West Indian Archaeology. 1. Overview and Foragers
Author(s): William F. Keegan
Source: Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol. 2, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 255-284
Published by: Springer
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Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol 2, No. 3, 1994
West Indian Archaeology. 1. Overview and Foragers
William F. Keegan1
Caribbean archaeology is riding the wave of an exponential growth curve. In
fact, so much has happened during the past 5 years that it is impossible to
review everything in a single article. The present article is written as the first
in a series. The first part of the paper provides an archipelagic overview of the
regional environmental and cultural diversity in conjunction with references to
recent archaeological research. The second part of the present paper focuses
on recent research into the preceramic Lithic and Archaic Ages in the West
Indies. Alternate theories of population movements and regional differences in
artifact assemblages during the preceramic are discussed. The second article
in this series will examine the early and middle ceramic periods, while the
emergence and florescence of the Tainos must be postponed until the third
installment.
KEY WORDS: Caribbean; foragers; Archaic; material culture.
INTRODUCTION
Caribbean archaeology is riding the wave of an exponential curv
Never before have there been so many practitioners from so many countr
(more than 30 countries were represented at the IACA meeting in Cura
in 1989). But more than sheer numbers, Caribbeanists have finally stoppe
digging "telephone booths" in middens to get decorated potsherds to pl
into time-space diagrams and have begun to address questions of adapta
tion, cultural evolution, social and political organization, mythology, cosm
ogy, and ideology (see papers in Ayubi and Haviser, 1991; Pantel Tekakis
et al., 1990; Robinson, 1991; Seigel, 1989a). Local archaeologists have cham
pioned both economic and political aspects of marxist theory (Hulme, 198
hlO Florida Museum- of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
255
1 059-0161/94/0900-0255 W7.00/0 © 1994 Plenum Publishing Corporation
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256
Keegan
Moscoso,
19
Badillo,
1983
the
native
W
Wilson,
1990
and
Whiteh
(Keegan,
198
To
summari
sive
way,
th
teristics
tha
sequences.
F
have
influen
ducted.
Afte
texts,
the
pr
(2000
to
100
the
Ceramic
ography
of
R
WEST INDIAN GEOGRAPHY AND ARCHAEOLOGY
The islands of the West Indies extend over 4000 km like step
stones between the South, Central, and North American mainlands (
1). The islands exhibit a bewildering level of diversity in landform, ge
and history. For example, all but the northernmost Bahamas fall wit
tropics, all but the southernmost Antilles fall within the North Atlantic h
ricane track, and all of the islands are influenced by persistent trade
while variations in topography and rainfall create landscapes that ra
from steep mountain peaks to depressions below sea level and from
forest to desert. Recent studies have begun to document this moder
versity (Watts, 1987; West and Augelli, 1976; Woods, 1989), as well as
term changes in geomorphology (Keegan, 1992a; Mitchell and Ke
1987; Waiters et al, 1992), vulcanism (Allaire, 1989), sea-level fluctua
(Tanner, 1992; Watters, 1982), climate (Carbone, 1980; Curtis, 1992),
tation (Higuera-Gundy, 1991; Winter, 1987), and fauna (Jordan, 1989;
gan and Woods, 1986; Watters, 1989; Wing and Reitz, 1982).
Some of this diversity is captured by dividing the islands into f
archipelagos (Table I).
^here has been a tendency to call these people Ciboney, even though the name Ci
was used by Las Casas in reference to the Western Taino inhabitants of central Cuba
1966, p. 185). To correct this misnomer» the name Ciboney is replaced with the
Guanahatabey.
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West
Indian
~
•
">
6
Archaeology
^
^
/
/
I
Œ
257
<
O
k. !5s sj^s } ä A r^ •-•
¿i f-U I : I » ]'
. 1 J V7 ^>. f
î :: Hi
i! /i /T^-<5^
*~ 1à**~/à*
m-'
ti y <* ti y <* o
4 ( '' Z
V>^
v7ìv7ì
- ^ A
- {x ''íl
x r'íl
« ¿y r
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258
Keecan
Table
I.
