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to leading tiger research groups. Not more
than 50 wild tigers remain in China, says
its State Forestry Administration (SFA).
Captive tigers, on the other hand, are
booming. At least 11,000 tigers of mixed
ancestry are behind bars, estimates Ron
Tilson, director of conservation at the
Minnesota Zoo in Apple Valley. About
1000 dwell in public zoos in Europe,
Japan, North America, and other countries. Astonishingly, more than 5000 tigers
are in the hands of private owners in North
America. And at least another 5000 live in
state and private tiger-breeding centers (or
“farms,” as many conservationists call
them), mostly in China.
Bone-strengthening wine? Wine is sold in tigershaped bottles, but lion carcasses are used to brew it.
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So in the late 1990s, when SFA officials
began exploring the idea of restoring China’s
tigers—animals of symbolic and cultural
importance to the nation—they turned in part
to the tiger-breeding centers. But they are
also considering other means, such as translocations of wild tigers or, if feasible, simply
encouraging tiger populations to rebound on
their own. “The Chinese desperately want to
bring back their wild tigers,” says Tilson.
But tiger reintroduction is challenging,
requiring a genetically diverse population
and an estimated minimum of 100 preypacked square kilometers per tiger—not to
mention the need to reacquaint captive animals with the rules of the wild. Tilson himself prefers to avoid using captive cats and is
working with Chinese officials to restore the
South China tiger (the most endangered of
China’s four subspecies) by perhaps using
wild tigers of a closely related subspecies.
Indeed, for some scientists and conservationists, the captive tigers at China’s five
commercial breeding centers represent
their worst nightmare. They argue that
captive-bred tigers, often too genetically
similar or hybrids, can never be released,
and that unless destroyed they will be used
to reignite the trade in tiger parts, which has
dropped dramatically since the Chinese
enacted a domestic ban in 1993. “The purpose
www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): CHEN MING, SAVE CHINA’S TIGERS; IFAW (WWW.IFAW.ORG)
HARBIN, HEILONGJIANG PROVINCE,
CHINA—For Xu Yan Chun, a wildlife
geneticist at the Northeast Forestry University here, the eight Siberian, or Amur,
tigers clustered in the dirt under a shade
tree are a sign of hope. Although confined
to a shrubby enclosure at the Heilongjiang
Siberian Tiger Park in Harbin, the tigers
may one day be used to help bring back
what China has virtually lost: tigers in the
wild. “It’s the dream,” says Xu, who is analyzing the genetics of the park’s 800 tigers
to determine how inbred they have become
since the government-owned park was
founded 21 years ago. He estimates that
about 200 of the cats are genetically
healthy enough to be used for such a captive breeding program.
Reintroducing captive tigers to the wild
may seem a desperate plan. But the plight
of wild tigers is indeed desperate. Just
100 years ago, an estimated 100,000 tigers
representing nine subspecies roamed Asia
from China to Turkey. Today, after almost
unrelenting human persecution, fewer
than 3000 tigers remain in the wild,
according to a 2006 International Union
for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources report. Their territory has
dwindled as well, with tigers inhabiting a
mere 7% of their historic range, according
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says the captive breeding of tigers should be
restricted “only to conserving wild tigers”
and that the felines should not be “bred for
of the tiger farms always has been and contheir parts and derivatives.”
tinues to be solely for commercial purposes,
Nevertheless, China has not stepped
to sell tiger-bone medicine and wine,”
back from an internal debate about whether
charges Grace Ge Gabriel of the Internato allow its citizens to resume using tigertional Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW),
bone medicine, although most traditional
headquartered in Yarmouth Port, Massachumedicine practitioners argue that alternasetts. “And if they’re allowed to” sell these
tives exist and are not requesting tiger bone.
products, “it will mean the end of tigers in
(Indeed, last May, the state-owned Tanggula
the wild everywhere.”
Pharmaceutical Co. in Beijing published a
study claiming that mole rat bones were as
Tiger-bone medicine
effective as tiger bones for treating rheumaTigers, with their lustrous, striped furs and
tism.) Still, some of the tiger-breeding cenpowerfully muscled bodies, have long been
ters sell tiger-shaped bottles containing a
seen as embodying magical powers. For at
brew made by steeping feline carcasses in
least 1500 years, traditional medical practirice wine for several years, says IFAW’s
tioners throughout Asia have prescribed
Gabriel. SFA officials say that the wine is
remedies using tiger bone to treat a variety
made with lion bone. One center’s restauof ailments from rheumatism to impotence.
rant also sold what it claimed was tiger meat
But in the 20th century, the tiger-bone trade
as recently as last year, Gabriel adds. And
increased exponentially, as did
the centers have hundreds of
sport hunting, deforestation, and
containers of tiger carcasses,
other pressures.
