Body and Behavior
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS • How do internal functions of the body affect behavior?
• How do changes in our body’s processes lead to changes in our behavior?
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and behavior.
CHAPTER
6
Lab Activity
Reflexive Reaction
Lesson 1
The Basics of the Nervous
System
Lesson 2
Studying the Brain
Lesson 3
The Endocrine System
Lesson 4
Heredity and Environment
Psychology
Matters…
Our body’s systems work together,
with the brain as a conductor, to pull
off amazing feats. Climbing a
mountain, reading a book, missing
your grandmother, or writing a
poem are all based on biological
processes that take place within and
between cells. The nervous and
endocrine systems, produced by your
genes, interact with the
environment to produce your
behaviors. Psychology includes the
study of how these systems operate.
An athlete gets the body in shape by
practicing a move or action over and
over again. The mind and body are
working together and interacting with
the environment.
ranplett/the Agency Collection/Getty Images
145
CHAPTER 6
Lab Activity
Reflexive
Reaction
THE QUESTION...
RESEARCH QUESTION Does time spent
playing video games improve our reflexes?
Have you ever watched a horror movie and gotten sweaty
palms? That’s your body and your mind working together.
Have you ever woken up and been so sluggish you fumbled
with your alarm clock? That’s your body and mind not working
together so well. The connection between mind and body is
what allows us to get around and to form behaviors.
Researchers are finding that some of our everyday habits—
especially the very repetitive ones—might have the ability to
change how our bodies function. Perhaps these habits are
even improving us.
Is it possible that playing video games improves our reflexes?
This experiment will attempt to find out.
Psychology Journal Activity
Think about your daily habits and which ones are newer than
others. Write about this in your Psychology Journal. Think
about these questions as you write: Do you feel like everyday
habits are physical or mental? Which do you think has a
bigger role—your body or your mind—in forming your
everyday habits?
146
FINDING THE ANSWER...
HYPOTHESIS Playing video games improves your reflexes.
THE METHOD OF YOUR EXPERIMENT
MATERIALS
12 inch ruler, ten surveys rating experience with video games
PROCEDURE Conduct the Ruler Drop Test with ten participants to test their reaction times. Hold the
ruler at the end with 12 on it and let it hang down. Instruct participants to put their finger and thumb
around the bottom end of the ruler. Tell them that you will drop the ruler (without advance warning)
and that they should catch it as fast as they can. Measure the participant’s reaction times by
recording how far the ruler dropped (measuring from the top side of his or her thumb). The distance
in inches or centimeters will represent their reaction times. Test each participant three times and find
the average.
Next, ask each participant to fill in their survey with their age and gender, and to rate their experience
with video games: a 1 means they spend more than 20 hours per week playing video games; a 2
means they play 5–20 hours per week; and a 3 means they play fewer than 5 hours per week.
DATA COLLECTION
Analyze the data, noting any trends and relationships. Calculate the average
reaction times (measured in inches) for the three different ratings.
ANALYSIS & APPLICATION
1. Did your results support the hypothesis?
2. What trends or relationships were you able to see in the data before you calculated the averages
for each rating? Why were the data easier to analyze once you had the averages?
3. Why do you think playing video games might improve one’s reflexes?
Mike Kemp/Rubberball/Getty Images
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ONLINE LAB RESOURCES
Online you will find:
• An interactive lab experience, allowing you
• A Skills Handbook that includes a guide for
to put principles from this chapter into practice
using the scientific method, creating
in a digital psychology lab environment. This
experiments, and analyzing data.
chapter’s lab will include an experiment
• A Notebook where you can complete your
allowing you to explore issues fundamental to
Psychology Journal and record and analyze
body and behavior.
your experiment data.
Body and Behavior 147
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DIAGRAM Anatomy of Two
Neurons
DIAGRAM The Nervous System
DIAGRAM The Synapse
SELF-CHECK QUIZ
LESSON 1
The Basics of the Nervous System
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do internal functions of the body affect
behavior?
Academic Vocabulary
• regulate
• voluntary
Content Vocabulary
• central nervous system
(CNS)
• spinal cord
• peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
• neurons
• synapse
• neurotransmitters
• somatic nervous system
(SNS)
• autonomic nervous system
(ANS)
TAKING NOTES:
Key Ideas and Details
LABELING Use a graphic organizer
like the one below to label, define, and
describe the neuron’s three basic parts.
1
2
3
148
It Matters Because
We can’t do anything without our nervous systems. The nervous system
allows us to think, move, create, and react to our environment. Messages
are sent throughout the nervous system constantly. Learning about the
nervous system helps us know how messages that are sent to and from
the brain cause behavior.
How the Nervous System Works
GUIDING QUESTION
What are the three basic parts of a neuron?
The nervous system is never at rest. There is always a job for it to do. It is
working right along with you during the most demanding part of your
day. Even when you are fully relaxed or sound asleep, your nervous system is busy regulating your body’s functions. The nervous system controls your emotions, movements, thinking, and behavior. It is a part of
almost everything you do.
Structurally, the nervous system is divided into two parts. The first
part is the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and
the spinal cord. The second part is the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), which is made up of the smaller branches of nerves that reach the
other parts of the body. The nerves of the peripheral system transmit
information back and forth from the organs to the central nervous system. The nerves of the peripheral system branch beyond the spinal column and range in thickness from the size of a pencil to almost microscopic
in the body’s extremities.
All parts of the nervous system are protected in some way. The brain
is encased inside the skull and is also protected by several layers of sheathing. These layers of sheathing, which also protect the peripheral nervous
system, not only protect the brain and nerves from physical damage, but
also help to insulate them from extremities in temperature. The spinal
cord is sheltered by the skeletal vertebrae of the spine. The bony protection of the vertebrae is vital to the spinal cord. An injury to the spinal cord
could prevent the transmittal of messages between the brain and the muscles, and could result in paralysis.
Adam Hart-Davis/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reading HELPDESK
DESK
Neurons
Messages to and from the brain travel along the nerves, which are strings of long,
thin cells called neurons. Chemical-electrical signals travel down the neurons
much as a flame travels along the fuse of a firecracker. The main difference is that
unlike a firecracker, the neuron can be “fired” over and over again, hundreds of
times a minute.
Transmission between neurons, or nerve cells, occurs whenever the cells are
stimulated past a minimum point and emit a signal from other neurons or body
sensors. The neuron is said to fire in accord with the all-or-none principle, which
states that when a neuron fires, it does so at full strength. If a neuron is not stimulated past the minimum, or threshold, level, it does not fire at all.
Neurons have four basic parts: dendrites, the cell body, an axon, and axon
terminals. Dendrites are short, thin fibers that protrude from the cell body that
receive impulses, or messages, from other neurons. The dendrites are like antennae for the neuron. Along the dendrites are thousands of synapses receiving
impulses for the neuron. These impulses are then sent to the cell body to be processed. The cell body integrates the signals, or impulses, from other cells. The cell
body also contains the cell’s genetic information, called DNA. This information is
found in the nucleus of each cell in our bodies. In addition, the cell body provides
metabolic support for the cell, meaning that the parts of the cell body work
together to give the cell energy for continued support and maintenance. Without
the reactions inside the cell body, the cell would not be able to maintain life.
regulate to control something
central nervous system
(CNS) the brain and spinal cord
spinal cord nerves that run up
and down the length of the back
and transmit most messages
between the body and brain
peripheral nervous
system (PNS) nerves
branching beyond the spinal cord
into the body
neurons the long, thin cells of
nerve tissue along which messages
travel to and from the brain
DIAGRAM
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The nervous system is divided into
two parts: the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Gathering Information What
are the two main divisions of the
peripheral nervous system?
2. Comparing and Contrasting
What are the similarities and
differences between the
sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems?
Body and Behavior 149
DIAGRAM
ANATOMY OF TWO
NEURONS
The human body contains billions
of neurons. The neuron receives
messages from other neurons via
its dendrites. The messages are
then transmitted down the axon
and sent out through the axon
terminals. The myelin sheath
serves to protect the axon.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Drawing Conclusions What is
the function of the dendrites?
2. Gathering Information What
is the role of the myelin sheath?
There is a constant flow of chemical energy within the parts of the cell body. Body
signals move from the cell body to the axons. The axons can reach to distant areas
of the nervous system, delivering impulses to the parts of the body they are
intended to reach. The electrical signals along axons usually move quickly, but in
length can stretch to several feet. Clusters of axons may split into several branches
so that their intended targets can be reached.
For example, a message may travel from the dendrite of a neuron, through
the cell body, and then to the part of the body that reacts to that message. The
single extended axon carries the impulses from the cell body toward the axon
terminals, which release neurotransmitters to stimulate dendrites of the next
neuron. The shape and structure of dendrites make them particularly easy to
move, shape, or mold. This plasticity plays an important role in learning, memory, and recovery after spinal cord or brain injury. When new dendrites grow or
existing ones grow new connections, long-term memory may improve. In addition, adaptive behaviors, learned behaviors, and retention of memories are possible over a lifetime because of the plasticity of dendrites.
A white, fatty substance called the myelin sheath insulates and protects the
axon for some neurons. In cases of multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath is
destroyed, and as a result, the behavior of the person is erratic and uncoordinated. The myelin sheath also speeds the transmission of impulses. Small fibers,
called axon terminals, branch out at the end of the axon. Axon terminals are positioned opposite the dendrite of another neuron.
synapse the gap that exists
between individual nerve cells
neurotransmitters the
chemicals released by neurons,
which determine the rate at which
other neurons fire
150
Making Neural Connections
Looking closely at the diagram of the neuron, you can see that there is a small space
or gap between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. This space between the neurons is called the synapse. The synapse is a junction
or connection between neurons. A neuron transmits its impulses or messages to
another neuron across the synapse by releasing chemicals that are known as neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters open chemical locks or “excite” the receptors.
