Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. • 5(2) • 2013 • 189-195
DOI: 10.2478/s13533-012-0123-x
Central European Journal of Geosciences
Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD,
Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Communication
M.R. Moufti1 , K. Németh1,2 , H. Murcia3 , J.M Lindsay3 , N. El-Masry1
1 Geological Hazard Research Unit, Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2 Volcanic Risk Solutions, CS-INR, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
3 School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Received 23 December 2012; accepted 15 February 2013
Abstract: UNESCO promotes geoconservation through various programs intended to establish an inventory of geologically
and geomorphologically significant features worldwide that can serve as an important database to understand
the Earth’s global geoheritage. An ultimate goal of such projects globally is to establish geoparks that represent
an integrated network of knowledge transfer opportunities, based on a specific array of geological and geomorphological sites able to graphically demonstrate how the Earth works to the general public. In these complex
geoconservation and geoeducational programs, the identification of significant geological and geomorphological features is very important. These are commonly referred to as ‘geosites’ or ‘geomorphosites’, depending on
whether the feature or processes the site demonstrates is more geological or geomorphological, respectively. The
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an extraordinary place due to its arid climate and therefore perfect exposures of rock
formations. The Kingdom is also home to extensive volcanic fields, named “harrats” in Arabic, referring particularly to the black, basaltic lava fields that dominate the desert landscape. Current efforts to increase awareness of
the importance of these volcanic fields in the geological landscape of Arabia culminated in the first proposal to incorporate the superbly exposed volcanic features into an integrated geoconservation and geoeducation program
that will hopefully lead to the development of a geopark named, “The Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark” [1].
Here we describe one of the extraordinary features of the proposed Harrat Al Madinah Volcanic Geopark, namely
a steep lava spatter cone formed during a historical eruption in 1256 AD.
Keywords: monogenetic volcanic field • scoria cone • lava fountain • lava flow • lava spatter • geotourism • geoheritage
© Versita sp. z o.o.
1.
Geological Setting
The Saudi Arabian intraplate basaltic volcanic fields are
located in the western margin of the Arabian Peninsula,
forming a broad zone parallel to the Red Sea Rift which
has been active over the last 30 Ma [2]. During the last
30 Ma, the complex tectonic history of the area resulted in
a geodynamic environment in which mantle-derived melts
fed various types of magmatism that manifest primarily
in extensive volcanic fields at the surface (Fig. 1A) [2–9].
This typical intra-continental volcanism formed thick piles
of sheet-like basaltic lava flows with associated networks
of shield and fissure fed volcanoes, as well as more silicic lava domes ranging in composition from mugearite to
trachyte [9]. One of the largest volcanic fields is named
Harrat Rahat (Fig. 1A), the northern and youngest segment of which is called Harrat Al Madinah, located near
the holy city of Al Madinah (Fig. 1A). Harrat Al Madi-
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Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
nah, or the Al Madinah Volcanic Field, hosts numerous
and diverse volcanic landforms. Due to the almost total absence of vegetation, the features, consequently, are
very well-exposed. Because of this, they could provide
perfect volcanic geosites to study nearly unmodified volcanic landforms inferred to represent syn-eruptive volcanic
morphology of monogenetic volcanoes as defined elsewhere [10]. The Al Madinah Volcanic Field hosts at least
500 basaltic scoria and lava spatter cones associated with
rubbly [11] and/or slabby [12] pahoehoe in the vicinity
of the vents (about 2-km from the vents in most cases)
that gradually transform to transitional pahoehoe-to-a’a
lava flows [13, 14]. Toothpaste flows [15, 16], as transitional pahoehoe-to-a’a type lava flows, are also common. The volcanic cones are, in most cases, complex
and aligned along fissures forming elongated lava spatter
cones and voluminous scoria cones, many with multiple
craters and nested crater rims. They provide a unique opportunity to study the numerous features formed due to
lava fountaining, lava lake infill and drainage, scoria and
lava spatter cone collapse and rafting as well as cyclic
lava spattering along the axis of eruptive fissures. The
Al Madinah Volcanic Field offers numerous potential volcanic geosites [17] that can increase our understanding of
Hawaiian and Strombolian-style volcanic eruptions forming scoria/cinder and lava spatter cones (Fig. 1B). The
volcanic field hosts the two youngest volcanic eruption
sites of the Arabian Peninsula, both of which are located
near the city of Al Madinah. An early eruption took place
in 641 AD, southwest of the city and formed four small volcanic cones aligned NNW-SSE [18]. A younger and historically documented eruption took place at the southern
edge of the city in 1256 AD [6, 18] leaving behind at least
seven volcanic cones aligned NNE-SSW (Fig. 1B). This
eruption lasted 52 days with distinct eruptive episodes
lasting hours to days, and was described briefly in an
Arabic book “Wafa Al-Wafa Bi’Akhbar Dar Al-Mustafa”
written by Nooruddin Ali Bin Ahmed Al-Samhoodi [19].