skins, bones, and organs in cold
Siberian
Historic distribution
To stop the slaughter, in 1975
storage. “They are valuable, and
Current distribution
the Convention on International
we hope to use them one day,”
Trade in Endangered Species of
says Wang Li Gang, general
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
manager at the Siberian Tiger
banned the international trade in
Park. “I’m old enough now that I
South China
tigers and tiger parts. In 1993,
myself would like to use the
China—often the prime destinatiger-bone medicine.”
tion for tigers poached elseAll this creates pressure to lift
Bengal
Indochinese
where—followed this up with its
China’s domestic ban on the tigerown domestic ban. Yet even with
bone trade. “Since 2004, we’ve
China adhering to both bans, wild
received many petitions … to
tigers have continued to decline in
allow the use of tiger bone for
most of the 14 countries that harmedicines,” explains Wang
bor a population, largely because
Weisheng, director of the Wildlife
Malayan
of shrinking habitat, lack of law
Management Division of SFA in
Sumatran
enforcement, and a renewed trade
Beijing. In 2005, SFA began
in tiger skins.
researching captive-tiger breedThe Siberian Tiger Park—
ing and the medical use of tiger
China’s first—was born in 1986
bone to assess their “scientific
Bali
Javan (extinct)
when a wildlife biologist decided
basis,” says Wang during an interto breed captive tigers as a source
view in his office. “There must be
of tiger-bone medicine, with the
a benefit to the wild tiger from the
Tracking the Vanishing Tiger
hope of decreasing poaching presmedical use of tiger bone using
sure on the wild cats. But before
First listed as endangered back in 1975, the tiger (Panthera tigris) is
captive tigers” for the ban to be
any captive tiger bone parts made
disappearing faster than ever, with only an estimated 3000 surviving
lifted, he says. SFA has gathered
it to the market, China banned the
in the wild. Three of the nine known subspecies—Bali (P. t. balica),
expert input through two internatrade. Struggling, this center and
Caspian (P. t. virgata), and Javan (P. t. sondaica)—are extinct, and the
tional tours and a workshop, he
others turned to tourists and to
South China tiger (P. t. amoyensis) has not been seen in the wild for
says, acknowledging that the conselling tigers to zoos for income.
20 years. India reported a healthy population of 3642 Bengal tigers
flict between the two positions “is
At the most recent CITES
(P. t. tigris) as recently as 2001 but now has 1500 or fewer, according
very strong.” He says the agency
meeting in June 2007 (Science,
to a new, as-yet-unpublished government survey. But in Nepal and
will try “to find a solution” after
22 June, p. 1678), the centers came
Bangladesh, Bengal tigers are holding fast, and in Russia’s Far East,
scientific analysis of the data.
under fire when Ireland floated a
the critically endangered Siberian tiger (P. t. altaica) may be making
Wang insists that the proproposal to study expanding
a slight comeback. The Malayan subspecies (P. t. jacksoni), recently
posal is not to “reopen the tiger
traded items derived from captive
discovered via genetics, is endangered in the wild like its brethren.
trade.” Rather, he says, “if our
wildlife. Several environmental
government approves the use of
SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM LUO ET AL., PLoS BIOLOGY 2, 12 (2004)
Face-off. A South China tiger prepares to attack a
blesbok on a reserve in South Africa.
organizations warned that any such expansion
would be harmful to wild tigers. In response,
China argued that sales from the centers could
provide needed funds for conserving its few
wild tigers and supporting tiger reintroduction.
Nearly every other state that has wild
tiger populations and numerous environmental groups roared in protest, reiterating
that such a move would doom the few
remaining wild tigers by rekindling the market for tiger parts. They also called on China
to close the tiger-breeding centers. “China’s
ban has done so much to save the tiger,” says
Judy Mills of the Washington, D.C.–based
International Tiger Coalition. “But trade of
any kind from any source and for any reason
threatens its survival. Nor is there any need
to reintroduce tigers. They breed like house
cats and will come back on their own if
they’re protected from poachers.”
In the end, China joined the other delegations at CITES and passed a resolution that
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ager Peter Openshaw notes that “we do not
‘teach’ or ‘train’ the tigers to hunt. … We set
up situations whereby they teach themselves
to hunt using their natural instincts.” And it
works, he says. After feeding the tigers antelope carcasses, he released three live South
African antelope, or blesboks, into the male
tigers’ “camp.” Instantly, the two tigers
Dreams of return
chased the antelope “at top speed,” catching
Even as the tiger parks push to sell tiger and killing first one then the other two. Most
products, they insist that they can also help days, the tigers are fed meat; but about once
save tigers by breeding them. Indeed, the a week they’re allowed to hunt an antelope
most controversial tiger reintroduction plan, “to keep up their skills,” says Openshaw.
called Save China’s Tigers, involves using
The tigers will have no trouble switching
South China tigers from the Chinese Tiger prey from South African antelope to Chinese
Rewilding and Reintroduction Center in deer, predicts Gary Koehler, a carnivore biologist with Washington state’s Department of Fish and
Wildlife and one of
Li’s scientific advisers. Eventually, perhaps by next year, Li
hopes the females
will teach their offspring to hunt. These
as-yet-unborn tigers,
or perhaps the offspring of the offspring, may one day
live free on a 200square-kilometer
reserve in Hunan that
Li’s organization and
Rare shot. A wild Indochinese tiger photographed by camera trap this year in China. SFA plan to restore.