The neurotransmitters can excite the next neuron or stop it from transmitting
altogether, which is called inhibition. With receptors only in the dendrites, the
synapse allows signals to move in only one direction, from endfoot to dendrite.
Different types of neurotransmitters do different jobs for the body. Some,
called excitatory neurotransmitters, excite the receptors and cause action among
neurons. Others are inhibitory neurotransmitters, which prevent potential action
among neurons. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that plays an important role in memory, learning, and communication among receptors. Gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors play a role in quieting the body and muscles.
Both of these neurotransmitters play an important part in the effects of alcohol
on the body. Glutamate receptors are slowed down when alcohol is consumed,
and body functions are affected. GABA receptors work harder, which is what
causes alcohol to work as a depressant that slows down the body. Other neurotransmitters have other effects on the body. Like glutamate, norepinephrine is
involved in memory and learning. Endorphins inhibit pain.
The oversupply or undersupply of certain neurotransmitters has been linked
to certain diseases. For instance, an undersupply of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in movement and memory, is associated with paralysis and
Alzheimer’s disease. An oversupply of dopamine, involved in learning, emotional
arousal, and movement, is linked to schizophrenia, while an undersupply is
linked to Parkinson’s disease. An undersupply of norepinephrine and serotonin
may result in depression. Medications that increase levels of norepinephrine are
used to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and hypotension as well.
Neural Activity
The intensity of activity in each neuron depends on how many other neurons are
acting on it. Each individual neuron is either ON or OFF, depending on whether
most of the neurons acting on it are exciting it or inhibiting it. The actual destination of nerve impulses produced by an excited neuron, as they travel from one neuron to another, is
limited by what tract in the nervous system they
are on. Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to
the brain, and descending tracts carry motor
impulses from the brain.
There are different types of neurons. Afferent
neurons, or sensory neurons, relay messages from
the sense organs (including eye, ear, nose, and skin)
to the brain. When you smell food cooking, afferent neurons stimulated in your nose react with a
chemical signal to your brain. The brain may then
be able to identify the smell without you being able
to see or taste the food. Efferent neurons, or motor
neurons, send signals from the brain to the glands
and muscles. When you walk, move, exercise, or
interact with your environment, efferent neurons
help the brain coordinate the movement. Interneurons process signals, connecting only to other neurons, not to sensors or muscles. You may find
interneurons connecting to either afferent neurons
or efferent neurons.
DIAGRAM
THE SYNAPSE
Neurons do not touch one another.
Instead, a neuron sends its
messages across a gap called a
synapse by releasing
neurotransmitters. These
neurotransmitters are received by
the dendrite of another neuron.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Sequencing How are neurons
involved in sending a message to
the brain to raise your arm to
answer a question?
2. Drawing Inferences What
transports neurotransmitters
through the axon?
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Summarizing How does the nervous system send
messages throughout the body?
Body and Behavior 151
Voluntary and Involuntary
Activities
GUIDING QUESTION
How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems differ?
When your pupils get larger in response
to dim light, your body is performing an
involuntary activity.
CRITICAL THINKING
Categorizing What other involuntary
activities take place in your body?
voluntary proceeding from
one’s own consent
somatic nervous system
(SNS) the part of the peripheral
nervous system that controls
voluntary movement of skeletal
muscles
Some of the actions that your body makes in response
to impulses from the nerves are voluntary acts, such
as lifting your hand to turn a page (which actually
involves many impulses to many muscles). Others are
involuntary acts, such as changes in the heartbeat, in
the blood pressure, or in the size of the pupils. The
term somatic nervous system (SNS) refers to the part
of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary activities. The term autonomic nervous system (ANS) refers to the part of
the nervous system that controls involuntary activities, or those that ordinarily
occur automatically, such as heartbeat, stomach activity, and so on.
The autonomic nervous system has two parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for
dealing with emergencies or strenuous activity. It speeds up the heart rate to hasten the supply of oxygen and nutrients to body tissues. It constricts some arteries
and relaxes others so that blood flows to the muscles, where it is most needed in
emergencies and strenuous activity. It increases the blood pressure and suspends
some activities, such as digestion. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system works to conserve energy and to enhance the body’s ability to recover from
strenuous activity. It reduces the heart rate and blood pressure and helps bring
the body back to its normal resting state.
All of this takes place automatically. Receptors are constantly receiving messages, such as messages about hunger or the need to swallow or cough, that alert
the autonomic nervous system to carry out routine activities. Imagine how difficult it would be if you had no autonomic nervous system and had to think about
it every time your body needed to digest a sandwich or perspire.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Finding the Main Idea Which nervous systems are responsible for voluntary and
involuntary activities?
autonomic nervous
system (ANS) the part of the
peripheral nervous system that
controls internal biological
functions
LESSON 1 REVIEW
1. Defining What is the difference between afferent and efferent
neurons? What are interneurons?
Using Your Notes
2. Diagramming Using the notes you took during this lesson, create
a diagram of the different parts of the nervous system.
Answering the Guiding Questions
3. Describing What are the three basic parts of a neuron?
152
4. Applying How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems work?
Writing Activity
5. Informative/Explanatory Put your pen or pencil down and then
pick it up. Write a paragraph identifying and describing the parts of
the nervous system that caused those movements to happen.
Adam Hart-Davis/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reviewing Vocabulary
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DIAGRAM Brain Activity on a
PET Scan
DIAGRAM Cerebral Cortex
DIAGRAM Functions of the
Brain’s Hemispheres
DIAGRAM Parts of the Brain
SELF-CHECK QUIZ
LESSON 2
Studying the Brain
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do internal functions of the body affect
behavior?
Reading HELPDESK
DESK
Academic Vocabulary
• detect
• stimulate
Content Vocabulary
• hindbrain
• midbrain
• forebrain
• lobes
• electroencephalograph
(EEG)
• computerized axial
tomography (CT)
• positron emission
tomography (PET)
• magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)
TAKING NOTES:
Key Ideas and Details
LABELING Use a graphic organizer
like the one below to label the parts of
the hindbrain and forebrain.
(c)Phanie/SuperStock; (r)Paul Burns/Blend Images/Corbis
Hindbrain
Forebrain
It Matters Because
Even after centuries of study, parts of the human brain remain a mystery
even to scientists. The knowledge we gain, the memories we have, and
even the bodily functions that we rely on for life are managed and
regulated in the brain. Understanding how the brain works can help us
to understand the brain’s effect on our lives.
The Three Brains
What are the three parts of the human brain? What are the specializations
of the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
GUIDING QUESTIONS
The brain is composed of three parts: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. The hindbrain, located at the rear base of the skull, is involved in
the most basic processes of life. The hindbrain includes the cerebellum,
medulla, and the pons. The cerebellum, located behind the spinal cord,
helps control posture, balance, and voluntary movements; the medulla
controls breathing, heart rate, and a variety of reflexes; the pons functions
as a bridge between the spinal cord and the brain. The pons is also
involved in producing chemicals the body needs for sleep.
The midbrain is a small part of the brain above the pons. It arouses
the brain, integrates sensory information, and relays it upward. The
medulla and pons extend upward into the midbrain. The medulla, pons,
and midbrain compose most of the brain stem, and the reticular activating
system (RAS) spans across all these structures. The RAS alerts the rest of
the brain to incoming signals and is involved in the sleep/wake cycle.
The forebrain, covering the brain’s central core, includes the thalamus, which integrates sensory input. The thalamus is a relay station for all
the information that travels to and from the cortex. All sensory information with the exception of smell enters the thalamus. All information from
the eyes, ears, and skin enters the thalamus and then is sent to the appropriate areas in the cortex. Just below the thalamus is the hypothalamus. It
controls functions such as hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior. It also controls the body’s reactions to changes in temperature, so when we are warm,
we begin to sweat, and when we are cold, we shiver.
Body and Behavior 153
DIAGRAM
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
The brain is the largest, most
complex part of the nervous system.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Analyzing What are the
functions of the cerebellum?
RH.11–12.7
2. Gathering Information In
what part of the brain is the
medulla located? RH.11–12.7
hindbrain a part of the brain
located at the rear base of the skull
that is involved in the basic
processes of life
midbrain a small part of the
brain above the pons that arouses
the brain, integrates sensory
information, and relays it upward
forebrain a part of the brain
that covers the brain’s central core,
responsible for sensory and motor
control and the processing of
thinking and language
The higher thinking processes—those that make us unique—are housed in
the forebrain. The outer layer of the forebrain consists of the cerebral cortex. The
inner layer is the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex and cerebrum surround the hindbrain and brain stem like the way a mushroom surrounds its stem. The cerebral
cortex gives you the ability to learn and store complex and abstract information,
and to project your thinking into the future. Your cerebral cortex allows you to see,
read, and understand this sentence. The cortex, or bark, of the cerebrum is the site
of your conscious thinking processes, yet it is less than one-fourth-inch thick.
The limbic system, found in the core of the forebrain, is composed of a number of different structures in the brain that regulate our emotions and motivations. The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and
hippocampus. The amygdala controls violent emotions, such as rage and fear.
The hippocampus is important in the formation of memories. If the hippocampus were damaged, it would be difficult to form new memories.
