUSES FOR PUBLIC
PROTEST
Figure 3. Identifying the causes for public protest in the Piritu Lagoon land-use conflict.
drying of the Piritu Lagoon, and offer e m p l o y m e n t to
local fishermen. In his opinion, the activity would not
disturb the fishing reservoir, block the channels or
destroy 1500 ha of m a n g r o v e (Garnica 1988b).
In this p a p e r the following questions about the
conflict are addressed: (1) What were the causes for
public protest? (2) Are there lessons to be learned
f r o m the conflict for land-use m a n a g e m e n t ? O u r focus here is to search for answers to these questions.
Methodology
Causes of Conflict
T h e first phase o f o u r investigation was carried out
in six steps (Figure 3): T h e first step was to gather
information about the study area and the coastal system (Figure 1) with respect to: (1) the relationship
between the water dynamics of the Unare River and
the coastal lagoons and the fishing potential in these
waterbodies; (2) the m a n g r o v e vegetation; and (3) the
bird population.
T h e second step was to find out possible criteria
used by shrimp f a r m A to choose the selected site. T o
do so, it was necessary to assume the position o f a
shrimp f a r m e r in relation to the selection o f an appropriate site. T h e ideal conditions were identified based
on Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter (1985).
T h e s e were then contrasted with the characteristics o f
the study area to identify those that were met at the
selected site.
In the third step, the landscape changes caused by
the siting o f the ponds on the selected site were identified. A sequential, cartographic and diachronic geographical analysis was done. T h e starting point for the
retrospective analysis was the photointerpretation o f
the most recent aerial views (1988), which were taken
f r o m a small plane. A comparison with views f r o m
1975 (scale 1:25,000) led to the identification of the
changes that had taken place. T h e photointerpretation focused on aspects of drainage, vegetation, and
land use. T h e information obtained was verified by
field work, which also allowed an update o f the existing cartography at a scale of 1:25,000. We will refer to
the 1988 m a p as the 1988 m a p (Figure 4) and to the
1975 m a p as the baseline m a p (Figure 5).
T h e fourth step was to find out why the selected
site was part o f the spatial knowledge o f fishermen
and fisherwomen. It was assumed that every fisherm a n and fisherwoman of the coastal system had their
own knowledge about fishing and fishing sites. However, since they carried out a similar activity, there
could be considerable overlapping a m o n g their individual knowledge (Gould and White 1974, Whyte
1970). This knowledge can provide a key to structures, patterns, and processes of their activity in the
coastal system (Johnston 1983). T h r o u g h interviews,
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
651
Figure4. The 1988 map.
the researcher can get this information and represent
it on a m a p showing spatial knowledge, or preferences, of these land users (Whyte 1970).
Following these ideas, it was decided to interview
fishermen and fisherwomen o f the study area. Alvizu
and others (1988), Cortez (1988), and Padr6n and
Torti (1984) determined that they lived in the towns
of La Cerca and E1 Hatillo and that there was a Fisherm e n Association o f the Unare Lagoon, which at the
time was the largest o f the whole coastal system. On
the basis of this information, the head of the association was contacted to approach its members. Thus, 20
fishermen were interviewed at the town o f La Cerca in
September 1988 (Figure 1). T h e n u m b e r o f fisherm e n interviewed represented 12% o f the total number of fishermen related to the Unare Lagoon (Padr6n and Torti 1984).
Fishermen were asked questions strictly relating to
their fishing activities in the coastal system: (1) Which
were the fishing sites? (2) Where were the rearing
areas of the study area? (3) Which were the sailing
routes? (4) Which fishing strategies were used
t h r o u g h o u t the year?
T h e authors agreed upon these questions in advance. T h e n they questioned each fisherman individually through an informal talk instead of using a visible questionnaire. T h e information collected f r o m the
interviews was t r a n s f o r m e d into a single m a p that will
be referred to as the fishermen's m a p (Figure 6).
T h e fifth step was to find out why the study area
was important for birds. It was assumed that birds
have habitat preferences to carry out their activities.
