DUKEUNIVERSITY
Durham,NorthCarolina
Theroleofnationalstatusinrefugeenarratives:
AcasestudyonPalestinianandSudaneseproductions
ThaoNguyen
April19,2016
Thesisadvisor:
Prof.miriamcooke,Asian&MiddleEasternStudies
Defensecommittee:
Prof.miriamcooke,Asian&MiddleEasternStudies
Prof.EileenChow,Asian&MiddleEasternStudies
Prof.ErdagGoknar,Asian&MiddleEasternStudies
SubmittedinPartialFulfillmentofthe
RequirementsforGraduationwithDistinction
Asian&MiddleEasternStudies
TrinityCollegeofArtsandSciences
Nguyen1
TableofContents
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................4
Statelessnesswithinrefugeenarratives..................................................................................................7
Background.......................................................................................................................................8
SudaneseandPalestiniannarratives................................................................................................9
Literaturereview..................................................................................................................................12
“Hostipitality”.................................................................................................................................12
Refugeeculturalproductions.........................................................................................................15
CHAPTERONE:DIASPORICSTORYLINES...........................................................................................19
Sudan:Thearchetypalrefugeenarrative...............................................................................................20
Historicaloverview.........................................................................................................................20
Sudanesediasporicnarratives........................................................................................................23
Palestine:Thestatelessnarrative..........................................................................................................28
Historicaloverview.........................................................................................................................28
Pre-1967Palestiniandiasporicnarratives:Al-Nakba......................................................................31
Post-1967Palestiniandiasporicnarratives:Theland.....................................................................32
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................36
CHAPTERTWO:DIASPORICNARRATIVES.........................................................................................40
Narrativeexpectations..........................................................................................................................41
Narrativeforms...............................................................................................................................43
Victimnarratives.............................................................................................................................45
Continuityofstruggle...........................................................................................................................48
Interactionofrefugeeproductionsacrosstime.............................................................................48
Incorporationofnarrativesfrompreviousmovements.................................................................52
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................55
CHAPTERTHREE:DIASPORICCOMMUNITIES..................................................................................59
Palestine:Anationalcollective.............................................................................................................60
Palestineofthemind......................................................................................................................61
Landscapeandbordersofthepost-OsloimaginedPalestine.........................................................65
st
Collectivememory:21 centuryPalestiniannarratives.................................................................68
Sudan:Atribal/familialcollective.........................................................................................................71
Tribalcollective...............................................................................................................................72
Familialcollective...........................................................................................................................76
LandscapeandbordersoftheSudanesecollective........................................................................79
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................80
CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................84
Projections............................................................................................................................................87
Sudan:Returnnarratives................................................................................................................87
Palestine:Postmemoryworksandthefluidityofbelonging..........................................................88
Closingthoughts...................................................................................................................................89
WORKSCITED....................................................................................................................................90
Nguyen2
Abstract
The1951RefugeeConventionrecognizestwogroupsofrefugees:oneoutsidethe
countryofhis/hernationalityandanothergroupwithoutnationalityoutsideoftheplaceof
theirhabitualresidence.However,becausestatelessdisplacedgroupsdonotfallintotheglobal
nation-stateparadigm,theyareoftenoverlookedwithinstudiesonrefugees.Assuch,this
thesistakesupthequestionofrefugeememoryasconnectedtoplaceandtheidentities
constructedthroughsharednarratives,particularlythosecirculatedthroughrefugee-authored
culturalproductionssuchasliteratureandfilm.Thetensionbetweenthestatusoftherefugee
withininternationallawandtheself-perceptionofseparationfromhomeareexploredthrough
tworefugeearchives:Palestinian(1960stopresent)andSudanese(2000stopresent).
Inthisthesis,Ianalyzetheroleofnationalstatusinshapingrefugeenarrativesand
collectiveidentities,takingintoaccounthowpassingtimealtersagroup’sunderstandingofits
collectivehistoryandsharedpresent.Inparticular,Iexplorehownationalstatusimpactseach
group’sdisplacementexperienceandtheprocesswherebytheybecamerefugees—examining
howthesefactorsplayaroleinshapingeachgroup’srefugeenarratives.Thesenarrativesare
furtherexploredthroughananalysisoftheroleofclass,educationandhistoricallandscapein
shapingrefugeememory,identityandculturalproduction.