Lobes and Hemispheres
lobes the different regions into
which the cerebral cortex is divided
154
All of these parts are covered by the cerebrum. The cerebrum is really two hemispheres, or two sides. The cerebral hemispheres are connected by a band of fibers
called the corpus callosum. Each cerebral hemisphere has deep grooves, some of
which mark regions, or lobes. The occipital lobe is where the visual signals are
processed. Damage to this area can cause visual problems, even selective or total
blindness. The parietal lobe is concerned with information from the senses from
all over the body. The temporal lobe is concerned with hearing, memory, emotion, and speaking. The frontal lobe is concerned with organization, planning,
and creative thinking.
The front of the parietal lobe receives information from the skin and muscles.
The number of touch sensors in an individual body part determines its sensitivity, and, along with the complexity of the part’s movement, governs the amount of
brain tissue that is associated with the part. The complex touch and movements
of the hands, for example, involve more brain area than the more limited calves.
The somatosensory cortex, at the back of the frontal lobe, receives information
from the touch sensors. The motor cortex sends information to control body
movement. The more sophisticated the movements, such as those used in speaking, the bigger the brain area involved in their control.
The association areas mediate between the other areas and do most of the
synthesizing of information. For example, association areas turn sensory input
into meaningful information. Different neurons are activated when we see different shapes and figures. The association areas arrange the incoming information
into meaningful perceptions, such as the face of a friend or a favorite shirt.
There is much concern that information about properties of the left and right
hemispheres is misinterpreted. Popular books have oversimplified the properties
of the two hemispheres. In reality, the left and right sides complement and help
each other, so be aware of this as we list the properties of each hemisphere. The
two hemispheres in the cortex are roughly mirror images of each other, and each
of the four lobes is present in both hemispheres. The corpus callosum carries
messages back and forth between the two hemispheres to jointly control human
functions. Each hemisphere is connected to one-half of the body in a crisscrossed
fashion. The left hemisphere controls the movements of the right side of the body.
For most people, the left side of the brain is where speech is located. The left side
also is specialized for mathematical ability, calculation, and logic.
The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Thus a stroke that
causes damage to the right hemisphere will result in numbness or paralysis on the
left side of the body. The right hemisphere is more adept at visual and spatial relations. Putting together a puzzle requires spatial ability. Perceptual tasks seem to
be processed primarily by the right hemisphere. The right side is better at recognizing patterns. Thus, music and art are better understood by the right hemisphere. Creativity and intuition are also found in the right hemisphere.
In a normal brain, the two hemispheres communicate through the corpus
callosum. Whatever occurs on one side is communicated to the other side. Some
people have grand mal seizures, which is the most severe kind of seizure.
DIAGRAM
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Functions of the cerebral cortex
are not fully understood. Below
are areas important to behavior.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Analyzing Visuals What is the
function of the motor cortex?
RH.11–12.7
2. Gathering Information In
which part of the brain are body
sensations experienced?
RH.11–12.7
Body and Behavior 155
detect to find out or discover
stimulate to raise levels of
interest, response, or activity
DIAGRAM
FUNCTIONS OF THE
BRAIN’S HEMISPHERES
Being “right-brained” or “leftbrained” is an exaggerated concept.
We constantly use both hemispheres
of our brain, as each hemisphere is
specialized for processing certain
kinds of information.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Assessing In what topics or
activities does the right
hemisphere specialize? RH.11–12.7
2. Analyzing What part of the
brain would someone use to solve
a complex word problem? RH.11–12.7
156
Separating the brain hemispheres has proven to lessen the number and severity
of the seizures. As a result, the person has a split brain. The person has two brains
that operate independently of each other. Since the corpus callosum is severed,
there can no longer be any communication between the hemispheres. Studies
have shown that normal functioning remains possible in such a situation.
Many psychologists became interested in differences between the cerebral
hemispheres when split-brain operations were tried on epileptics like Harriet
Lees. For most of her life Lees’s seizures were mild and could be controlled with
drugs. However, at age 25 they began to get worse, and by 30 Lees was having as
many as a dozen violent seizures a day. An epileptic seizure involves massive
uncontrolled electrical activity that begins in either hemisphere and spreads
across both. To enable Lees to live a normal life, she and the doctors decided to
sever the corpus callosum so that seizures could not spread.
Not only did the operation reduce the severity of seizures, but it also resulted
in fewer seizures. Psychologists were even more interested in the potential side
effects of this operation. Despite the fact that patients who had this operation
now had two functionally separate brains, they seemed remarkably normal.
Researchers went on to develop a number of techniques to try to detect subtle
effects of the split-brain operation.
If a blindfolded man whose brain has been split holds a ball in his right hand,
he would be able to say it is a ball. Place the ball in his left hand and he would not
be able to say what it is. Information from the left hand is sent to the right hemisphere of the brain. Since the corpus callosum is severed, information cannot
cross to the speech center in the left hemisphere.
Another experiment with split-brain patients involves tactile stimulation, or
touch. In this experiment, objects are held in a designated hand but are blocked
from the split-brain patient’s view. Researchers project a word describing an
object on a screen to either the right or left visual field. The patient’s task is to find
the object corresponding to the word they are shown. When words are presented
Quick Lab
CAN YOU DETERMINE WHETHER THE LEFT OR RIGHT
HEMISPHERE OF THE BRAIN IS DOMINANT?
The left hemisphere controls the movements of the right side of the body. This side of
the brain is adept at language-related skills, mathematical ability, and logic. The right
hemisphere controls the movements of the left side of the body. It is also the side that is
more adept for creativity, intuition, and creative expressions such as art and music. Can
you tell which side is dominant in people you know?
Procedure
1. Think about two of your friends or family members.
2. Compare them in terms of the areas that they seem to be most adept at—
mathematics, logical thinking, musical ability, art, or speech.
3. Record your observations in a two-column chart.
Analysis
1. Based on your observations, which hemisphere seems to be dominant in each
individual?
for the right hemisphere to see, patients cannot say the word, but they can identify the object with their left hand touching it behind the screen.
To explore emotional reactions in split-brain individuals, researchers
designed a test to incorporate emotional stimuli with objects in view. In one of
these experiments, a picture of a nude person was flashed to either hemisphere.
When researchers flashed the picture to the left hemisphere, the patient laughed
and described what she saw. When the same was done to the right hemisphere,
the patient said nothing, but her face became flush and she began to grin.
Research on split-brain patients has presented solid evidence that each hemisphere of the brain is unique with specialized functions and skills. Individuals
who have had split-brain operations remained practically unchanged in intelligence, personality, and emotions.
Using the Brain
Have you ever been told that people use only about 10 percent of their brains? It’s
a common belief, but scientists have proved that this myth is false. It is true that
if we explored our brain’s complete cognitive potential we could use a lot more of
our brain’s power than we use from day to day. But scientists are now discovering
that our daily activities actually tap into a large portion of our brains. In fact, the
brain uses about 20 percent of the body’s total energy.
Think about when you ride a bicycle. You are coordinating the movement of
your arms and legs. At the same time you are evaluating the environment around
you, reading signs and interpreting what the signs mean to you. You are also calculating where you are and how far it is to your destination. Different parts of the
brain are used to do this interpreting and thinking. Reading a stop sign uses parts
of your brain associated with interpreting written language. Determining when
you need to hit the brakes to stop in time, your brain connects to your legs and feet,
coordinating smooth body movements and checking environmental factors
around you at the same time. This coordination involves significant brain activity.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Understanding Relationships What is the difference between the left and the right
hemispheres of the brain?
Body and Behavior 157
How Psychologists Study
the Brain
GUIDING QUESTIONS How can accidents that damage the brain
instruct us in its functions? How do researchers use MRIs to learn
about the brain?
Scientists use an
electroencephalograph (EEG) to
measure brain waves.
CRITICAL THINKING
Assessing What have psychologists
observed about the electrical activity of
the brain?
Mapping the brain’s fissures and inner recesses has
supplied scientists with fascinating information
about the role of the brain in behavior. Psychologists who do this kind of research are called physiological psychologists, psychobiologists, or
neuroscientists.
Some research techniques are better at studying the structure of the brain rather than its functions. Scientists must carefully choose which
method they want to pursue for studying the brain,
depending on what they want to find out. Working
with human subjects must always be as ethical as
possible to avoid any physical or emotional harm
to the subjects.
In the past, an intrusive method called a lobotomy was used to treat severe mental illness. During
this surgical procedure, an incision was made into
the prefrontal lobe of the brain and nerve pathways
in the brain were severed. While lobotomies had
the effect of reducing anxiety and agitation in patients, it also produced other
problems such as apathy and decreased ability to show emotion. The surgery was
used widely in the United States from the 1930s to the 1960s because there were
no medications or other ways to treat patients who suffered from severe mental
illness. Today the procedure is very rarely performed because there are many
other well-accepted and less intrusive ways to study the brain. The use of electrodes, lesions, and the study of damaged brains after accidents are less invasive,
less intrusive, and even more effective.
electroencephalograph
(EEG) a machine used to record
the electrical activity of large
portions of the brain
158
Electrodes are wires that can be inserted into the brain to record electrical activity
in the brain. By inserting electrodes in the brain, it is possible to detect the minute
electrical changes that occur when neurons fire. The wires are connected to electronic equipment that amplifies the tiny voltages produced by the firing neurons.
Even single neurons can be monitored. The electrical activity of whole areas of
the brain can be recorded with an electroencephalograph (EEG). Wires from
the EEG are attached to the scalp so that millions upon millions of neurons can
be monitored at the same time. Psychologists have observed that the overall electrical activity of the brain rises and falls rhythmically and that the pattern of the
rhythm depends on whether a person is awake, drowsy, or asleep. These rhythms,
or brain waves, occur because the neurons in the brain tend to increase or decrease
their amount of activity in unison.