West
Watts 1987, Table 1.1)
Maximum
Island
group
Southern Caribbean (1% land area) Margarita 1,150 920
Bonaire
288
193
Curacao
443
241
Amba
190
167
[2,071]
Trinidad & Tobago (2% land area) Trinidad 4,828 941
Tobago
300
572
[5,128]
Lesser Antilles (3% land area) Guadaloupe 1,702 1,467
Martinique 1,090 1,397
Dominica 790 1,422
st. Lucia 603 951
Barbados 440 338
St. Vincent 389 1,179
Grenada
345
840
Antigua 280 403
St. Kitts 176 1J56
British Virgins 174 518
Barbuda
Nevis
161
130
22
1,156
Anguilla 88 55
Montserrat
84
742
St. Martin 34 424
St. Eustatius 21 549
Saba
13
884
[6,520]
Greater Antilles (89% land area) Cuba 110,922 1,972
Hispaniola 76,484 3,175
Jamaica 11,424 2,257
Puerto Rico 8,897 1,065
US Virgins 344 465
Cayman Islands 241 15
[208,312]
Bahamas (5% land area) Bahamas 11,826 100
(1) The line of small islands from Aruba to M
parallel to the Venezuelan Coast. This "Southern C
iser, 1987, p. 11) includes the Venezuelan Islands o
Cubagua, Las Aves, and others, as well as the form
Netherlands Antilles- Aruba (190 km2), Bonaire
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West
Indian
Archaeology
259
(443 km2).3 These islands co
West Indies (Watts, 1987, p. 4
origin. Their surfaces are char
facies,
although
metamorph
1987).
Recent investigations of the Venezuelan islands (Antzak and Antzak,
1991a, b) and the ABC islands (Boestra, 1982; Haviser, 1987, 1991a) have
demonstrated that they are peripheral to culture-historical developments
in the Antilles proper. Instead, their prehistories reflect a close association
with Valencioid and Dabajuroid cultures of the South American mainland
(Ayubi, 1990; Oliver, 1989).
(2) The island of Trinidad differs from the rest of the Antilles in
several ways. First, Trinidad was connected to the mainland until the end
of the Pleistocene, so it has a more continental flora and fauna. Second,
Trinidad is the largest island in the Lesser Antilles (4828 km2), the sixth
largest in the West Indies, and almost as large as all of the other Lesser
Antilles combined. Except for the Miocene-age "Andean folding and faulting" that forms the rugged northern coast (Watts, 1987, p. 12), most of
the relief is low hills with poorly drained lowlands (West and Augelli, 1976,
p. 185). Tobago and Barbados are built on the same Andean structures.
Few archaeological studies have been conducted on Trinidad (Boomert,
1985; Harris, 1985, 1991a; Veloz Maggiolo, 1991, Chap. 7), although those
sites that have been investigated are type sites for both Archaic and Ce-
ramic age series (Rouse, 1992).
(3) The Lesser Antilles, which account for 3% of the land area (7164
km2), form a double arc of islands "along an arcuate zone of instability
which roughly coincides with the Atlantic edge of the Caribbean tectonic
plate" (Watts, 1987, p. 11). The inner arc is built around high volcanic
cones, while the discontinuous outer arc is limestone islands built on older
volcanic or crystalline bases (Watts, 1987, pp. 11-12; Waiters et ai, 1992).
Antigua, eastern Guadeloupe (Grandterre), Anguilla, Barbuda, and Marie
Galante are the main outer-arc islands. Water passages in the Lesser Antilles are short, with every island visible from its predecessor.
Traditionally the Lesser Antilles have been divided into Windward
and Leeward groups, designations that originated as British colonial administrative units (West and Augelli, 1976, pp. 194-195). This division remains useful for two reasons. The Leewards (3207 km2) are almost all much
smaller than the Windwards (3957 km2). In fact, the island of Guadeloupe
(1702 km2) is larger than all of the other Leewards combined. The Windward-Leeward division also coincides with protohistoric cultural distribu3Aruba today has a separate and direct relationship with The Netherlands.