Stateless,diasporicPalestinians,sufferingdisplacementbyIsraelioccupation,employ
landnarrativestobothvalidatetheirconnectionwiththelandandpreserveitsmemoryamong
thoseinexile.Theirproductionsalsoworktocreateastrongsenseofnationalcommunity,
unitingPalestiniansaroundacollectivenationalcauseacrossspaceandtime.Thisthesis
exploreshownationalbelongingdepictedinliteratureisoftensostrongthatiteventranscends
familialandpersonalobligations.Incontrast,theSudaneserefugeeidentityisnotsomuch
claimedasdesignatedbyinternationalagencies.Thus,Sudanesenarrativesarehighly
structuredandconstructan“innocent”refugeeidentity—“depoliticizing”therefugee
subject—thusprovingthemselvesashaplessvictims“worthy”ofassistance.Thisthesisseeksto
showhownationalstatusintersectswithmemory,kinship,conflictingnotionsofbelonging,
stateforces,andviolence,producingverydifferentnarrativeforms,whichinturnshapethe
contoursofrefugeeidentity.
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Acknowledgements
ThereareanumberofpeopleforwhomIameternallygratefulfortheirsupportand
encouragementthroughoutthisproject:
ToProfessormiriamcooke,Iinitiallybecamecaptivatedwithrefugeeculturethroughyour
course.Yourpassionforthesubjectiscontagious,andithasbeenaprivilegetoworkwith
someoneasbrilliantasyourself.Tobehonest,IwasnotquitesureifIwouldmakeitoutofthis
thesisjourneyalive.Iobviouslyhave,andyoursupportandencouragementhaveplayedno
smallroleinthematter.Thanksforchallengingmetothinkoutsidetheboxandputtingupwith
myhighsandlowsthroughoutthisproject.
ToDwayneDixon,betweenyourskaterreferencesandguillotineanalogies,Iknewfromthe
beginningthatthisclasswouldbeoneforthebooks.IthinkI’vegrownmoreasawriter
throughthiscoursewithyouthananyotherduringmyDukecareer.Thankyouforyourdeep
reads,critiquesandencouragementthroughoutthisprocess.
TomyfriendsHarmonyZhangandJonathanHong,Icouldnothavedonethiswithoutyour
continuedsupport.Thankyouforthelatenightsyouhavestayedupwithmethissemesterand
yourwordsofencouragement.ThankyouforremindingmethatIhavealifeoutsideofthis
projectwhilealsolettingourfriendshipbereducedto“workdates”forthisshorttime.Now
thatI’mdone,let’senjoysenioryear(andgoeat)!
Lastbutdefinitelynotleast,tomymother,thanksforbeingmynumberonesupporterforas
longasIcanremember.IwouldnotbeatDukewithoutyourcontinuedsupportand
encouragement.Yousetthebarhighforwhatitmeanstobelovingandselfless.IfIcouldhalf
asmuchasyouoneday,I’llbegolden.Iloveyoumorethanwordscanexpress.
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Introduction
Ibelievethatfuturehistorianswillcallthetwentiethcenturynotonlythe
centuryofthegreatwars,butalsothecenturyoftherefugee.Ithasbeenan
extraordinaryperiodofmovementandupheavals.Therearesomanyscars
thatneedmendingandhealinganditseemstomethatitisimperativethat
weproclaimthatasylumissuesareanindexofourspiritualandmoral
civilization.–RabbiHugoGryn,Holocaustsurvivor
AsaVietnameseimmigrant,IremembergrowinguptostoriesofVietnameserefugeeswhofled
thecountryaftertheVietnamWar.IespeciallyrecallthenarrativesoftheVietnameseboat
people(ngườivượtbien),agroupofrefugeeswhofledthecountrybyseaasaresultofthe
conflict.MymotherandIarenotapartofthisgroup,butmanyothersinmyVietnamese
communitywere.Growingup,Ilistenedtonarrativesoffamiliessellingtheirpossessionsto
giveyoungermemberstheopportunitytobesmuggledoutofthecountryonovercrowded
boats.Iheardstoriesofshipwrecks,starvationandthirst.
Oneparticularstoryofawoman,LiênChâu,whousedtoteachwithmymotherin
Vietnamparticularlystandsoutinmymemory.Duringtheearlyyearstheircareer,thetwohad
taughttogetheratthesamehighschool.Afterseveralyears,however,mymotheraskedtobe
transferredbacktoherhometown,GòCông,inordertocareforheragingparents.Theylost
touchatthispoint,whichwasinthe1970s.FourdecadeslaterafterbothLiênChâuandmy
motherhadresettledintheUnitedStates,thetwobychancereunitedataconferencein
Austin,TX,inawomen’sbathroom.Thatyear,wedrovetoSanAntoniotospendtheholidays
withthewoman’sfamily,andthere,wefoundoutthatshefledVietnamseveralyearsaftermy
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mothertransferredtoGòCông.AfterfleeingVietnambyboat,theLiênChâuhadappliedfor
refugeestatusandwasresettledinSanAntonio,TX,wheresheliveswithherfamilytothisday.