Electrodes may be used to set off the firing of neurons as well as to record it.
Brain surgeon Wilder Penfield stimulated the brains of his patients during surgery to determine what functions the various parts of the brain perform. In this
way he could localize the malfunctioning part for which surgery was required, for
example, for epilepsy.
Phanie/SuperStock
Electrodes
When Penfield applied a tiny electric current to points on the temporal lobe
of the brain, he could trigger whole memory sequences, including sound, movement, and color, that were clearer than usual memories. During surgery, one
woman heard a familiar song so distinctly that she thought a recording was being
played. Penfield discovered that by stimulating the same area of the brain again
the same memory would be triggered.
One benefit of using electrodes is that scientists can map the parts of the
brain where different cognitive activities take place. A drawback is that it cannot
be used during everyday activities because the subject needs to be hooked up to
the electrodes.
Profiles in
Psychology
Lesions
Scientists sometimes create lesions by cutting or destroying part of an animal’s
brain. If the animal behaves differently after the operation, they assume that the
destroyed brain area is involved with that type of behavior. For example, in one
classic lesion study, two researchers removed a certain area of the temporal lobe
from rhesus monkeys. Normally, these animals are fearful, aggressive, and vicious,
but after the operation, they became less fearful and at the same time less violent.
The implication was that this area of the brain controlled aggression. The relations revealed by this type of research are far more subtle and complex than people first believed. For this reason it is hard to apply the findings from animal
studies to the working of the human brain.
Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Accidents
Accidents that resulted in brain injuries, while tragic, offered insight into how the
brain functions. Psychologists try to draw a connection between the damaged
parts of the brain and a person’s behavior. One such case involved an unusual
accident in 1848. Phineas Gage was a respected railroad foreman who demonstrated restraint, good judgment, and the ability to work well with other men. His
crew of men was about to explode some dynamite to clear a path for the railroad
rails. As Gage filled a narrow hole with dynamite and tamped it down, it suddenly
exploded. The tamping iron had caused a spark that ignited the dynamite. The
tamping iron, which weighed over 13 pounds and was over 3 feet in length, shot
into the air! It entered Gage’s head right below the left eye, and it exited through
the top of his skull.
Gage survived the accident, but his personality changed greatly. He became
short-tempered, was difficult to be around, and often said inappropriate things.
Gage lived for several years after the accident. In 1994 psychologists Hanna and
Antonio Damasio examined Gage’s skull using the newest methods available.
They reported that the tamping iron had caused damage to parts of the frontal
cortex. They found that damage to the frontal lobes prevents censoring of
thoughts and ideas.
In 2001 scans of Gage’s skull were made but later lost. In 2012 neuroscientists
rediscovered the data and reconstructed the scans. They created a composite
image of a brain using scans of several men physically similar to Gage and used
imaging software to position the virtual brain within the virtual skull. Then they
traced the trajectory of the tamping iron through the skull and brain and were
able to identify what areas of the brain had been affected by the accident. These
neuroscientists found that while the frontal cortex indeed had been directly damaged by the iron, perhaps more important was the destruction of more than 10
percent of the white matter in Gage’s brain. The significant loss of white matter
connectivity is similar to the damage created by Alzheimer’s disease or frontal
lobe dementia and probably played an even greater role in his personality change.
Roger Wolcott Sperry
1913–1994
Roger Sperry first became well
known in the specialized area of
developmental neurobiology.
He devised experiments that
helped establish the means by
which nerve cells become wired
in particular ways in the central
nervous system.
Sperry is probably best
known for his pioneering
split-brain research. In the
1950s and 1960s, Sperry
devised a number of
experiments to test the
functions of each hemisphere of
the brain. He argued that two
separate hemispheres of
consciousness could exist under
one skull. Sperry pioneered the
behavioral investigation of
split-brain animals and
humans. His experiments and
techniques laid the groundwork
for constructing a map of
mental functions. In 1981 he
became co-recipient of the
Nobel Prize for Physiology and
Medicine for his investigations
of brain functions.
CRITICAL THINKING
Interpreting Significance
What are the behavioral
implications of split-brain
research?
Body and Behavior 159
computerized axial
tomography (CT) an
imaging technique used to study
the brain to pinpoint injuries and
brain deterioration
positron emission
tomography (PET) an
imaging technique used to see
which brain areas are being
activated while performing tasks
Another unusual case took place in the nineteenth century. Dr. Paul Broca
had a young patient who could only respond with hand gestures and the word
“tan.” Broca theorized that a part of the brain on the left side was destroyed, limiting the young man’s communication processes. Many years later, researchers
examined the young man’s brain using modern methods. They discovered that
Dr. Broca’s theory was correct. The left side of the cortex, which is involved with
the production of speech, was damaged. This area of the cortex is now known as
Broca’s area.
Another kind of brain damage, called Wernicke aphasia, occurs from damage
of the temporal lobe. When this part of the brain is damaged, patients have trouble understanding spoken language. In addition, any sounds, phrases, or sentences that they try to speak themselves are not discernable. As a result of studying
people with this type of damage, scientists can deduce that this part of the temporal lobe is associated with speech and language comprehension.
Studying people who have suffered accidents to the brain is a very useful way
to figure out which parts of the brain affect our different behaviors. This gives us
ideas about the structure of the brain, but there are still many things to learn
about the function of the brain and how these areas might be repaired after they
have been damaged.
Connecting
Psychology to Geography
160
Many less developed countries are increasing or hope to increase funding for
education on proper prenatal care and nutrition.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Assessing What birth defects are the result of maternal nutritional
deficiencies? Why is education on this topic of such importance for mothers in
all parts of the world?
2. Identifying Central Issues How does maternal nutrition affect fetal health
and brain development?
Benedicte Desrus/Sipa Press/Newscom
GLOBAL NUTRITION AND BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT
Scientists have discovered that the health of a developing fetus is
dependent largely on the diet and nutrition of the mother. For
example, nutritional deficiencies during critical times of
development can cause birth defects such as spina bifida and
neural tube defects. Folic acid is needed early in pregnancy to
reduce the chances of these abnormalities. This nutrient is found
in leafy green vegetables, beans, nuts, grains, and citrus juices. A
nutritious diet throughout the course of a woman’s pregnancy is
more likely to produce a fetus with a normally developing brain
and organs. This will produce a healthy fetus as well as increase
the baby’s chance of survival after birth.
There are areas of the world, however, where obtaining
proper nutrition can be difficult. Women in many less developed
countries or remote areas do not have access to enough of the
nutritious foods needed to develop a healthy fetus. For instance,
remote areas of Africa, lack foods rich in nutrients such as vitamin
A, iodine, and iron. Vitamin A has been linked to a vulnerability
to malaria, a significant public health problem in Africa. Iodine
deficiency is the largest preventable cause of developmental
disabilities but can be successfully remedied if treated during the
first six months of pregnancy. An iron deficiency, also termed
anemia, is associated with low birth weights. Continuing to
provide education about a balanced diet and increasing access to
proper nutrition, both so important to the health of the mother
and the brain development of the fetus, is crucial.
Disorders
Some disorders give us interesting information about the brain. For example,
synesthesia is a disorder in which senses become confused and are given the
impression of being other senses. For example, a person may see a number and
associate it with a color. The number four may give the impression of being green
every time it is seen. A song may produce a sense of smell for someone. With a
disorder called prosopagnosia, a person cannot recognize familiar faces. They
may see a relative or close friend many times, and never develop a sense of familiarity and recognition when that person is seen. Studying these disorders can give
psychologists clues about how people create associations as they recognize or
experience things such as objects, colors, or faces.
In addition to sensory disorders, the brain may also suffer degenerative disorders, or disorders that get worse over time. With Alzheimer’s disease, the decline
in memory and cognitive abilities is due to neural connections in the cerebral cortex. With Parkinson’s disease, there is a decline of neural connections in the area of
the brain associated with movement. When a person suffers a stroke, the flow of
blood to the brain is disrupted, or there is bleeding within the brain. This may
cause problems with muscular coordination or paralysis on one or both sides of
the body. A study of degenerative diseases can show scientists how the brain ages
and what effect changing neural connections may have on behavior.
Images
Dr. Paul Broca uncovered the connection between the brain and speech. Researchers proved Dr. Broca’s theory using PET scans. Today psychologists and medical
researchers are using this and other sophisticated techniques, including CT scans
and fMRI scans. In the 1970s, computerized axial tomography (CT) scans were
used to pinpoint injuries and other problems in brain deterioration. During a CT
scan, a moving ring passes X-ray beams around and through a subject’s head.
Radiation is absorbed in different amounts depending on the density of the brain
tissue. Computers measure the amount of radiation absorbed and transform this
information into a three-dimensional view of the brain.
More
About...
Nervous System Plasticity
Today, researchers are
beginning to recognize that
neurons have a natural
plasticity that causes constant
changes in connections in
reaction to new information,
development, or sensory
stimulation, and not just to
recover from damage. As a
young brain grows, new
synaptic connections are
made to respond to new
stimuli. Through practice and
use, some connections
become stronger, and others
may become weaker. Old
connections may eventually
be eliminated. As the brain
ages, it changes to respond to
new information and
experiences, but it also begins
a cognitive decline. Learning a
new language or taking part
in an activity that stimulates
the brain’s functioning can
help to create new
connections and keep the
brain’s plasticity working.
DIAGRAM
BRAIN ACTIVITY ON A
PET SCAN
A computer transforms the
different levels of absorption by
neurons of radioactive solution
into colors. Red and yellow
indicate maximum activity of
neurons, while blue and green
indicate minimal activity.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Defending Why would
psychologists use a PET scan?