Birds control, to some extent, the places where they
will carry out their activities, and many do so with
great specificity (O'Connor 1984). "It a p p e a r s that
habitat preferences have a large inherited c o m p o n e n t
u n d e r natural circumstances, but these preferences
are also subjected to some modifications by learning"
(Morse 1980), i.e., in many bird species, once individuals choose a wintering area, they tend to return to it
652
M. Sebastiani and others
Figure 5. The baseline map.
during subsequent years (Diamond and Smith 1973,
McNeil and others 1985a). T h e r e f o r e , a m a p of bird
spatial preferences for the sites in which their activities take place may show the importance of the study
area.
T o m a p the spatial preference of birds, a field trip
was carried out to gather information about bird species, their land-use modalities (feeding sites, nesting
sites, and sleeping sites, which refers to places where
large groups of birds rest during the m o r n i n g or the
afternoon), the specific microhabitat used to carry out
their activities, and their migratory or residential status (Perrins and Birkhead 1983). Information was
gathered in localities reported by fishermen and the
A u d u b o n Society and in areas with no previous reports on birds.
In areas with no previous information, the road
between the towns of Nuevo Unare and La Cerca
(Figure 2) was used as a guideline for systematically
establishing bird watching posts. This road passes
t h r o u g h most of the landscapes o f the U n a r e floodplain.
On different hours of a day in September 1988,
bird watchers counted how many bird species were
p e r f o r m i n g specific activities on each side of the road
at 1-kna intervals.
We m a p p e d the acquired data to show the location
of bird species and their land-use modalities. We will
refer to this m a p as the birds' m a p (Figure 7). A table
c o m p l e m e n t e d this m a p to show, for each observed
species, its activities and its migratory status (Table 1).
T h e last step was to identify the causes for public
protest by integrating and c o m p a r i n g the information
gathered in the previous steps.
Consequences of the Conflict for
Land-Use Management
In this second phase, we based the investigation on
archival research and personal interviews to identify
the consequences of the conflict in relation to: (1) a
653
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
EL H ATILLO
r LA
CE
CARIBBEAN
LAI S L E T A ~ -
L~
< . ~
SEA
.....
UNARE RIVER MOUTH
NORTH CHAN
UNARE
J
LAGOON
~
l
~
r-CANOACHANNEL
I
!
SOUTH CHANNEL~
LA CERCA
f
I
1
I
I
{NET)
M A I N Ct
/
/
U N A R E RIVER--/-i
NUEVO U N A R E
MADRE
\'
; %~.,o
•
/.
I
\
PIRITU
LAGOON
\
I
?///
\
TO CLARINES
FISHING
LA
SITES:
ISLETA,
SAILING
LA CERCA~
ROUTES
MAIN CHANNEL
REARINS
MADRE
Figure
LAGOONS
FISHING
UNARE
PAVED
ROAD
SITES~
RIVER
AREA=
0
I
0.5
"t
I
GRAPHICAL
VIEJA
ENTRANCE
UNARE
AND
AND THE
THE
)
'
SCALE
2
~,Km
I
I
N
OF O R G A N I S M S ;
RIVER
MOUTH
SOURCE ~ FIELD
WORK
1988
6. The fishermen's map.
reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in bringing out environmental issues; (2) the impact on shrimp farm projects within
the coastal system as well as nationwide; and (3) the
impact on g o v e r n m e n t decisions and future procedures in relation to shrimp farms and the environmental m a n a g e m e n t of the coastal system.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of the Coastal System and
Study Area
Annual water dynamics between Unare River and coastal
lagoons. T h e U n a r e River is the main freshwater
source for the Unare and Piritu lagoons (Figure 4).
T h e Unare Lagoon receives fresh water f r o m the Unare River, primarily by the main channel (canal principal), which splits into two secondary channels (north
and south) before reaching the lagoon. O k u d a (1965)
pointed out that 83% of the water in the Unare Lagoon comes from the U n a r e River. According to Padr6n and Torti (1984), the water level o f the lagoon
changes with the seasons. During the rainy season,
from J u n e to August, freshwater f r o m the Unare
River and rainwater fill u p the lagoon. At the end of
the rainy season, September to October, the seaward
river flow is strong enough to break the sandbar that
has formed at the river m o u t h during the dry season
(November to May). T h e opening of the river mouth
causes the water level in the lagoon to d r o p as the
water retained there flows back to the Unare River
through the channels and goes into the sea. T h e water
level in the Unare Lagoon drops below sea level during the dry season, and the river flow is not strong
enough to prevent the sandbar f r o m building u p at
the river mouth.