IncontrasttoLiênChâu,motherandmyjourneytotheU.S.asimmigrantswasquite
differentfromthestoriesofVietnameserefugees.LiênChâutraveledbyherselfwhereasmy
mothercamewithmeasathree-year-old.Wewerenotfleeingpoliticalpersecutionbutrather
cameinsearchofgreateropportunity.Wedidnotleavethecountrybyboatbutinstead,flew
directlytotheUnitedStates.MymotherandIarrivedwithmuchmorethantheclothesonour
backs—wecamewithseveralsuitcasesfullofpossessions.Onesimilarity,however,between
mymother’sandherfriend’srespectivejourneysisthattheyvirtuallyhadtostartoverupon
arrivaltotheU.S.ThoughIhadanauntalreadylivinginthecountry,myauntwashesitantto
takeontheburdenofsupportingoursmallfamily,sowewerefinanciallyindependentfromthe
start.Lookingback,myaunt’sfamilyinmanywaysplayedtheroleofresettlementagenciesfor
refugees—whileunabletogiveusfinancialsupport,sheprovidedassistanceduringmy
mother’sinitialphaseoftransitionandresourcesforhertosuccessfullyintegrateintoAmerican
society.
Irememberthetransitionbeingverydifficultonmymother.UponarrivaltotheU.S.,
mymotherandIimmediatelymovedtoOklahomawheresheworkedasanannyforafamily
friend.Afteraboutayear,throughtherecommendationofmyaunt,mymotherwasableto
findapermanentjobinWaco,TX,wherewesettleduntilIgraduatedfromhighschool.I
remembermymotherstrugglingthemostinthistransitionwhenshebecamecompletely
independent.Withintheperiodofamonth,shehadtofindourfirstapartmentandlearnto
drive—allinthemidstoftryingtolearnEnglishandnavigatingthebasicsofAmericansociety.
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BothmymotherandLiênChâuwerefortunate,though,becausetheVietnamesecommunityin
theirrespectivecitiesgreatlysupportedtheminthisprocessbyprovidingassistancethrough
Englishclassesanddrivinglessons.SimilartomanyotherVietnameseimmigrantsintheU.S.,
mymotherworkedasamanicuristformostofourtimeinWacoandlater,similarLiênChâu,
ownedherownsalonaswell.
LiênChâu’sandmymother’sstoriesareonesofsuccessfultransitions.Havingcometo
theUnitedStateswithhardlyanybelongings,LiênChâuinitiallyworkedasahairstylist,later
becominganentrepreneur.Untilrecently,shehasownedseveralhairsalonsinthecity—she
soldthesesalonsseveralyearsagotoconsolidateherinvestmentsintoasmallshoppingcenter
thatcontinuestothrivetothisday.Mymotheralsoeventuallysoldhershareofthesalonbut
hascontinuedhercareerevenafterourfamily’smovetoNorthCarolina.
Oftentimes,refugeesandimmigrantsareperceivedbythehostpopulationasafinancial
burden.Whilethismaybetrueintheshort-term,wealsoseethatinthelong-term,they
contributebacktothehostcountry’seconomymanytimesovertheirhost’sinitialinvestment.
Ideally,Ibelievethatallcountriesasmembersoftheglobalsocietyshouldplaysomerolein
addressingtheissueofrefugeesregardlessofprofitability.However,asquestionsaboutcost
(andaftertheParisattacksinNovember2015,danger)ofrefugeespermeateour
conversations,theneedarisesforareconstructionoftherefugeeidentity.WithinAmerican
dialogue,refugeesaredepictedasfreeloaders,costlytosociety.It’stimewechangehowwe
portraythem.Theyarepeoplefleeingtheirwar-tornhomesinsearchofpeaceandasecure
future.Theyhavehopesanddreams,andgiventheopportunity,theycanbecome
entrepreneurs,teachersandscientists.