RH.11–12.7
2. Drawing Conclusions Why do
you think hearing and reading occur
in different parts of the brain?
RH.11–12.7
Body and Behavior 161
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
studies the activities of the brain.
CRITICAL THINKING
Evaluating Why does an MRI of the
brain give a more thorough picture than
a CT or PET scan would give?
magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) a measuring
technique used to study brain
structure and activity
The positron emission tomography (PET) scan
can capture a picture of the brain as different parts are
being used. It involves injecting a slightly radioactive
solution into the blood and then measuring the
amount of radiation absorbed by blood cells. Active
neurons absorb more radioactive solution than nonactive ones. Researchers use the PET scan to see which
areas are being activated while performing a task. PET
scans show activity in different areas of the brain
when a person is thinking, speaking, and looking at
objects. The scan changes when one is talking and
when one is looking at a piece of art. These pictures
change as the activity changes.
Another process, magnetic resonance imaging,
or MRI, enables researchers to study both activity and
brain structures. It combines the features of both CT
and PET scans. It involves passing nonharmful radio
frequencies through the brain. A computer measures
how these signals interact with brain cells and translates
these signals into a detailed image of the brain.
Researchers use MRIs to study the structure of the brain
as well as to identify tumors or types of brain damage.
Researchers use a new technique of imaging,
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to
directly observe both the functions of different structures of the brain and which structures participate in
specific functions. The fMRI provides high-resolution reports of neural activity
based on signals that are determined by blood oxygen level.
The fMRI actually detects an increase in blood flow to the active structure of
the brain. So, unlike the MRI, the fMRI does not require passing radio frequencies through the brain. With this new method of imaging, researchers have confirmed their hypotheses concerning the functions of areas such as the visual
cortex, the motor cortex, and Broca’s area of speech- and language-related
activities.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Making Connections What might scientists learn by studying images of the brain?
Reviewing Vocabulary
Answering the Guiding Questions
1. Defining List and describe the main functions of the lobes of the
human brain. RH.11–12.4
4. Describing What are the three parts of the human brain? What are
the specializations of the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
2. Identifying What are the functions of the thalamus and the
hypothalamus? RH.11–12.4
5. Explaining How can accidents that damage the brain instruct us
in its functions?
Using Your Notes
Writing Activity
3. Diagramming Using the notes you took during this lesson, write
a paragraph explaining how damage to each of the three parts of
the brain might affect activities of daily life. WHST.11–12.9
6. Informative/Explanatory A woman severely injured the right
hemisphere of her brain. Write a scenario in which you describe
two body functions that might be affected by the woman’s injury.
WHST.11–12.2
162
Paul Burns/Blend Images/Corbis
LESSON 2 REVIEW
on research
Case Study
One Person . . . Two Brains?
Period of Study: 1979
Introduction: Victoria had experienced intense epi-
Method: Researchers asked Victoria to stare at a
leptic seizures since she was six years old. Doctors
placed Victoria on medication that prevented
seizures; however, after many years, the
seizures returned with greater intensity. Weary and disgusted from living
her life with the uncontrollable seizures, Victoria decided it was time
to seek a new treatment.
Doctors suggested and Victoria opted for a split-brain
operation. This involved separating the two brain hemispheres
by cutting the corpus callosum.
Split-brain operations disrupt the
major pathway between the brain
hemispheres but leave each hemisphere functioning almost completely
independently. The procedure prevents
the spread of seizures from one hemisphere
to the other and reduces the incidence or shortens
the duration.
The operation might result in other difficulties for
Victoria, however. Researchers working with earlier
patients who had undergone the procedure found that
sometimes those patients acted as if they had a different personality in each hemisphere after the operation.
One neuroscientist wrote:
black dot between the letters HE and ART. The
information from each side of the black dot
would be interpreted by the opposite
hemisphere in Victoria’s split brain.
Victoria’s right hemisphere would
“see” HE and her left would only
“see” ART. When Victoria was
asked what she had seen, she
reported to have seen the word
ART. The word ART was projected to her left hemisphere,
which contains the ability for
speech. She did indeed see the
word HE; however, the right
hemisphere could not make Victoria say what she had seen. With her
left hand, though, Victoria could point
to a picture of a man, or HE. This indicated that her right hemisphere could understand the meaning of HE.
PRIMARY SOURCE
(l)Phanie/SuperStock; (r)David Mack/Photo Researchers, Inc.
patient] would sometimes find himself pulling his pants down
“[The
with one hand and pulling them up with the other. Once, he grabbed
his wife with his left hand and shook her violently, with the right
hand trying to come to his wife’s aid in bringing the left belligerent
hand under control.
”
—Michael Gazzaniga, The Bisected Brain (1970)
Hypothesis: Researchers wanted to explore the
degree to which the two halves of the brain could communicate and function on their own after the
operation.
Results: After some initial frustrations, Victoria
developed new routines for everyday functions such as
dressing, eating, and walking. Four months after her
operation, she could easily remember and speak of past
and present events in her life. Her reading, writing, and
reasoning abilities were intact. Although the effects of
her operation became apparent under special testing,
they were not usually apparent in everyday life. Victoria, now free of her once-feared seizures, could live her
life in full; split-brained but fundamentally unchanged.
Analyzing the Case Study
1. Explaining Why did Victoria choose to have a split-brain
operation? What did the operation involve? RH.11–12.3
2. Identifying What questions did researchers set out to answer
after Victoria’s operation? RH.11–12.3
3. Applying Consider the quote from Gazzaniga. What problems do
you think Victoria might encounter in everyday life?
RH.11–12.2; RH.11–12.3
Body and Behavior 163
netw rks
There’s More Online!
DIAGRAM The Endocrine System
IMAGE Firefighter
SELF-CHECK QUIZ
LESSON 3
The Endocrine System
Academic Vocabulary
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do changes in our bodies’ processes lead
• beneficial • impact
to changes in our behavior?
Content Vocabulary
• endocrine system
• hormones
• pituitary gland
TAKING NOTES:
Key Ideas and Details
CATEGORIZING Use a graphic
organizer like the one below to list four
types of glands in the endocrine system.
It Matters Because
The endocrine system controls and excites growth in the body and
affects our emotions and behaviors. Hormones secreted by the endocrine
system can cause the body to react and become very active.
Understanding functions such as these “adrenaline rushes” help us
understand how and why body processes can affect our behavior.
The Endocrine Glands
GUIDING QUESTION
What is the function of the pituitary gland?
The nervous system is one of two communication systems for sending
information to and from the brain. The second is the endocrine system.
The endocrine system sends chemical messages, called hormones. The
hormones are produced in the endocrine glands and are distributed by
the blood and other body fluids. Hormones circulate throughout the
bloodstream but are properly received only at a specific site: the particular organ of the body that they influence. The endocrine glands are also
called ductless glands because they release hormones directly into the
bloodstream. In contrast, the duct glands release their contents through
small holes, or ducts, onto the surface of the body or into the digestive
system. Examples of duct glands are sweat glands, tear glands, and salivary glands.
Hormones have various effects on your behavior. They affect the
growth of bodily structures such as muscles and bones, so they affect
what you can do physically. Hormones affect your metabolic processes;
that is, they can affect how much energy you have to perform actions.
Certain hormones are secreted during stressful situations to prepare the
body for action. Hormones also act in the brain to directly influence your
moods and drives. Some hormonal effects take place before you are born.
Essentially all the physical differences between boys and girls are caused
by a hormone called testosterone.
Scientists have developed a synthetic steroid hormone that resembles
testosterone. This drug can be beneficial, as it promotes muscle growth
when it is taken as a drug. Steroids are used to treat weight loss caused by
164
Mike Kemp/age fotostock
Reading HELPDESK
DESK
some diseases. It is also used illegally by some athletes to enhance their physical
performance. However, there are several endocrine glands throughout the body
that produce hormones naturally.
Pituitary and Thyroid Glands
Directed by the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland acts as the master gland.
Located near the midbrain and the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland secretes a
large number of hormones, many of which control the output of hormones by
other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus monitors the amount of hormones in
the blood and sends out messages to correct imbalances. What do these hormone
messages tell the body to do? They carry messages to organs involved in regulating and storing nutrients so that despite changes in conditions outside the body,
cell metabolism can continue on an even course. They also control growth and
reproduction, including ovulation and lactation (milk production) in females.
The pituitary gland is about the size of a pea and weighs only half of a gram.
The thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands in the human body.
It is located in the neck and is separated into two lobes. The glands can be felt on
either side of the neck below the jaw. The thyroid controls how quickly the body
uses energy and makes proteins. It produces the hormone thyroxine. Thyroxine
stimulates certain chemical reactions that are important for all tissues of the body.
Too little thyroxine makes people feel lazy and lethargic—a condition known as
hypothyroidism. Too much thyroxine may cause people to lose weight and sleep
and to be overactive—a condition known as hyperthyroidism.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys, one on each side of the body.
They become active when a person is angry or frightened. Neural responses from
the adrenal glands originate near the spinal column. Each adrenal gland consists
of a medulla (the center of the gland), surrounded by a cortex. The adrenal
medulla is responsible for producing epinephrine and norepinephrine (also
called adrenaline and noradrenaline). When released into the bloodstream, these
secretions cause the heartbeat and breathing to increase. They can heighten emotions, such as fear and anxiety. These and other changes help a person generate
the extra energy he or she needs to handle a difficult situation. Most of the
responses that our bodies have to stress, fear, anger, and other emotional reactions are controlled by the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands also regulate salt
and water levels in the body and help regulate the body’s metabolic processes.