In the Piritu Lagoon, the main annual water influx
comes from the sea. T h e mouth at the eastern end of
the lagoon is kept open artificially all year round by a
654
M. Sebastiani and others
9 EL HATILLO
LA CERCA
LA
CERCA(
AIN CHANNEL
CARIBBEAN
SEA
LA ISLETA
--UNARE
RIVER
NORTH CHANNEL
SOUTH CHANNEL
:ANOA CHANNEL
I (:LIt
j#' +',I~
UNARE LAGOON
MOUTH
""--
""
.+,
,...-,..
(t,)\
]
"~"
UNARE
I
J
MADRE
NUEVO
I
I
\
12
%
)
/
PIRITU
/
LAGOON
/
TO CLARINES
/
LAND
USE
I
NESTING AREAS
II
FEEDING
Ill
SLEEPING
!d,--
Figure
MODALITIES
VISITED
PAVED
GROUNDS
LOCALITIES
0
0.5
"l
',
r
r
GRAPHICAL
AREAS
(TABLE "1)
ROAD
2
-,
SCALE
3Kin
[
t
+
SOURCE: FIELD WORK 1988
7. The birds' map.
breakwater and dredging. In the study area, there are
two spill channels to discharge freshwater from the Unare River to the lagoon: a natural spill channel locally
called madre vieja and a man-made channel for boats,
called Canoa channel (carlo Canoa) (Figure 4).
Relationship betweenannual water dynamics andfishing
potential of the lagoons. T h e fishing activities in the lagoons are related to the annual water dynamics in the
coastal system as follows (Padr6n and Torti 1984,
Cervig6n and G6mez 1986): When the Unare River
mouth opens, some fish species in their larval and
juvenile stages enter the lagoons to complete their
development. Similarly, the white shrimp (Penaeus
schmitti) postlarvae come into the lagoons and stay before reaching sexual maturity. By the end o f the dry
season (May), the organisms are ready to return to the
sea to complete their life cycle. An open mouth at the
eastern end o f the Piritu Lagoon creates a permanent
exchange of organisms with the sea.
Vegetation. Mangrove is widespread in the study
area (Figure 4). T h e main species are black mangrove
(Avicennia germinans) and white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa). T h e y are located a r o u n d the lagoons
and on sections of the floodplain. This landscape unit
can be classified as a mangrove wetland (Mitsch and
Gosselink 1986). Inland areas are covered primarily
with thorn bushes (L6pez and Machado I987).
Bird population. According to Morrison and Ross
(1989), "the lagoons of the coastal plains o f northcentral Venezuela provide some o f the most important shorebird habitats in the country," and they are
part o f the so-called Central Caribbean ecounit. In
this unit, 10,314 shorebirds, which comprise 43% of
the total observed, were in the Piritu Lagoon, while
1987 individuals, which were 8.3% o f the total, were
in the Unare Lagoon. Most shorebirds o f the Unare
and Piritu lagoons are on "the muddy margins of the
lagoons along the spit/sand barrier separating the la-
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
Table 1.
655
Bird species: Status and land use modalities in the study area a
Use modality by site
Common name
Charadriiformes
Long-billed dowitcher
Greater yellowlegs
Hudsonian godwlt
Least sandpiper
Lesser yellowlegs
Sandpipers
Semipalmated sandpiper
Solitary sandpiper
Spotted sandpiper
Stilt sandpiper
Whimbrel
Willet
Piping plover
Collard Plover
Southern lapwing
Common stilt
Cayenne tern
Common tern
Gull-billed tern
Large-billed tern
Laughing gull
Yellow-billed tern
Black skimmer
Pelecaniformes
Brown pelican
Neotropic cormorant
Magnificent frigatebird
Ciconiformes
Great egret
Reddish egret
Snowy egret
Striated heron
Tricolored heron
White-necked heron
American wood-ibis
Jabiru
Maguari stork
Scarlet ibis
Anseriformes
Black-bellied whistling duck
Blue-winged teal
White-checked pintail
Falconiformes
Common black hawk
Osprey
Crested caracara
Yellow-headed caracara
Passeriformes
Pied water tyrant
Nesting
(I)
Scientific name
Status
Limnodromus scalopaceus
Tringa melanoleuca
Limosa haernastica
Calidris minutilla
Tringa flavipes
Calidris sp.