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260
Keegan
tions,
with
ern
Tainos
In
the
pas
activity
in
the
islands,
directed
tow
of
these
stu
ies
on
Angu
Antigua,
B
ters,
1980;
Hackenber
Keegan,
19
botin,
1991
1991;
Matti
(Wilson,
19
(Versteeg
an
St.
Martin/
(Boomert,
1
(4)
The
Gre
Indies
(207
paniola
(76,
Puerto
Rico
sections
of
and
a
south
Sierra
de
B
1976,
pp.
31
as
the
Sierr
tral
range
o
range,
the
C
Dominican
(3175
tral
31).
m),
is
in
the
The
sur
mentary,
The
an
Repub
the
past
surveys
dec
alo
Kathleen
D
Saline,
whi
(Cusick,
19
4The
list
is
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par
West
Indian
Aguilú
the
Archaeology
investigated
1930s
(Rainey,
261
the
site
1941;
o
Rou
The Dominican Republic has
erated by several universiti
series of regional surveys in
minican archaeology (Veloz
search continues in these areas. The Contact Period is the focus of recent
investigations, especially the transculturation between Taino and Spanish
cultures (Cruxent, 1990; Cusick, 1989; Deagan, 1990; García Arévalo,
1990a, b).
Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, is a microcosm of
the natural diversity found in the West Indies. It has a high central mountain chain covered by dense rain forest, a narrow, but well-watered, north
coastal plain, and a rain-shadowed, xerophytic broad south-coastal plain.
Narrow, deeply dissected river valleys extend from the central cordillera.
The archaeology of Puerto Rico is better known than that of any other
island. With its sister islands (Vieques, Culebra, and Mona) and the U.S.
Virgin Islands, this protectorate of the United States is subject to U.S. CRM
legislation. Although CRM is often a mixed blessing (Curet, 1992, p. 38;
Sued-Badillo, 1992, p. 604), funding for federal contracts has been a catalyst
to the development of a well-trained contingent of Puerto Rican archaeologists and has contributed to our knowledge of Puerto Rican cultural resources (e.g., Espenshade et al, 1986, 1987; Robinson et al, 1985; Tronolone
et al, 1990). More important than CRM research are the recent river valley
surveys (Curet, 1992; Maíz López and Questal Rodriguez, 1990; Rodriguez,
1990), investigations supported by local archaeological "Foundations" and
"Centers" (Budinoff, 1990; Roe et al, 1990; Siegel and Roe, 1991), and tra-
ditional academic archaeology (Anderson-Cordova, 1990; Chanlatte Baik
and Narganes Storde, 1990; Narganes Storde, 1991; Oliver, 1992; Rivera
and Rodriguez, 1991; Rodriguez, 1991; Siegel, 1992). There has also been
a substantial amount of research in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Johnston and
Lundberg, 1985)- St. Croix (Morse, 1989), St. John (Caesar et al, 1991),
and St. Thomas (Lundberg, 1989; Righter and Lundberg, 1991).
Cuba also has a very active research program (Castellanos and Pino,
1988; Dacal Moure and Rivero de la Calle, 1984; Domínguez, 1984; Febles,
1988; Febles and Godo, 1988). However, modern political conflicts have
limited access to Cuban scholars and their publications. At Contact the
island was divided into three regions - Classic Taino settlements in eastern
Cuban, Ciboney or Western Taino settlements in central Cuba, and Archaic
settlements in extreme western Cuba. The relatively late colonization of
Cuba by Ceramic-age peoples may explain why there is no evidence of
Tainos in the Western region (Rouse, 1992, p. 20).
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262
Keegan
Jamaica
ence
1992).
of
is
a
Yet
o
la
Ja
archaeolog
Ebanks,
199
1990;
Scudde
have
proved
immigrants
Finally,
the
are
also
in
t
failed
to
unc
1993).