The adrenal cortex produces cortical steroids, which help regulate blood pressure, inflammation, and the body’s immune response. They have an impact on
the body’s use of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Psychology
& You
Do You Do This?
Human ethology is the study
of human behavior as it
naturally occurs. Basketball
fans know that Michael
Jordan stuck out his tongue
when he attempted a difficult
shot. Similarly, it has been
found that expert billiard
players stick out their tongues
more often when making hard
shots than when attempting
relatively easy shots.
According to ethologists, a
tongue display acts as a
nonverbal sign that
interaction is not desired. For
humans, the tongue displays
seem to indicate that the
person does not want to be
interrupted because of the
need to concentrate in a
difficult situation.
endocrine system a
chemical communication system,
using hormones, by which
messages are sent through the
bloodstream
hormones chemical
substances that carry messages
through the body in blood
beneficial having a helpful or
useful effect
Sex Glands
pituitary gland the center of
There are two types of sex glands—testes in males and ovaries in females. Testes
produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone. Even though they do not
have testes, low levels of testosterone are also found in females. Ovaries produce
eggs and the female hormones estrogen and progesterone, although, just as with
the testosterone hormone in females, low levels of estrogen and progesterone are
also found in males.
Testosterone is important in the physical development of males, especially in
the prenatal period and in adolescence. In the prenatal period, testosterone helps
decide the sex of a developing fetus. In adolescence, testosterone is important for
the growth of muscle tissue and bones along with the growth of secondary male
sexual characteristics. In adulthood, testosterone helps to keep muscle tissue and
bones strong and to maintain an interest in sex.
control of the endocrine system
that secretes a large number of
hormones
impact to have a direct effect
upon something
Body and Behavior 165
DIAGRAM
THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
The endocrine system, which
consists of ductless glands and the
hormones they produce, works
closely with the nervous system in
regulating body functions.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Analyzing Visuals What is the
function of the adrenal glands?
2. Gathering Information Which
part of the endocrine system
controls metabolic rate?
After the age of 30 a man’s testosterone levels gradually begin to decrease.
Low levels of testosterone can lead to fatigue, weakness, depression, and low sex
drive. Even when these symptoms are not present, men are encouraged to seek
treatment because a low level of testosterone can often lead to a decrease in bone
density, making bones more fragile and prone to breaking.
Estrogen and progesterone are important in the development of female sex
characteristics. These two hormones also regulate the reproductive cycle of
females. The levels of estrogen and progesterone vary throughout the menstrual
cycle. These variances can cause premenstrual syndrome, also commonly known
as PMS, in some women. PMS can include such symptoms as abdominal pain,
headaches, fatigue, irritability, and depression.
The change of hormone levels during and after pregnancy can also lead to
postpartum depression in a small percentage of women. This depression is characterized by trouble sleeping, anxiety, changes in appetite, or loss of concentration. More serious symptoms include thoughts of death or suicide, or negative
feelings toward the baby. Women with postpartum depression should seek help
from a doctor. The symptoms usually develop shortly after the birth of the child
but can occur up to a year afterwards. Postpartum depression can be treated with
medications.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Locating Where do endocrine glands release hormones in the body?
166
Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters
GUIDING QUESTION
What is the difference between a hormone and a
neurotransmitter?
Both hormones and neurotransmitters work to affect the nervous system. In fact, the same chemical can be used as both a
hormone and a neurotransmitter. So what is the difference
between a hormone and a neurotransmitter?
When a chemical is used as a neurotransmitter, it is released
right beside the cell that it is to excite or inhibit. When a chemical is used as a hormone, it is released into the blood, which
diffuses it throughout the body. For example, norepinephrine
is a hormone when it is secreted into the blood by the adrenal
glands. It is a neurotransmitter when it is released by the sympathetic motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system.
Hormones and neurotransmitters appear to have a common evolutionary origin. As multicellular organisms evolved,
the system of communication among cells coordinated actions
so that all cells of the organism acted as a unit. As organisms
grew more complex, this communication system began to split
into two more specialized communication systems: the nervous
system, developed to send rapid and specific messages, and the
other, involving the circulatory system, developed to send slow
and widespread communication. In this system, the chemical
messengers evolved into hormones. Whereas neural messages
can be measured in thousandths of a second, hormonal messages may take minutes to reach their destination and weeks or months to have their total effect.
Hormones and neurotransmitters work together in our bodies, and can even
compete with each other. For example, neurotransmitters may become out of balance due to stress, poor diet, or a genetic predisposition. This, in turn, causes
hormonal imbalances. Mood swings, lack of energy, and even depression can
result. Similarly, the hormones released by the thyroid may become imbalanced
and affect the work of neurotransmitters in the body. Medications can be used to
regulate the balance between hormones and neurotransmitters when the body is
not functioning properly. Some medications use hormones such as estrogen or
progesterone. The levels of hormones and neurotransmitters in our bodies control everything from our emotions to our physical growth and bodily functions.
In the event of a life-threatening or
highly stressful situation, the adrenal
glands produce adrenaline to give
people the necessary energy to cope.
CRITICAL THINKING
Drawing Conclusions How does
adrenaline affect emotions?
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Comparing and Contrasting How does the speed of neural messages differ from the
speed of chemical messages?
LESSON 3 REVIEW
Reviewing Vocabulary
Answering the Guiding Questions
1. Defining What are three ways that the endocrine system affects
behavior?
3. Expressing What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Mike Kemp/age fotostock
Using Your Notes
2. Applying Using the notes you took during this lesson, write a
paragraph explaining the function of hormones that are produced
by the glands of the endocrine system.
4. Explaining What is the difference between a hormone and a
neurotransmitter?
Writing Activity
5. Informative/Explanatory Write a description of a medical
situation in which a psychologist would examine the thyroid gland.
Describe the situation from the perspective of a patient.
Body and Behavior 167
Analyzing
Readings in
Psychology
Reader’s Dictionary
Genetically Programmed to Be Nice?
maternal characteristic of a mother
prosocial acting for the benefit of others
endeavor a serious effort or attempt
Childhood
Trauma
and
Depression
By APS Observer
PRIMARY SOURCE
Childhood is supposed to be a happy, carefree time,
and for most of us, it is. But for over one million children a year in the United States alone, this period will
be marred by trauma. A wide spectrum of later disorders and symptoms have been linked to early-life stress
and abuse, including cardiovascular disease, fibromyalgia, fatigue, anxiety, and addiction. However, one of
the most common consequences of having suffered
trauma as a child is a higher risk in adulthood of developing depression, a psychiatric disorder that is debilitating, and in many cases, fatal.
At the APS 22nd Annual Convention, Emory University’s Christine Heim presented a wealth of research
documenting how childhood trauma can cause depression later in life. Although stress is something we
believe we go “through” and survive relatively
unscathed, it appears that stressful events, such as the
death of a parent, physical abuse or sexual abuse, particularly experienced early in life, causes multiple
changes in the central nervous system that result in
168
Studies continue to demonstrate that personality, behavior, and development can be affected by many things,
including genetics, hormones, and life events. The body
can affect the mind, and vice versa. The studies in these
two articles indicate that we can be influenced both by
nature (genetics) and nurture (environmental factors).
physiological and behavioral changes. Early-life stress
appears to radically alter neurobiological systems
involved in the pathophysiology of depression.
On the basis of extensive endocrine, brain imaging, genetic, and behavioral analyses, Heim showed a
clear link between childhood trauma, altered gene regulation, increased levels of stress hormones, and
changes in brain structure. Changes resulting from
stress included a smaller hippocampus, disruption of
cortisol regulation and increased corticotrophin releasing factor. These effects add up to a shift in the body’s
fundamental stress-coping mechanisms, particularly
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, causing
behavioral changes.
In plain English, suffering stress early in life makes
us more vulnerable to stress later in life. The evidence
for this can be seen in multiple physiological and
behavioral changes: in blood pressure, heart rate, and
blood glucose levels, as well as disrupted sleep cycles,
eating patterns, and fear conditioning. Far from being
transient, stress experienced early in life has longterm and damaging effects on the entire body.
According to Heim, there is more than one type of
depression. Specifically, depression that developed in
relation to early life stress seems to have a distinct biological profile compared to depression that is not related
to early-life stress. These groups of patients also do not
respond to the same treatment, and Heim suggests that
in order to successfully treat them, therapies can be tailored to restore the pathways involved in each subtype.
PHOTO: Sean Locke/the Agency Collection/Getty Images; TEXT: APS observer by AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY Copyright 2010 Reproduced with permission of ASSOCIATION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL
SCIENCE in the format Republish in “other” book via Copyright Clearance Center. Republished with permission of ASSOCIATION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE from Childhood Trauma and Depression,
APS observer Vol. 23, No. 6, July/August 2010; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Childhood Trauma and Depression
pathophysiology functional changes that occur with a
disease or syndrome
transient lasting only for a short time
Genetically Programmed
to Be Nice?
by Rick Nauert, PhD
PHOTO: Blickwinkel/age fotostock; TEXT: © 2012 Psych Central
PRIMARY SOURCE
Emerging research suggests that some people may be genetically endowed to be nice. Investigators from the University at
Buffalo and the University of California, Irvine, discovered
the genetic association for a trait that many assume is a product of how we are raised.
“We aren’t saying we’ve found the niceness gene,” said
researcher and psychologist Michael Poulin, PhD. ”But we
have found a gene that makes a contribution. What I find so
interesting is the fact that it only makes a contribution in the
presence of certain feelings people have about the world
around them.”