Calidris pusilla
Tringa solitaria
Actitis macularia
Micropalama himantopus
N u m e n i u s phaeopus
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
Charadrius melodus
Charadrius coUaris
Vanellu6 chilensis
Himantopus himantopus
Sterna eurygnatha
Sterna hirnndo
Gelochelidon nilotica
Phaetusa simplex
Larus atricilla
Sterna superciliari~
Rynchops niger
M
M
M
M
M
R
M
M
Pelecanus occidentalis
Phalacrocorax olivaceus
Fregata magnificens
R
R
R
8 - 11
8
Casmerodius albus
Dichromanassa r u f escens
Egretta thula
Butorides striatus
Hydranasis tricolor
Ardea cocoi
Mycteria americana
J a b i r u mycteria
E u x e n u r a maguari
Eudocimus tuber
R
R
8 - 1i
10 - 12
1- 7
1- 6
7
3 - 6
6 - 7
2 - 7
2
2 - 3
R
12
M
R
R - MI
R
R
R
3 2
2 6
3
2 - 3 3 7
3
3 2 - 3
2 2 1-
8-
10
Sleeping
(III)
4
6-7
R
M
M
M
M
R
M
R
M
M
M
M
M
R
R
Feeding
(II)
- 11
7
3
6 - 7
7
7
- 6
7
6
3
3 - 7
3 - 7
3 - 7
3 - 6 - 7
7
8
11
1- 7
3
2
2
R
10
7
Dendrocygna autumnalis
Anas discors
Anas bahamensis
R
M
R
11
3 - 7
3 - 7
7
ButeogaUus anthracinus
Pandion haliaetus
Polyborus plancus
Milvago chimachima
R
R
M
R
3
3
7
1 - 2 - 6 - 7
Fluvicolapica
R
2
9
aLegend: M: migrator, MI: intratropical, R: resident, 1, I1, 11I (see Figure 7). Source: Field work (1988)
4
4
4-5
4
4-5
4
4
656
M. Sebastiani and others
goons from the sea." Birds also use the lagoons intensely during migration. " T h e importance of these
lagoons is underlined by the large numbers o f other
aquatic birds using them, including cormorants, pelicans, ducks and flamingos."
Selection of the Site for Shrimp Farm A
According to Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter
(1985), the ideal location for a shrimp farm has the
following characteristics: (1) easy access to fresh- or
brackish water of good quality; (2) flat topography;
(3) proximity to natural sources of seed (shrimp postlarvae) or adult shrimps; (4) areas with no vegetation
cover; (5) good roads for easy distribution of the
product; and (6) lands with low potential for agriculture, tourism, or biological resources.
Shrimp farm A was planned to grow only white
shrimp (Penaeus schmitti) in a total area of 120 ha. For
this purpose, the western end o f the Piritu Lagoon
had several of the characteristics required by this type
of activity (Figure 2): (1) a nearby source of fresh and
brackish water in the Unare River; (2) a source o f
shrimp posttarvae and adult white shrimps in the sea
and the l a g o o n s i t h e Unare River mouth was the natural path for the postlarvae; and (3) areas of flat topography close to the source of larvae. T h e selected
site was on flat topography. It would have occupied
areas of the Piritu Lagoon that normally would have
dried out during the dry season and would have been
u n d e r shallow water during the rainy season. It also
would have occupied a portion o f the only natural
spill channel of the Unare River (madre vieja) towards
the Piritu Lagoon. Since the selected site was public
land, the shrimp farm company asked the Town
Council (Concejo Municipal) for permission to propose the new activity on its property.