It
is
l
main
migrat
(5)
The
Bah
over
1000
km
100
km
of
monwealth
about
5%
of
after
A.D.
6
Inagua,
at
th
(Granberry,
note
that
ar
of
the
lost
c
WEST INDIAN CHRONOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL SYSTEMS
On its most general scale, West Indian prehistory has been divided
into Lithic, Archaic, Ceramic, Formative, and Historic Ages (Rouse, 19
p. 33). These ages represent at least four separate migrations and corre
spond to significant technological distinctions between cultural groups.
Lithic age is marked by the use of flaked stone and foraging, the Arc
by the addition of stone grinding, the Ceramic by the introduction of
tery and horticulture, the Formative by public monuments, and the Hist
by the arrival of Europeans (Rouse, 1992, p. 33).
For more than 50 years, Irving Rouse has labored to delimit the tim
space systematics of West Indian culture history (see Rouse, 1939, 197
1992; Rouse and Allaire, 1978). Because Rouse's approach enjoys wide
age in the West Indies, a brief introduction is necessary.5 The basic
5Although alternate arrangements of cultures in time and space have been proposed
Chanlatte Baik and Narganes Storde, 1990; Zucchi, 1990, 1991), most investigator
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West
Indian
ganization
zontal.
Archaeology
of
Temporal
calendar
the
263
chart
positions
years
are
has
are
obtained
tim
det
by
few radiocarbon dates were
Rouse and Allaire, 1978; Sieg
has been to cross-date assemb
However, a variety of problem
reporting of dates (Haviser, 1
the potential for misdating b
the fill (Siegel, 1992, pp. 196-
samples
(Keegan,
1989,
p.
37
the exclusion of standard dev
Of more general importance
brated dates significantly alte
tween the first and the fifte
artificially old (Davis, 1992). M
1200 B.P can be offset by mor
1993; Stuiver and Reimer, 198
from Antigua, he found that
for the Mill Reef, Mamora
plexes that were previously
brated dates from the Three
pre-Meillacan context, yet wh
incide with the start of the
1991; Keegan, 1993; Rouse, 1
nificant because it points tow
nists of the Bahamas (Keega
Space in the chart is organ
passage. The emphasis on wa
archaeological complexes tha
similar than those on oppos
Rouse, 1989). Names within th
cultures, which are classified
sociated traits and grouping
most closely in their styles an
p. 33). In the absence of cer
are substituted. The classificat
styles into series (ending in
(ending in -an).
Rouse's
system
of
classification
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and
n
264
Keegan
Lithic
A
The
Lithic
which
are
o
Rico
and
Lithic
age
J
si
tocene
rise
Lithic-age
identificati
Nelken-Tur
for
their
A
Two
migrat
merged
mid
the
second
former,
wh
is
considere
maica
(Rous
of
Lithic-ag
crossings
(C
industry
w
al,
1969)
and
nists
(Rey
B
The
tool
ki
from
prism
1988;
Rouse
for
the
man
supported
i
study
of
Lit
tradition
w
"
.
.
.those
a
tural
variat
raw
materia
The
absence
chaic-age
si
on
gathered
these
foods
that
have
b
range
of
ac
'There
is,
how
These
points
a
points
from
S
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West
Fig.
Indian
2.
Archaeology
265
Lithic Age blades from Barr
Museum of Natural History,
(1982, p. 40) have concluded th
ering and the small game hun
Rouse (1992, p. 54) classifies
Casimiroid series. Under this
comprised of three local peopl
in Haiti, and Barrera-Mordán
Archaic
Age,
5000
to
In addressing what constitut
(1978) recognized three separa
defined by the absence of pott
shell (e.g., Rouse, 1992); second
acterized by the marine-orien
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266
Keegan
hunting-bas
ceding
hunt
third,
the
A
mollusk
col
advanced
lit
Traditional
rine
mollus
shell
tools.