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ManyyearslaterduringmytimeatDuke,Iwouldagainhearstoriesofflightand
resettlementfrommyArabrefugeecommunitypartnersinDurham.Inthebeginning,Ibecame
interestedintheissueofArabrefugeesbecauseofitsintersectionwithmytwointerests:global
healthandtheArabworld.However,asIcontinuedtolearnmoreabouttheserefugees’
stories,Ibegantoconnecttheirstoriestomyownhistory.Irealizedthattheirstorieswereso
compellingtomebecausethroughthem,IheardboththecollectiveVietnamesenarrativeand
myownbeingretold.Beinginvolvedinthepresentrefugeecrisisisnolongerformejustanact
ofhumanitarianservicebutrather,ajourneyofself-discoverythroughwhichIamabletolearn
aboutmyownpeoplewithinthecontextoftheserefugees’stories.
Statelessnesswithinrefugeenarratives
The1951RefugeeConventiondefinesarefugeeas“apersonwhoowingtoawell-foundedfear
ofbeingpersecutedforreasonsofrace,religion,nationality,membershipofaparticularsocial
grouporpoliticalopinion,isoutsidethecountryofhisnationalityandisunableor,owingto
suchfear,isunwillingtoavailhimselfoftheprotectionofthatcountry;orwho,nothavinga
nationalityandbeingoutsidethecountryofhisformerhabitualresidenceasaresultofsuch
events,isunableor,owingtosuchfear,isunwillingtoreturntoit.”Oftenwhenthisdefinition
isreferenced,onlythefirsthalfiscited—thesegmentonrefugeesfleeingfromthecountryof
his/hernationalityasaresultofpersecution.Thisistheidentitythatpredominateswithin21st
centurydialogueonrefugees.However,the1951RefugeeConventionalsorecognizesanother
groupwhosestoriesdifferdrasticallyfromtheprototypical21stcenturyrefugeebut
nonethelessstillfallsundertheestablisheddefinition—statelessrefugeeswhohaveno
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autonomoushomelandtowhichtheycanreturn.Withinthemoderninwhichnationalityplays
acriticalroleinshapingpeople’sidentities,thesestatelessgroupshaveoftenbeenoverlooked
likelybecausetheyareuncategorizablewithinthenation-stateparadigm.
Mostworkonrefugeenarrativeshasfocusedongroupswho,thoughdisplacedfrom
theirhomes,nonethelesshaveastatetowhichtheycanreturn.Withinthisvoidofresearchon
statelessnarratives,thegoalofthisthesisistoexaminetheroleofnationalstatus—whether
refugeesbelongtoarecognizedstate—inshapingrefugeenarratives,focusingonSudanese
andPalestinianrefugeeliteratureandfilm.Throughoutmydiscussion,Iexaminetheserefugees
asnarrativeimaginaries,constructedbyrefugeeproductionsthathavearisenoutofeach
movement.Whataspectsoftherefugeeidentitydotheseculturalproductionsmobilize,andto
whatend?Howtheseproductionsdepictcollectiveidentity,andwhatpurposedoesthis
collectiveserveforeachgroup?
Background
Inthe19thand20thcenturies,peopleweredisplacedfrommultipleregionsglobally—European
JewsduringWorldWarsIandII,theIndo-ChineseduringtheVietnamWarandAfghansduring
theSovietinvasionofAfghanistantonameafew.Incontrast,withinthe21stcentury,the
demographicsofthoserefugeeshaveshiftedtobecomemorecentralizedwithinoneregion—
theArabworld.AccordingtotheUNHCRreportforceddisplacement,threeofthetopfour
sourcecountriesofrefugees—Syria,SomaliaandSudan—areintheArabworldwiththe
exceptionofAfghanistan”(UNHCRGlobalTrends2014).Thoughthecausesofdisplacement
varybycountry,theincreasingprominenceofArabrefugeeshasshapedtheimageofthe
archetypal21stcenturyrefugee.NotonlyhaveArabrefugeesgrowninvisibilityasaresultof
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theirnumbers,buttheyhavealsorecentlygainedamoreprominentplacewithinpublic
discourseasaresultofsecurityconcernssurroundingISIL,particularlyaftertheParisattacksin
November2015.ThesefactorshaveagainbroughtdiscussiononArab,specificallyArabMuslim,
refugeestoWesternheadlineswithout,however,takingintoaccountrefugees’perspectives.