Landscape Changes Brought about by Siting
Ponds in the Selected Area
Comparing the 1988 map (Figure 4) with the baseline map (Figure 5), we can identify the following
landscape changes caused by the partial construction
of shrimp farm A: (1) alteration of flat areas o f the
Piritu Lagoon by construction o f the levees, mainly in
shallow waters and on m u d d y shores; (2) obstruction
and alteration of the main natural spill channel of the
Unare River toward the P/ritu Lagoon (madre vieja);
and (3) mangrove deforestation to place the structures, mainly along the madre vieja.
Alterations o f natural lagoons, related areas, and
natural drainage channels are prohibited in Venezu-
ela by law (Reptlblica de Venezuela 1977). An exception to this law allows alterations of natural lagoons
and related areas if ownership goes back to 1848 (Reptiblica de Venezuela 1987). Natural lagoons must
have at least a 50-m-wide protected zone around
them. Rivers must also have a protected zone o f 50 m
on each side for navigable rivers and 25 m for nonnavigable ones (Repdblica de Venezuela 1966).
At the time o f the conflict, mangrove cutting was
prohibited by Presidential Decree 110 (Reptiblica de
Venezuela 1974). T h e decree was related to the Law
o f Fishing that prohibits the destruction of aquatic
vegetation and natural formations where fish can
hatch. T h e connection between the decree and this
law allowed legal interpretations that resulted in the
exclusive protection of red mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle) (MARNR 1979). T h e r e f o r e , protection for
mangrove at the selected site was weak due to the
presence of mainly black and white mangrove.
The Fishermen's Map
Fishing in the study area takes place throughout
the year with the fishing sites varying seasonally
(Figure 6): During the dry season, fishing takes place
mainly around the island "La Isleta" because the water level drops in the Unare Lagoon, causing fish to
concentrate around the island. Also during this period, fishing is intensified upstream of the Unare
River, up to near the town of Clarines (Figure 1).
During the rainy season, fishermen help in clearing the sandbar at the river mouth to accelerate its
natural opening. Once the mouth is open, a continuous flow from tile Unare Lagoon to the sea is established through the main channel (canal principal).
Fishermen take advantage o f this strong flow or
chorro to intercept adult fish and shrimps swimming
toward the sea. T h e y place a plastic net held by logs
across the main channel, at the site o f La Cerca. T h e
annual cycle for fishing followed by fishermen agrees
with the existing knowledge about the cycle of aquatic
organisms in the lagoons.
T h e main pieces o f the fishermen's map in the
study area are (Figure 6): (l) the Unare river mouth
(La Boca); (2) the main channel (canal principal),
which is the sailing route between the Unare River
mouth and the town o f La Cerca; (3) La Cerca, which
is the site where a net is set for fishing; (4) the island of
the Unare Lagoon (La Isleta); and (5) the madre vieja,
considered a rearing area for fish, crustaceans and
mollusks. In the fishermen's opinion this spill channel
is essential for the maintenance of the fishing potential in both lagoons.
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
The Birds' Map
Bird watching in the study area was carried out at
12 sites (Figure 7). In all, 44 species were identified
and classified according to their migratory status
(Table 1). Among the species identified, 23 were residents, 20 were migratory and one had both resident
and intratropical migratory status.
T h r e e types o f land-use modalities were observed: nesting, feeding, and sleeping sites (Table 1,
Figure 7). Five of the localities visited (1-7) were feeding grounds for 41 species. Five localities (8-12) were
nesting areas for 11 species, and two localities (4, 5)
were sleeping areas for eight species. Flooded areas
and shallow waters were mostly used as feeding
grounds by 44 observed species. However, resident
species were found in large numbers in the mangroves. Moreover, the mangroves were particularly
important for nesting since 10 of the 11 species were
using them for this purpose.
Causes for Public Protest
Impact of shrimp farm A on fishing activities. A comparison between the 1988 map (Figure 4) and the baseline map (Figure 5) shows that the partial construction
of the shrimp farm blocked the water at the madre vieja
and eliminated part of it. T h e fishermen's map
(Figure 6) shows that the madre vieja is a rearing area.