But other bioloMeihuashan, Hunan Province—and building gists worry that even if Save China’s Tigers
up stock on a reserve in South Africa, where succeeds in placing a healthy, hunting tiger in
no wild tiger has ever stalked. Started by Li that reserve, it won’t be enough space,
Quan, a London-based businesswoman, the because a breeding population of 10 tigers is
organization’s idea is to “rewild” the captive estimated to need at least 1000 square kilotigers so that their offspring can survive on meters. SFA’s Wang counters that if the reintheir own. With the approval of China’s SFA, troduction is successful, more habitat will be
Save China’s Tigers relocated two male and found. The plight of the South China tiger
two female tigers in 2003 and 2004 to the makes the unorthodox plan worth trying, he
South African site. They chose South Africa and other supporters insist. “If we do nothing
because “it’s very hard to find enough space for the South China tiger, we will lose it, so
and prey in China,” Li explains.
we need to be creative,” says Wang.
Many tiger-conservation organizations
Other reintroduction projects are under
remain highly critical of the plan. “It’s a waste way, too, but these skirt the problem of
of time and money and not beneficial to the “re-wilding” by relying on existing populaspecies,” says Mills of the International Tiger tions of wild tigers, even if they are from a difCoalition. “It could even be dangerous, since ferent subspecies. For example, Tilson is workthere are questions about the genetic integrity ing with SFA on a project to restore the South
of the captive cats,” meaning that many cap- China tiger perhaps by using its close cousin,
tive tigers are hybrids of two or more sub- the Indochina tiger. Between 1000 and 1200 of
species. “It’s better to put all our efforts into these tigers are thought to live in scattered poptigers that already exist in the wild.”
ulations in China, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand,
Li says she’s “been maliciously attacked Vietnam, and Myanmar. “Morphologically
for this idea by everyone, but you have to and genetically, you really can’t tell them
expect that with a new idea.” Project man- apart,” says Tilson, adding that the subspecies
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differences are “biopolitical differences.
The historical designations are there only
because there is a border.” The tigers would
be given a 1000-square-kilometer preserve
straddling Hunan and Hubei provinces.
Tilson’s proposal with SFA calls for converting the existing pine and fir trees (“You
can’t really call it a forest, since the trees are
planted like rows of corn, and there’s not a
weed or bird or mammal in sight,” he says)
to the original habitat of shrubby grassland,
then building up populations of native deer
and boar, the tiger’s preferred entrées. Once
habitat and prey are restored, and villagers
(Han Chinese intellectuals who fled here
during the Cultural Revolution) relocated,
Indochina tigers would be brought in from
another as-yet-unidentif ied population,
probably young tigers leaving their mother’s
territory. “They will do just fine,” Tilson
predicts. He hopes that the project will eventually “give China and other countries a
model that can be used elsewhere.”
Meanwhile, in Yunnan Province near Laos,
James L. David Smith, a wildlife biologist
from the University of Minnesota, St. Paul,
and Zhang Li, a wildlife biologist at Beijing’s
Normal University, are working to bring back
the Indochina tiger itself; no more than 16 are
thought to live in China. Still, “there are three
reserves that potentially have populations,”
says Smith, who with Zhang and Yunnan’s
forestry department has launched an in-depth
survey. In April, one of Zhang’s students photographed an Indochina tiger inside one of the
reserves (see photo, left). If the team finds a
breeding population in China, Smith suggests
that the Chinese follow his plan for Nepal,
where he encouraged the government to work
with local communities to protect the tiger.
“There are now more tigers in Nepal [about
120] than when I did my Ph.D. research in the
1970s and ’80s,” he says, largely because of
increased mixed forest cover. “That is the key:
good tiger habitat.”
Back in Beijing, Wang hasn’t given up on
captive tigers. If the Save China’s Tigers
project succeeds, he says he might consider
a reintroduction program for the Siberian
tiger, too, using some of the genetically
healthy captive Siberian tigers Xu has identified at the Siberian tiger-breeding center.
But that remains only an idea. For now, these
Siberian tigers will remain in captivity,
entertaining tourists on the Number One
Adventure Bus, chasing chunks of raw meat,
mating with their close relatives, living, as
most tigers do these days, behind bars; their
fate after death uncertain.
–VIRGINIA MORELL
Virginia Morell is a science writer in Ashland, Oregon.
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CREDIT: BEIJING NORMAL UNIVERSITY/XISHUANGBANNA NATIONAL NATURE RESERVE
tiger bone from captive-bred tigers, patients
will only be able to buy tiger-bone medicine
at designated hospitals.” The regulated use
of such medicines might dry up the remaining black market, he says, citing a survey by
researchers at China’s Science and Technology Institute in Beijing.
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