T
chaic
sites
f
Lundberg
(1
are
ceramic
Moreover,
t
to
date
to
w
and
Ceramic
in
increasin
Dated
to
ab
the
oldest
A
Sometime
b
from Trinidad or mainland South America into the Lesser Antilles
(Davis, 1993). Recently Callaghan (1990b) has suggested that some Ar
chaic groups may have jumped directly from South America to the
Greater Antilles. The use oí Strombus shell gouges in western Cuba, combined with their absence at intervening sites, has been interpreted as evi-
dence for a direct connection between Manicuaroid sites of northern
Venezuela (see Sanoja Obediente, 1987; Veloz, 1991) and Redondan
Casimiroid sites in western Cuba. In contrast, Rouse (1992) interprets
the Redondan subseries as a local development and suggests that knowledge of Strombus shell gouges may have diffused independently through
other channels.
A second reason for proposing a direct link between the Greater An-
tilles and mainland South America is the virtual absence of Archaic sites
in the Windward Islands. Only two small and adjacent Archaic sites in an
unusual interior location are known from the island of Martinique (Allaire
and Mattioni, 1983). Recently, Hackenberger (1991b) reported that flaked
stones from the basal deposits of rocksheiter on St. Vincent are Archaic
artifacts; however, when Allaire (personal communication, 1993) examined
the St. Vincent materials he concluded that the stones were not modified
by humans. Moreover, tools in the Boutbois sites, Martinique, were ground
through use and thus do not neatly fit the ground-stone criteria used to
define the Archaic. It should be noted that the wide distribution of un-
provenienced ground-stone axes (Fig. 3) in the Windward Islands may reflect an equally wide Archaic presence that has not yet been pinpointed
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West
Fig.
Indian
3.
Archaeology
267
Archaic-looking ground-ston
Florida Museum of Natural H
(Harris, 1983; Sutty, 1991b). A
on an absence of evidence in
been conducted.
A different situation exists in the Leeward Islands. Sites have been
investigated on St. Kitts (Armstrong, 1980; Goodwin, 1978), Nevis (Wilson,
1991), Antigua (Davis, 1982, 1993; Nodine, 1990; Stokes, 1991), and the
U.S. Virgin Islands (Lundberg, 1989, 1991). In fact, more than 40 Archaic
sites have been identified on the island of Antigua (Nodine, 1990), a number that reflects both easy access to chert and the intensity with which the
island has been surveyed. Davis's (1993) comprehensive study of flaked
stone from the Jolly Beach site, Antigua, revealed that the debitage came
overwhelmingly from the manufacture of blades. Yet blades comprised less
than 15% of the collection. His study reveals the importance of studying
not only what is present, but also what is absent from sites. He has also
provided a classification scheme that can be used to evaluate similarities
and differences between Archaic flaked-stone assemblages (cf. Febles,
1988; Pantel, 1988).
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268
Keegan
Archaic
si
sified
into
is
similar
to
tools
used
as
quartz,
and
Puerto
Rico
pestles
that
sites;
and
th
pebble
ham
bling
celts
files,
quartz
specifically
cavations
ha
may
reflec
rather
than
Rouse
(1992
and
Puerto
Series,
whic
ever,
much
ships
(Davis
the
Redond
Casimiroid
bles
et
from
lowed
al.
(
south
by
pe
Archaic
s
Courian
Cas
between
26
Liberté)
an
known
for
spearheads,
used
in
hun
58;
Veloz
M
sible
for
th
Republic
Ar
are
located
Courian
asse
conical
pest
ornaments
the dead.
An alternative classification has been developed by Marcio Veloz
Maggiolo (1991), who identified three distinct traditions: a flaked-stone tra-
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West
Indian
Archaeology
269
dition along the dry south and
ground-stone tradition in sou
traditions which characterize
The Cuban Archaic is classified as the Redondan Casimiroid series
and is sequentially divided into Guayabo Blanco (2000 B.C. to A.D. 300)
and Cayo Redondo (post-A.D. 300) cultures. Sites are located in the interior and along the coast, and both open-air and rocksheiter sites are known.