The study, published in the journal Psychological Science,
examines the behavior of subjects who have versions of receptor genes for two hormones that, in laboratory and close relationship research, are associated with niceness.
Previous laboratory studies have linked the hormones
oxytocin and vasopressin to the way we treat one another, said
Poulin. Psychologists believe the hormones make us nicer
people, at least in close relationships. Oxytocin promotes
maternal behavior, for example, and in the lab, subjects
exposed to the hormone demonstrate greater sociability.
Poulin said the current study was an attempt to apply
previous findings to social behaviors on a larger scale; to learn
if these chemicals provoke in us other forms of prosocial
behavior. Examples could be the urge to give to charity, or to
more readily participate in such civic endeavors as paying
taxes, reporting crime, giving blood or sitting on juries.
Scientists say that hormones work by binding to cells
through receptors that come in different forms. In that regard,
there are several genes that control the function of oxytocin
and vasopressin receptors.
Subjects were surveyed as to their attitudes toward civic
duty, other people and the world in general, and about their
charitable activities.
Specifically, participants completed an Internet survey
with questions about civic duty, such as whether people have
a duty to report a crime or pay taxes; how they feel about the
world, such as whether people are basically good or whether
the world is more good than bad; and about their own charitable activities.
Of those surveyed, 711 subjects provided a sample of
saliva for DNA analysis, which showed what form they had of
the oxytocin and vasopressin receptors.
“The study found that these genes combined with people’s perceptions of the world as a more or less threatening
place to predict generosity,” Poulin said. “Specifically, study
participants who found the world threatening were less likely
to help others— unless they had versions of the receptor genes
that are generally associated with niceness,” he said.
“These “nicer” versions of the genes,” said Poulin, “allow
you to overcome feelings of the world being threatening and
help other people in spite of those fears.
“The fact that the genes predicted behavior only in combination with people’s experiences and feelings about the
world isn’t surprising,” Poulin said, “because most connections between DNA and social behavior are complex.
“So if one of your neighbors seems really generous, caring, civic-minded kind of person, while another seems more
selfish, tight-fisted and not as interested in pitching in, their
DNA may help explain why one of them is nicer than the
other,” he said.
Analyzing Primary Sources
1. Identifying Bias What is a possible source of bias in the second
article?
2. Drawing Conclusions According to the first article, why should
childhood history be probed before treating depression?
3. Comparing and Contrasting On a physiological level, how is
the “niceness” trait different from adult-onset depression?
Body and Behavior 169
netw rks
There’s More Online!
DIAGRAM DNA and Genes
DIAGRAM Punnett Square
IMAGE Fraternal and Identical
Twins
IMAGE Environmental Influence
LESSON 4
SELF-CHECK QUIZ
Heredity and Environment
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do internal functions of the body affect
behavior?
Academic Vocabulary
• modify
• similar
Content Vocabulary
• heredity
• genes
• genotype
• phenotype
• inbred
• outbred
• identical twins
• fraternal twins
TAKING NOTES:
Key Ideas and Details
GATHERING INFORMATION Use a
graphic organizer like the one below to
find examples of nature and nurture.
Nature
170
Nurture
It Matters Because
For decades, scientists have been trying to figure out how much of our
behavior is the result of our genes and how much is a result of our
environment. Some psychologists believe that genetics is like a flower,
and the environment is like rain, soil, or fertilizer. Genes establish what
you could be, and the environment defines the final product.
Nature versus Nurture
GUIDING QUESTIONS
What is heredity? How does heredity affect behavior?
People often argue about whether human behavior is instinctive (due to
heredity) or learned (due to environment). Heredity is the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to their offspring. Do people learn
to be good athletes, or are they born that way? Do people learn to do well
in school, or are they born academically gifted? Many people assume that
something learned can probably be changed, whereas something inborn
will be difficult or impossible to change.
This issue, commonly called nature versus nurture, is not so simple.
Nature refers to characteristics that a person inherits—his or her biological makeup. Nurture refers to environmental factors, such as education,
family, culture, and individual experiences. Inherited factors and environmental conditions always act together in complicated ways. Asking
whether heredity or environment is responsible for a person’s behavior is
like asking, “What makes a cake rise, baking powder or heat?” Obviously,
an interaction of the two is responsible.
The argument over the nature versus nurture question has been going
on for centuries, and it continues today. The British scientist Sir Francis
Galton became one of the first to support the importance of nature in the
modern era. In 1869 he published Hereditary Genius, a book in which he
analyzed the families of over 1,000 eminent politicians, religious leaders,
artists, and scholars. He found that success ran in families and concluded
that heredity was the cause. Many psychologists, however, have emphasized the importance of the environment. The tone was set by John Watson, the founder of behaviorism, who wrote:
(l)Barbara Penoyar/Photodisc/Getty Images; (c)Peter Mintz/First Light/Corbis
Reading HELPDESK
DESK
heredity the genetic
PRIMARY SOURCE
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll
“Give
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—a
transmission of characteristics from
parents to their offspring
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
”
—John B. Watson, Behaviorism (1924)
Genotypes and Phenotypes
A large part of new research on heredity has focused on genes. Genes are the
basic units of heredity. They are reproduced and passed along from parent to
child. All the effects that genes have on behavior occur through their role in
building and modifying the physical structures of the body. Those structures
must interact with their environment to produce behavior.
In the normal structure of human DNA there are a total of 46 chromosomes,
or 23 pairs. Twenty-two of these pairs are autosomes, which determine many of
the traits an individual will have. One pair of chromosomes determines the sex of
the individual while also carrying some sex-specific traits. The X chromosome is
found in both males and females. The Y chromosome is found only in males. So
a chromosomal pair of XX would belong to a woman, and an XY pair would
belong to a man. There are variations among this normal structure, which cause
abnormalities within the individual.
The sets of genes you have in your body are considered your genotype. They
are the blueprint of a person’s genetic information. At the time of reproduction or
cell division, this inherited information is passed from one generation to the next.
This genetic code indicates an infinite amount of information about the organism. It might indicate the possible traits a person can have in terms of hair color,
gender, height, weight, or any number of characteristics, both physical and behavioral. A person’s genotype may even make them predisposed to such conditions
as heart disease, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, or cancer.
genes the basic building blocks
of heredity
modify to change something
slightly
genotype the set of genes in
an organism
DIAGRAM
DNA AND GENES
The molecules of DNA make up
chromosomes that contain the
codes for our biological makeup.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Assessing What are genes?
2. Analyzing Visuals Where are
the instructions for development
located in a cell?
Body and Behavior 171
Paternal
b
B
BB
Bb
b
Bb
bb
Maternal
B
DI AGRAM
PUNNETT SQUARE
Assign the letter to each box of the
Punnett Square based on the
corresponding gene from each
parent. Dominant genes are listed
first and mask recessive genes.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Calculating What is the
likelihood of parents with a BB
and bb combination having a
blond child?
2. Analyzing Why can’t two blond
parents have a brown-haired
offspring?
phenotype the expression of a
particular trait in an organism
inbred descended from
ancestors with similar genetics
outbred descended from
ancestors with dissimilar genetics
The outward expression of those genes is a person’s phenotype. A person’s phenotype is expressed in his or her cells, tissues,
organs, reflexes, behaviors, and anything observable in the living
organism. A person may have a genotype that does not express
itself as a phenotype except under certain environmental conditions. For example, a gene for diabetes may not be expressed as an
observable phenotype unless diet and other environmental factors
come into play in the person’s life. Other genes, such as a person’s
gender or eye color, are expressed and observable immediately at
birth and remain as the person ages.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
There are also chromosomal abnormalities that can spontaneously occur in offspring. For example, Down syndrome is a result
of an extra chromosome on the 21st chromosomal pair. As a result,
the individual has 47 chromosomes instead of 46. British physician John Langdon Down was the first to notice the symptoms in patients in
1866. The abnormality is characterized by cognitive disabilities and delayed
physical growth, as well as characteristic facial structure and physical features.
Approximately one in every 740 births results in Down syndrome. Offspring
from older mothers tend to have a higher incidence of Down syndrome—from 1
in 100 to 1 in 30 births, as opposed to the incidence of 1 in 1,000 births from
younger mothers. Other abnormalities, such as sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis,
albinism, and many other conditions are also the result of chromosomal
inheritance.
In the early 1900s, biologist Reginald C. Punnett developed a method of predicting the likelihood of genotypes based on particular crossbreeding called a
Punnett Square. With a Punnett Square, letters are assigned to certain attributes
to indicate the dominant, or likely, trait and the recessive, or less likely, trait. For
example, brown hair is a dominant trait indicated by a capital B. Blond hair is
recessive, and indicated with a lowercase b. Each parent carries a genotype for
hair type. A Punnett Square like the one shown in the diagram indicates the likelihood that those parents have an offspring with brown or blond hair. When a
dominant gene is present in the genotype it masks the recessive one. When only
recessive genes are present in the genotype, the recessive gene is reflected in the
phenotype. So two brown-haired parents carrying a Bb genotype have a one in
four chance of having a blond child.
An inbred organism is one that comes from two parents with similar or
shared genetic makeup. An outbred organism is one that comes from parents
with unrelated genetic makeup. Heredity can be a contributing factor in the
development of certain characteristics. Scientists have found that inbred organisms produce more predictable results in their offspring. However, inbreeding
may also create undesirable combinations, such as harmful recessive genes carried by both parents. Outbreeding brings a more varied gene selection but makes
the characteristics of the offspring less predictable. Scientists have been able to
witness this in a controlled environment by comparing the differences between
inbred and outbred animals such as rats and mice. They found that inbred mice
had more predictable features and characteristics similar to their parents, but
exhibited an increased number of abnormalities. The outbred animals exhibited
less predictable characteristics but fewer abnormalities.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Contrasting What is the difference between an individual’s genotype and his or her
phenotype?