As the 1988 map (Figure 4) shows, the water supply channel was in front of the Unare River mouth.
T h e r e f o r e , once in operation, the water p u m p e d
from the river to the artificial ponds would have
changed the natural flow of organisms. T h e fishermen's map (Figure 6) shows that the Unare River
mouth is the entrance for organisms to both lagoons.
Consequently, these organisms would have been
trapped in the water supply channel. T h e alteration
o f the natural route of movement of organisms would
have adversely affected the catch in the lagoons.
Snedaker and Getter's (1985) comments on the nature of mariculture operations are appropriate here:
The current high demand for marine protein has led to the expansion of existing maricultureoperationsand the developmentof new
operations in many parts of the world. As reports becomeavailable,
however, it is apparent that not all marlculture operations are economicallyjustifiable, particularlyin terms of the destruction of the
natural resource base. Some of tile more common problems, which
are sometimes overlooked by investors, financial support institutions, and owners/operatorsfall into two distinct, but related categories: pond sitingand pond management."
These authors also point out that among the major
problems associated with pond siting are "the direct
removal of wetlands" and interruption of "natural
657
patterns of surface flow" (i.e., surface-water runoff,
tidal ingress and egress).
Impact of shrimpfarm A on birds. On the birds' map
(Figure 7), location 6 is on the constructed area of
shrimp farm A. As observed during the field survey,
ten species were using the area as feeding grounds, six
of which had migratory status. If the shrimp farm had
operated at its full capacity (120 ha), it also would have
affected location 7. This location is another feeding
ground for 23 species, nine o f which are migratory
and one has a resident and intratropical status. Some
species reported in these locations were shorebirds.
Morrison and others (1985) point out that birds of this
type that migrate to the South American coast are
found only in a few locations. T h e r e f o r e , the alteration of such locations definitely would have caused
severe damage for the bird population.
T h e results supported the arguments o f the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela in the sense
that the coastal system is a reservoir for several bird
species, many of them with migratory status. These
birds are mostly nearctic limicolous, whimbrels, sandpipers, and plovers, and nest in the Canadian Arctic
biome and ecotone (McNeil and others 1985a).
McNeil and others (1985a) point out that for these
birds, coastal lagoons and large extensions of flooded
areas and shallow water represent the first place
where they can arrive at the beginning of their flight
over the Caribbean Sea and the West Atlantic Ocean.
Many of these birds stay in northern South America
during the boreal winter; others just stay during the
autumn or spring and then hibernate in Tierra del
Fuego. Some species stay in these coastal areas
throughout the year because some individuals (immature, lacking the necessary accumulation of premigratory fat, or any hormonal imbalance) stay in the South
during J u n e and July. It should be noted that limicolous birds from the Septentrional regions of North
America (such as the greater yellow legs (Tringa melanoleuca) and semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) stay in the lower latitudes for approximately 70%
of the year (McNeil and others 1985a),
In this coastal system there are species, like the
flamingo (Phoenicopterus tuber) and the blue-winged
teal (Anas discors), that are considered world patrimony. T h e r e are also large numbers of migratory and
resident wild ducks. During the northern winter they
concentrate in the coastal lagoons and salt marshes of
Venezuela to avoid the drought in the continental
lowlands (llanos) (Lentino 1988). In a census carried
out by Morrison and others (1985) and McNeil and
others (1985b, 1988), it was found that the n u m b e r of
small sandpipers observed in the lagoons of Tacari-
658
M. Sebastiani and others
gua (east o f the Unare lagoon), Unare, and Pfritu
represent 40% of the birds that arrive at the Venezuelan coasts (Lentino 1988).
because o f the active role o f the fishermen's associations of the coastal system and o f the Audubon Conservation Society o f Venezuela. These NGOs, supported by the Environmental Act (Rept~blica de
Venezuela 1976), submitted complaints to MARNR's
regional and central offices, demanding legal actions
against shrimp farm A.
T h e national press played an important role in presenting to the public the issues discussed in the conflict. Garcia (1992) points out that the printed media is
the most important tool for "critical consciousnessraising" and "social pressure" in the Venezuelan ecological movement.