The material culture resembles that of the Manicuroid series of eastern
Venezuela, but it also shares the distinctive ground-shell gouge with St.
John's River, Florida (Fig. 4). The Cuban Archaic has the most developed
shell tool inventory, including gouges, plates, cups, tips, and hammers. The
flaked-stone tradition was continued, although with less flaking, and blade
tools declined in quality and quantity. Ground-stone artifacts include manos, pestles, balls, "corazones" (heart stones), stone disks, bowls, cups, and
"gladiolitos" (daggers).
Fig. 4. Strombus shell gouges from Pinar de Rio, western Cuba (Yale Peabody Museum,
New Haven).
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270
Keegan
In
addition
ples
have
als
leobotanical
"wild
grain
s
a
entry
of
ce
(Newsom,
1
coontie
(Zam
Vega,
1982),
cado
{Persea
and
Alegría,
dron
foetidi
mae)
(Newsom
outside
the
W
sent
ranges,
not
cultivate
the
eastern
w
called
the
similar
chaic
"
Carib
(Keega
The
animal
tion
of
a
wid
Narganes
Sto
may
reflect
tence
remain
between
carbon
res
and
n
lands
(Klink
coral-reef
a
with
a
subst
Archaic-Ce
In
central
a
Islands,
Ceram
lations
(Chan
earliest
encou
although
ext
period.
The discovery of a crude pottery, known as El Caimito, at the La
Caleta site in the eastern Dominican Republic has been interpreted as evi-
dence for transculturation between the Archaic El Povenir culture of His-
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West
Indian
Archaeology
271
paniola and the early Ceram
Rico (Rouse, 1992, pp. 90-92
to A.D. 120
tool types.
and, with the exce
Similar artifact as
duras and el Barrio sites in
420) and at the Caimanes III
giolo et al, 1991). In Cuba, 1
gricultural" phase that date
Moure and Rivero de la Call
It was once thought
the Lesser Antilles up
peoples
(Keegan
and
that Ar
to 1000
Diamond
Ceramic-age peoples has been
ters, 1994), and more recent d
Archaic- and Ceramic-age pe
tilles (Nodine, 1990).
The Redondan subseries may
peninsula of Cuba until short
abeys or Guanahacabibes, the
local legend (cf. Rouse, 1992, p
that there is insufficient evid
was occupied by Guanahatebey
by Europeans until well after
Archaic sites in western Cuba
be contaminated), and the des
nocturnal troglodytes are mor
1935, p. 22).
Rouse
responded
by
claimi
Guanahatabeys must have been
inhabited by Tainos have been
the
Guanahatabeys
spoke
a
d
formed a separate ethnic grou
addresses the question. The fi
simply questioned whether Ar
and did not require Tainos to
in the region was never denied
sites on the Peninsula of Guan
1968), but the question remain
Second, Columbus' encount
does not a culture make (Mo
Lucayan interpreter could not
did speak a different language
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272
Keegan
Tainos
1987).
goods
spok
In
or
inhabited
su
ra
w
ing,
the
rec
the
hearsay
be
studied
a
CONCLUSIONS
Archaeological research in the West Indies has expanded greatly d
ing the past decade. Much of this research is still in its infancy, maki
the Antilles one of the most exciting regions in which to conduct arc
ological study. The study of West Indian foragers remains one of the m
neglected subjects in American archaeology yet holds out the promise
substantial contributions to our understanding of forager ecology and e
lution.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper would not have been possible without the assistance
Louis Allaire, Antonio Curet, Dave Davis, Jay Haviser, Jose Oliver, Irv
Rouse, Peter Siegel, and Sam Wilson, who have selflessly shared the resu
of their research. Suggestions made by Peter O'B. Harris, and espec
David Watters* detailed comments on and insightful review of an e
draft, substantially improved the paper. Ultimate responsibility for int
pretations and any omissions rests with the author.
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