This description documents small earthquakes felt locally
prior to the main eruption event that followed a widely
felt and relatively strong earthquake a day before.
2.
Geosites – Geotop - Geopark
From the geoconservation, geoeducation and geotouristic point of view, geological (and geomorphological) features can be classified with respect to their representativeness, scientific interest, rarity, landscape value, educational value and accessibility. Such distinction naturally
creates a system from the simplest geological and geomorphological features to more complex systems that can form
Figure 1.
A) Harrats of the Arabian Peninsula. The presented
Geosite location is shown as a star on the map. B) Aerial
view from the SW to NE of the AD 1256 historic Al Madinah eruption site. Volcanic cones are shown on the image.
The described geosite is the third cone from the south, located at 24°20’ 45.46” N; 39°46’ 30.61” E. Close to cone 1
is a convenient car parking area; from there, it is an easy
600 m walk (one way) along the marked path (dotted line),
which can take visitors to the geosite.
the basis to developing geoconservational, geoeducational
and geotouristic programs. The smallest unit in such systems is the geosite [20–23] or geomorphosite [24–26] reflecting the nature of the feature classified (e.g., of geological or geomorphological importance). In this respect,
geosites or geomorphosites are normally single/simple geologically and/or geomorphologically important features
unique in representativeness, scientific interest, rarity,
landscape value and educational value; moreover, they
are relatively easy to access [25, 27, 28]. In this paper, therefore, we understand geosites as the core features
of any geoeducational, geoconservation and geoheritage
programs.
Following the above outlined logical argument a specific
geological phenomenon can normally be comprised of numerous geosites. For instance, a volcanic cone can potentially host numerous geosites that individually fulfill the
selection/identification criteria to define it as a geosite
as mentioned above. Such groups of geosites are commonly defined as a specific geotop, following a similar
concept as ecologists apply for biological features. The
geotop is therefore a complex and internally consistent
set of geological features identified that fulfill the representativeness, scientific interest, rarity, landscape value
and educational value of the feature in a higher and more
complex way than as a single/simple geosite. Specifically
applicable to volcanic regions, a geotop could be a small
volume monogenetic volcano altogether with its distinct
geological features [29].
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The above outlined separation and definition of geosites
and geotops seems simple, but there are still great difficulties and debates to follow an internally consistent
and externally uniform approach to identify geosites and
geotops that carry similar meaning for everyone. Commonly, geosites and geotops are used as interchangeable
terms and/or they evolve with each other as a reflection on
either the evolution of the scientific knowledge of the phenomena and/or the knowledge level of the general public.
Here we define a specific volcanic geosite part of a volcanic geotop of the recently proposed Harrat Al Madinah
Volcanic Geopark [17]. We also provide geological evidence to demonstrate that the proposed geosite is unique
enough to be labelled as a geosite. At this stage in this
report we focus on the geological and geomorphological
aspects to define the proposed geosite without analyzing
its more complex aspects including its biological, ecological or cultural value.
3. The 1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic
Eruption Geotop
Today the volcanic nature of the landscape near Al Madinah city is evident. An easy drive to the south from the city
of Al Madinah can take the visitor to the 1256 AD eruption
site. The ∼20 km long complex lava flow field is dominated
by proximal rubbly pahoehoe (with a well developed tube
network in near vent positions) to distal (and steep morphological step-related) a’a lava flows emitted towards the
North. From this location, the flows terminate very close
to the southernmost runway of the Al Madinah airport.
The source of the 1256 AD eruption is a 2.3 km-long
fissure-aligned chain of seven volcanic cones that have
been proposed to form the “1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic
Eruption Geotop”. These cones vary in volume, height,
base diameter, and crater width with the northernmost
cone being the most complex in terms of cone collapse,
cone flank rafting, and evidence of lava lake infill and
drainage (Fig. 1B). Each of the volcanic cones show evidence for crater floor subsidence, crater wall collapse, and
some degree of rafting of the cone’s outer flank through
lower cone flank lava outbreaks. This suggests that the
craters of these cones were filled with lava lakes and that
their eruptions were largely dominated by Hawaiian-style
lava fountaining and Strombolian-style explosive eruptions. Lava fountains accumulated lava spatters along the
active vents, providing hot material to form agglutinate
that commonly fed clastogenic lava flows. Most importantly, the high heat from the lava lakes stored in the
broad and elongated craters of the cones and the heat
retention of the fast accumulating pyroclasts on the flank
Figure 2.