172
Twin Studies
GUIDING QUESTION
What can be learned about nature and nurture from twin studies?
identical twins twins who
come from one fertilized egg; twins
having the same heredity
fraternal twins twins who
come from two different eggs
fertilized by two different sperm
similar alike but not exactly the
same
Fraternal twins come from two eggs
and share no more genetic similarities
than other siblings. Identical twins
come from a single egg and share
their genetic code.
CRITICAL THINKING
Assessing How would studies of
identical and fraternal twins provide
evidence in the nature–nurture debate?
(l)Peter Mintz/First Light/Corbis; (r)Barbara Penoyar/Photodisc/Getty Images
One way to find out whether a trait is inherited is to study twins. Identical twins
develop from a single fertilized egg and share the same genes. Because they
develop from a single fertilized egg (a single zygote), identical twins are called
monozygotic. Fraternal twins develop from two fertilized eggs and their genes
are not more similar than those of brothers or sisters. That is, since fraternal
twins are from separate eggs, like brothers or sisters from single births, they share
only fifty percent of their genes. Having developed from two fertilized eggs, fraternal twins are called dizygotic.
Twin studies can tell us quite a bit about the impact of heredity and environment. Twins growing up in the same house share the same general environment,
but identical twins also share the same genes. So, if identical twins who grow up
together prove to be more alike on a specific trait than fraternal twins do, it probably means that heredity and genes are important for that trait.
In addition to twin studies, psychologists have found it helpful to study full
siblings who are not twins. The genes of the individuals being compared would be
similar because they came from the same parents, but they would not be the same
as individuals in an identical twin study. The ages of the individuals would also be
different. However, the environments that the children grew up in would be considered similar. Most siblings who grow up in the same household have the same
general life experiences and interact with many of the same people. Comparisons
between these individuals would show how much their environmental upbringing
might affect their decision-making, their social skills, or their likes or dislikes.
Similarly, studies of adopted people also give psychologists clues about nature
versus nurture. When studying an adopted sibling along with one that is an offspring of the parents, there may be clues about how much of an impact environment alone would have on a person’s behavioral traits. Comparing two siblings
who grew up in the same household but have no genetic similarities can indicate
exactly how much impact experience has on an individual.
Body and Behavior 173
Some people may have a
predisposition for being good
swimmers, but if they are not exposed
to the correct environment to develop
the skill, they may not realize their
genetic potential.
CRITICAL THINKING
Drawing Inferences How might a
person’s environment make them more
or less aware of their genetically
determined skills?
Psychologists at the University of Minnesota have been studying identical
twins who were separated at birth and reared in different environments. One of
the researchers, Thomas Bouchard, reports that despite very different social, cultural, and economic backgrounds, the twins shared many common behaviors.
For example, in one set of twins (both named Jim), both had done well in math
and poorly in spelling while in school, both worked as deputy sheriffs, vacationed
in Florida, gave identical names to their children and pets, bit their fingernails,
had identical smoking and drinking patterns, and liked mechanical drawing and
carpentry. These similarities and others suggest that heredity may contribute to
behaviors that we normally associate with experience.
Many researchers now believe that many of the differences among people can
be explained by considering heredity as well as experience. Contrary to popular
belief, the influence of genes on behavior does not mean that nothing can be done
to change the behavior. Although it is true that it is difficult and some believe
undesirable for scientists to attempt to identify and change the genetic code that
may direct certain behaviors, it is possible to alter the environment in which the
genes operate.
READING PROGRESS CHECK
Explaining Why are scientists particularly interested in twins when studying
heredity?
LESSON 4 REVIEW
Reviewing Vocabulary
Answering the Guiding Questions
1. Defining Explain the difference between fraternal twins and
identical twins.
3. Applying What is heredity? How does heredity affect behavior?
2. Hypothesizing Using the notes you took during this lesson, find
an example of two characteristics, one that could be classified as a
result of nature and one a result of nurture. Construct alternative
explanations that could describe how the characteristic is actually
a result of the opposite stimulus.
174
Writing Activity
5. Argument Research what evidence each side of the nature versus
nurture argument uses to disprove the opposing viewpoint. Taking
one side of the argument, write an opinion piece supporting your
view and opposing the other.
Erik Isakson/Tetra Images/Corbis
Using Your Notes
4. Identifying What can be learned about nature and nurture from
twin studies?
CHAPTER 6
Assessment
Directions: On a separate sheet of paper, answer the questions below. Make sure you read carefully and
answer all parts of the question.
Lesson Review
21st Century Skills
Lesson 1
Creating and Using Graphs, Charts, Diagrams, and
Tables Researchers have found that the brains of patients with
Alzheimer’s disease have a large number of destroyed neurons in the
part of the brain that is crucial for making memories permanent.
These patients have also exhibited a loss of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, resulting in memory difficulties. Review the graph
and then answer the questions that follow.
1
Describing Explain how messages travel to and from the
brain through the nervous system.
2
Identifying What part of the brain controls
voluntary activities?
Lesson 2
3
Applying Describe four methods used to study the brain.
4
Summarizing Which part of the brain controls the
movements of the right side of the body?
16
13.2
Lesson 3
Expressing How are messages of the endocrine system
transmitted throughout the body?
6
Specifying Which gland in the body is the master control
of hormone output by the endocrine system?
12
PEOPLE (IN MILLIONS)
5
Lesson 4
7
8
Expressing One way to find out whether a trait is
inherited is to compare the behavior of identical and
fraternal twins. Explain how this works.
4
4.5
Specifying What chromosomal abnormality causes
Down syndrome?
0
2000
Research and Technology
9
8
Researching Brain plasticity is the capacity of the brain
to change with learning. Just as physical exercise improves
physical fitness, exercising one’s brain results in better
mental fitness. Research the topic of “brain fitness” and, as
a class or within groups, use software to write and design a
brain fitness activity for the Web. Track changes and review
each other’s work. If you can’t post to the Web, present the
“site” as a storyboard or as PowerPoint slides. Explain to the
viewer what specific cognitive skill(s) or improvement the
activity is meant to achieve and which area(s) of the brain
will most likely be affected.
‘10
‘20
‘30
‘40
2050
YEAR (PROJECTION)
10
According to the graph, how many people in the United
States suffer from Alzheimer’s disease?
11
How would you describe the projected number of cases of
Alzheimer’s by the year 2050?
12
What impact might the researchers’ findings and the
information in the graph have on the direction researchers
might take to find a cure for the disease?
Need Extra Help?
If You’ve
Missed Question
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Body and Behavior 175
CHAPTER 6
Assessment
Directions: On a separate sheet of paper, answer the questions below. Make sure you read carefully and
answer all parts of the question.
Critical Thinking Questions
Exploring the Essential Questions
Analyzing How would people’s lives be different if the
nervous system were not made of the somatic and the
autonomic nervous systems? What if people had only a
somatic nervous system?
14
Synthesizing Suppose a person suffers a stroke that
causes damage to the frontal lobes. What aspects of the
person’s behavior would you expect to see change?
15
Exploring Issues Provide an example of how the
physiological reaction created by adrenaline is helpful in
emergency situations.
16
Interpreting Significance Do you think it is important
for parents who wish to adopt a child to find out about the
genetic makeup of the child? Why or why not?
17
Making Connections Which aspects of your personality,
your way of acting, and your appearance seem obviously
the result of heredity? Which seem to be more related to
your environmental upbringing? Which characteristics are
definitely the result of an interaction between heredity
and environment?
18
20
Examining Working with two or three classmates,
prepare a video that can be used to teach younger children
how the brain and the nervous system work. You might
consider making the video humorous to more easily gain
the attention of younger children. Arrange to have children
in lower grades view the video. Evaluate its effectiveness.
21
Applying Find out about problems that occur as a result
of the malfunctioning of parts of the endocrine system.
Find out how such problems are treated and present your
findings in an oral report.
Analyzing Primary Sources
Use the document below to answer the following questions.
PRIMARY SOURCE
words, each hemisphere [of the brain] seems to have its
“Inownother
separate and private sensations; its own perceptions; its own
concepts; and its own impulses to act. . . . Following surgery, each
hemisphere also has thereafter its own separate chain of memories
that are rendered inaccessible to the recall processes of the other.
”
Diagramming Draw a Punnett Square to show the
possible results of two inbred mice with pure recessive
genes for tail length (tt/tt). Then draw a Punnett Square to
show the possible results of two outbred mice. One has
dominant genes for a long tail (Tt) and the other has
recessive genes for a short tail (tt).
—Roger Wolcott Sperry
22
Specifying What evidence does Roger Wolcott Sperry
give that shows that observing brain activity after
split-brain surgery can help us understand behavior?
23
Discussing How might a discovery like the one described
help the research processes of other scientists?
College and Career Readiness
19
Research and Methods Contact a radiologist or the
radiology department of a local hospital to find out more
about the uses of CT scans, PET scans, and fMRIs. Find out
under what circumstances each of the techniques would
be used. Present your findings in a written report.
Psychology Journal Activity
24
Informative/Explanatory Review your entry in your
Psychology Journal for this chapter. After learning about
the nervous system, how would you explain the
connection between mind and body? List some examples
of how this connection appears in everyday life.
Need Extra Help?
If You’ve
Missed Question
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TEXT: Copyright © 1968, American Psychological Association
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