T h e aggressive response from fishermen showed
how illegal actions can trigger unwanted responses
from local communities. This type o f response highlighted the value o f an environmental impact assessment (EIA) and the need for public consultation during the process o f approval of a project.
Since 1992, the role o f NGOs as environmental
watchers has been further stimulated, but not fully
supported, by the recent Presidential Decree on Regulations of the Environmental Act on Environmental
Impact Studies (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1992a). This
decree states that environmental impact studies are
public documents, but their public review is at the
MARNR's discretion.
tion o f effects and related measurements (MARNR
1992).
Shrimp farms B and C were also affected by the
conflict. MARNR temporarily suspended these two
projects to revise their land rights. T h e projects were
halted, although their EIAs had been approved and
their authorizations had been granted. In 1989, the
National Procuratorship decided that part o f the area
to be occupied by shrimp farm B had a similar situation to that of shrimp farm A and, therefore, its activities should concentrate only in their own inland terrain (MARNR 1992, Novo 1990). In relation to
shrimp farm C, the National Procuratorship found
out that its suspension was not appropriate because
the land was privately owned and not associated with
the Pfritu Lagoon. At present, shrimp farm C is the
only one in operation.
T h e impact of the conflict is also reflected in the
land-use plan proposed by MARNR for the coastal
fringe of the Anzo~tegui State (Convenio M A R N R PEQUIVEN 1992). This plan is u n d e r discussion for
approval. In it, the original areas to be occupied by
shrimp farms A and B are proposed as areas for special regulations u n d e r two categories: area for protection and environmental recovery (Areas de Protecci6n y Recuperaci6n Ambiental) and recreational
park.
T h e first category includes areas for which a mitigation or a restoration plan should be established to
minimize environmental problems caused by natural
or anthropic factors (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1983).
T h e second category is to allow expropriation o f land
for recreational purposes (Convenio MARNR-PEQ U I V E N 1992). In the plan, the original areas of
shrimp farms A and B are the only locations where
two land-use restrictions overlap. In it, there is no
proposition for new areas for large shrimp farms.
Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects of the
coastal system. In 1989, the National Procuratorship
Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects nationwide. T h e case u n d e r study changed adversely the
r a t i f e d that shrimp farm A did not own the land o f
the selected site (MARNR 1992). T h e selected site was
in an area o f the Piritu Lagoon that temporarily dries
out during the dry season. In Venezuela, natural
waterbodies and related areas during the rainy season
can only be privately owned if there is a document
dating from 1848 stating rights to this land (Rept~blica
de Venezuela 1987). Shrimp farm A did not have
such a document. T h e r e f o r e , the National Procuratorship ruled that the selected site was illegally occupied. T h e conflict was solved on legal grounds. Parallel to this decision, MARNR did not approve the
environmental impact assessment presented by
shrimp farm A, because o f unsatisfactory identifica-
perspective of public opinion on large-scale shrimp
farming. This public attitude disturbed businessmen
from other regions with an interest in shrimp farming. Since 1987, 12 shrimp farm projects have been
approved by MARNR after going through the required authorization process (MARNR 1992).
Consequences of the Conflict for
Land-Use Management
Reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in bringing out issues in land-use conflicts. T h e land-use conflict u n d e r study emerged
Impact of the conflict on governmental actions and procedures. In the authors' opinion, the relevant consequences o f the conflict in relation to governmental
actions and procedures were the following:
1. Establishment o f an auditing program for
shrimp farm activities in the coastal system. For
MARNR the case was challenging. It had to stop
shrimp farm A but it had to support other shrimp
Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
farms like shrimp farm C. T o do so, MARNR established an annual auditing program for shrimp farm
C, starting with the construction phase. T h e program
is designed to corroborate the short- and long-term
effects identified in the EIA. It allows a regular acquisition of the real data needed to monitor the compatibility o f the activity with the environment. In Venezuela, this was the first experience of an auditing
program (Rojas 1992). We must mention that the new
Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures (Repdblica de Venezuela 1992a) states that
MARNR can designate an inspector to control a
project during all the required phases, including the
monitoring program after construction.