A) A striking view of the three volcanic cones of the AD
1256 Al Madinah historic eruption site. Note the variations in slope angle and compare with the visible surface
texture of the cone edifices. 30-33 degree slope angles
corresponds well with the angle of repose of loose granular scoriaceous coarse ash and lapilli forming cones 2 and
4, while the presented geosite (cone 3) is strikingly steeper
due to the agglutination and coalescence of lava spatter
forming its edifice. B) View of the geosite from the south
shows that dynamic lava spattering played a major role in
the growth of this cone. Arrows mark the extent of the lava
spatter collar draping the cone. Circle marks a person in
front of the lava spatter cone geosite.
provided the perfect physical conditions to accumulate pyroclasts that coalesced together, forming an increasingly
steepening cone morphology at the eruption site of the
1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop.
4.
Proposed Geosite
The proposed geosite [24°20’45.53”N; 39°46’30.55”E] is
the third distinct cone (Fig. 1B; 2) of the 1256 AD Al
Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop. South of the proposed geosite is cone 2 which is a volumetrically small
(about 40 m above base level) cone with a relatively small
(about 25 m wide) but enclosed crater with a steep crater
wall. The crater rim of cone 2 is partially covered by lava
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Geosite of a steep lava spatter cone of the 1256 AD, Al Madinah eruption, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
spatter that forms an erosion resistant collar around the
crater rim. The base of the cone is more granular and
composed of highly vesicular scoria. A large scoria cone
(cone 4) emerges North of the proposed geosite and about
100 m from the base level, forming a dominant landform
that is partially open towards the North. The crater of
cone 4 hosts a complex pit crater with lava spatter ramparts. Cone 4 is dominated by loose scoriaceous ash and
lapilli that is littered by some fluidal volcanic bombs at its
lower flanks and some agglutinate horizons in its crater
rim.
The proposed geosite is located between cones 2 and 4
(Fig. 1B) and shows different morphology in comparison
with cones 2 and 4. It has a very steep slope angle,
being almost 60 degrees along the crater rim and over
35 degrees at its base (Fig. 2A). These slope angles are
higher than the angle of repose of any granular material and account for the agglutination and coalescence of
individual pyroclasts on the flank of the growing lava spatter cone to maintain these slope angle values (Fig. 2B).
The crater rim is about 30 metres above its base (Fig. 2B
& 3A). It hosts a crater (about 20 m deep) with a vertical
wall and numerous draped lava tongues (dm-wide, twisted
and folded solidified lava) forming lava benches over collapsed crater wall sections (Fig. 3A), indicating that the
crater was once filled with a lava lake that changed its
level numerous times. The crater itself is fissure-aligned
(following the same NNE-SSW orientation as the entire
1256 AD vents alignment) and is about 100 m long and
40 m wide (Fig. 3C). It seems that there are two distinct craters associated with this volcano (Fig. 3A) that
are partially covered by eruptive products from the more
northernmost scoria cone (cone 4). A debris fan gradually feeds rounded, degassed and non-vesicular lapilli
and bombs into the crater from the southern flank of cone 4
(Fig. 3A). The proposed geosite is a perfect “human scale”
location that can be accessed easily by a ca. 10 minute
walk (600 m) from a parking area (e.g., it can be accessed
from the main road that connects Al Madinah city and
Mahd ad-Dahab), passing cones 1 and 2 that are different in morphology in comparison to the proposed geosite
(Fig. 1B). Cone 1 is a broad volcanic cone composed of lava
spatter with a crater occupied by lava flow while cone 2 is
a more regular shape cone with low slope angle (Fig. 3B).
Cone 4 is a more voluminous (Fig. 3A) complex cone that
produced a substantial amount of volcanic ash and lapilli
forming an ash-plain around its edifice while in its crater
a complex nested pit crater and associate spatter rampart
can be seen.
Beside the aesthetic value of the landscape (Fig. 2B)
and its perfect preservation, the site is also scientifically significant. Understanding of scoria cone growth
Figure 3.
A) View to the crater of the proposed lava spatter geosite.
Note the debris fan feeding lapilli and bombs from the
outer flank of cone 4 (black, dotted arrow). The elongated crater consists of two sub-craters (C1, C2). The inner crater wall is steep and consists of collapsed blocks of
lava and lava spatter agglutinate benches. Within the circle are people for scale. B) View towards the South along
the chain of cones showing Cone 1 and Cone 2. The inner crater wall of Cone 3 is composed of agglutinated lava
spatter that forms a near perpendicular edifice at the tip of
the cone.
and degradation is a long standing research subject in
volcanology [30–34]. In the past decade an increasing
number of scientific works have addressed research questions about scoria cone degradation. Various approaches
have been suggested to define and measure volcanic cone
dimensions [10, 35–42]. These methods advocate measuring cone morphometric parameters to generate discrimination diagrams, as well as using volcanic slope angles
as a key physical parameter to indicate typical erosion
paths and relative erosional trends over time for scoria
cones (on a scale of up to millions of years). Recently
new researches have pointed out the importance of understanding the link between syn-eruptive volcanic processes,
syn-eruptive geomorphology and post-eruptive erosional
trends [10, 43, 44]. These studies have identified that the
eruption style hugely determines the initial (syn-eruptive)
volcanic morphology of a small-volume volcanic cone, and
its future erosion path is strongly dependent on these
starting volcanic dimensions and architecture. It seems
that many of the cones previously viewed as scoria cones
“sensu stricto” (i.e., erupted through Strombolian-style explosive eruptions producing coarse ash to lapilli size granular pyroclasts) are, in fact, complex volcanoes that are
in many cases dominated by lava fountain eruptions that
produce lapilli to bomb-sized hot pyroclasts that generate
agglutinated assemblages of pyroclasts, especially along
the crater rim (Fig. 2B) as well as the proximal inner and
outer flanks of the growing cones. Volcanic cones dominated by lava fountain eruptions are exclusively built up
by lava spatter layers [45]. These products gradually build
up a steep, stable and erosion-resistant volcanic edifice
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M.R. Moufti, K. Németh, H. Murcia, J.M Lindsay, N. El-Masry
lava lake formation, Strombolian-style explosive eruptions, pahoehoe-to-a’a lava effusion, transition, flow inflation/deflation/ponding and the influence of syn-eruptive
architecture of such volcanoes on the post-eruptive erosion. The proposed geosite can serve as an important
part of other geosites associated with the 1256 AD Al
Madinah Eruption Geotop, as part of a current project to
establish the first volcanic geopark (Harrat Al Madinah
Volcanic Geopark) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [17].
Acknowledgements
Figure 4.
Steep sided lava spatter cone along a major fissure eruption side [24°18’20.76”N; 39°50’34.76”E], inferred to be
Quatenary in age. Note the agglutinated lava spatters and
the steep outer flank of the cone. Similar steep lava spatter
cones are common landforms of the Al Madinah Volcanic
Field.
(Fig. 2B), which is strikingly different from a loose scoria
lapilli-and-ash dominated pyroclast edifice. Scoria ashand lapilli-dominated “classical” Strombolian-style scoria
cones therefore represent a different type of volcanic edifice to lava spatter-dominated cones, and therefore their
syn-eruptive volcanic morphology is also expected to be
different [43, 44]. As a result, the “starting” edifice morphology and architecture exposed to post-eruptive erosion
is different, and directly related to the dominant eruption
style that formed these cones [43]. The proposed steep
lava spatter cone geosite at the 1256 AD Al Madinah Volcanic Eruption Geotop provides a graphic example to show
the difference between syn-eruptive cone morphology of
a beautifully preserved lava spatter-dominated cone and
“classical” scoria cone morphologies in general (Figs 2A
& B), highlighting the scientific and educational values
of the proposed geosite. In addition, the proposed lava
spatter cone is probably among the steepest large lava
spatter cones on Earth which makes it unique both locally
and globally and justifies it to be listed as a geosite.
While similar steep lava spatter cones are common in the
Al Madinah Volcanic Field (Fig. 4), the proposed site is
easiest to access and closest to Al Madinah city. The
common presence of such steep lava spatter cones across
the Al Madinah Volcanic Field makes the selected site a
representative example to demonstrate morphology, eruption mechanism and cone growth. The proposed geosite
is also located in a larger volcanic system defined as a
geotop that also represents the youngest volcanism operating in the territory of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, all together providing an excellent opportunity for
any visitors to learn about Hawaiian lava fountaining,
This report is based on research results of the King Abdulaziz University’s Volcanic Risk in Saudi Arabia (VORiSA)
project. Critical comments from Journal reviewers made
this note more valuable.
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