2. Reinforcement of nationwide regulations for
large-scale shrimp farming. On the basis o f the experience gained from the conflict, MARNR reinforced
the regulations to authorize shrimp farms. From 1988
to August 1991, MARNR automatically required an
EIA study after a shrimp project had received the
land-use compliance certificate. MARNR also established guidelines to advise the p r o p o n e n t on the issues
to consider in such a report.
In 1992, the Decree on EIA was approved (Repdblica de Venezuela 1992a). It specifies that shrimp
farms must have an EIA, which should be prepared
after the land-use compliance certificate has been issued, but before the authorization for alteration of land
resources (Repfiblica de Venezuela 1992a), T h e decree
is reinforced by the new Penal Law of the Environment
(Reptiblica de Venezuela 1992b). This law specifies that
the public officer that authorizes a project without requesting the EIA for those projects mentioned in the
decree, will go to prison and pay a fine.
T h e Penal Law of the Environment reinforces
overall MARNR regulations. Consequently, if the
conflict here reviewed were to take place today, the
following actions would be crimes: (a) changes in natural drainage patterns or riverbeds made without
considering technical standards or the required authorization (an authorization for changes that are not
supported by technical standards or the guidelines
established in the existing land-use plans, is also considered a crime); (b) illegal occupation o f protected
areas or natural ecosystems for commercial, industrial
or agricutural purposes; and (c) alteration or destruction of flora and fauna, violating the standards set on
these matters.
T h e Penal Law also establishes that the j u d g e can
act to prevent damage to the environment, to people,
and other negative consequences, based on the given
complaint. T h e s e actions could be: (a) the total, or
partial occupation of the site by MARNR, or of the
659
pollutant sources until the situation is corrected, or
the necessary authorization has been obtained; (b) interruption or prohibition of the activity that has damaged or degraded the environment; (c) confiscation
or elimination of obstacles, objects, or any elements
that obstruct the reasonable use of the aquatic resources, like in marine or coastal areas under special
regulations; or (d) any other measure to avoid further
damage.
3. T h e inconvenience of granting a land-use compliance certificate for a project before considering the
results o f its EIA was made evident. According to the
Administrative Procedures Act (Repflblica de Venezuela 1981), once the land-use compliance certificate
has been granted, the proponent acquires the right to
develop the activity u n d e r certain conditions. This law
also states that a decision taken by a governmental
office may be modified only if the new interpretation
favors the developer. This means, that if shrimp farm
A had acted legally, then MARNR would have faced a
negotiation process to adjust the project to the unsuitable selected site. Thus, the EIA would have been
more a tool to establish restrictions to the project,
rather than to prevent the negative impacts caused by
the selection of the site.
This type of risk in land management can still take
place today. Land-use compliance certificates are
mostly based on maps for potential land-use scales of
1:250,000, too small to base decisions at the local level.
However, once the proposed land use is confirmed by
MARNR, the p r o p o n e n t acquires rights to the assigned land use. This fact is further enhanced by the
new Decree on EIA, which states that the EIA should
be prepared after the land-use compliance certificate
has been granted, but before the authorization for alteration of land resources. This issue leads to the final
conclusion of this paper: MARNR must revise the process of land-use compliance certification to avoid securing a land-use agreement too early in the process of
authorization. This would avoid a decision that later
might be unsustained by the results of the EIA.
Acknowledgments
T h e authors are grateful to the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela and to the Instituto de
Recursos Naturales Renovables of the Universidad
Sim6n Bolivar for partially funding the final report
from the course "Environmental Impact Assessment"
given at the Department of Environmental Studies in
1988. This report was the basis for this paper. T h e
authors are also grateful to the referees, J. Gosselink,
L. Bardwell, and P. Risser, as well as to V. V&squez, V.
660
M, Sebastiani and others
H a a r m a n n , E. H e r r e r a , L. E. Garcia, a n d M. McPherson for t h e i r t h o u g h t f u l c o m m e n t s o n a n earlier d r a f t
o f this m a n u s c r i p t ; to S. Garcia a n d L. Malave for the
i n f o r m a t i o n o n the conflict; a n d to N. C e r o n e a n d
M.V. Yfiber for the drawings.
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