InthisthesisIexploreArabrefugees’agencythroughananalysisoftheircultural
productions,specificallyliteratureandfilm.AsRichardDelgado,creditedforpioneering
storytellingwithinlegalscholarship,argues,“Thestoriesofoutgroupsaimtosubvertthat
ingroupreality.[…]itistheprevailingmindsetbymeansofwhichmembersofthedominant
groupjustifytheworldasitis[…]Stories,parables,chronicles,andnarrativesarepowerful
meansfordestroyingmindset–thebundleofpresuppositions,receivingwisdoms,andshared
understandingsagainstabackgroundofwhichlegalandpoliticaldiscoursetakesplace”
(Delgado2413).TouseDelgado’sterms,refugeesaretheoutgroup.Theirstoriesare
overshadowedbynarrativesofboththedisplacingforceandthehostcountries.Afterthe
November2015Parisattacks,theAmericanpublicdebatedresettlementofSyrianrefugees
giventherisksofdoingso.Unfortunately,thisdialogueremainedwithintheAmericanpublic,
failingtotakeintoaccounttheperspectivesofSyrianrefugees—thepopulationmostaffected
bythesedecisions.SuchomittedvoicesarethesubjectofmythesisthatfocusesonPalestinian
andSudaneserefugees.
SudaneseandPalestiniannarratives
IhavechosentonarrowthescopeofmyprojecttoexamineSudaneseandPalestinianrefugees
forseveralreasons.First,thesegroupsserveascasestudiesofrefugeenarrativesfromthose
withnationalstatusandthosewithout,respectively.WhileSudaneserefugeesonlylosttheir
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homes,Palestinianrefugeespartedwithboththeirhomesandhomeland.Nationalstatuswas
neveratstakefortheSudanese,andinfact,in2011theSouthSudaneseacquired
independenceandtherighttoautonomyfromethnicallydistinctNorthSudan.Palestinians,on
theotherhand,havelivedinaconditionofstatelessnesswithwhatremainsofthenation
currentlyunderIsraelioccupation.Secondly,thesearePalestiniansandSudanesearesomeof
thelargestgroupsfromtheArabworldtobedisplacedinthe20thand21stcenturies.Assuch,
theircollectionsofculturalproductionsarefarmoreestablishedthanthoseofanyothergroup
of“Arab”refugeesinrecenthistory.Importanttonote,however,isthatwhilebothNorthern
andSouthernSudanesehavebeendisplaced,Sudaneserefugeeproductionsbyandlargedepict
theSouthSudanese’sexperiencewhoinfactdonotconsiderthemselvesethnicallyArab.
Nonetheless,becausetheycomefromSudan,theyareregardedassobytheoutsideworld.
ThesedifferencesinPalestinianandSudaneserefugeeexperienceshavecontributedto
thevariationbetweenthesetwogroups’refugeeproductions.WhileSudanesecultural
productionsbyandlargerevolvearoundfictionalizedmemoirs,Palestiniandiasporicliterature
hasbeenmarkedbypoetryandprose.Moreover,themajorityofSudanesememoirs,though
basedoninterviewswithSudaneserefugees,weregenerallywrittenbyorinconjunctionwith
foreigners.Palestinianworks,ontheotherhand,areprimarilywrittenbyPalestinianrefugees
themselvesordescendantsofthedisplacedgeneration.Moreover,classalsodividesthewriters
oftheseproductions.Palestinianworksaregenerallyproducedbyintellectualswhoareknown
fortheirpoliticalinvolvementinthemovementtoliberatePalestine.Onthecontrary,the
Sudanesecivilwardisproportionatelyaffectedvillages.Asaresult,Sudanesediasporicwriters
tendtobelesseducated,thusoftenrelyingonforeignerstocommunicatetheirstories.
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Further,notonlydotheseforeignersplayaprominentroleinthewritingprocess,theyalsoare
typicallytheonestoinitiatetheprocesswithSudaneserefugees,encouragingthemtoretell
theirstories.Throughoutthisthesis,Ihighlighttheroleofnationalstatusindrivingthese
differencesthatemerge.However,onedistinctionisdifficulttoaccountforinthisdiscussionis
timeandgenerationaldifferencesbetweenthetwosetsofproductions
PalestinianandSudaneseworksrangeacrossawideperiodoftime,beginningwith
GhassanKanafani’sshortstoriessoonafteral-NakbatoSusanAbulhawa’snovelMorningsin
Jeninpublishedin2010.Further,theyareproducedbywritersacrossdifferentgenerationswith
Kanafanihavingexperiencedal-NakbahimselfandAlbulhawaonlyinheritingthememoriesasa
resultofherPalestiniandescent.Incontrast,Sudaneseproductionsbegantoemergeinthe
early21stcentury,spanningaboutfifteenyearstotal,andreflectonlythenarrativesofthe
displacedgeneration.ForPalestinians,timeandgenerationaldifferencesaffecthownarratives
depicttheboundarybetweenexileandthehomeland,whichbecomeslesspermeableasthe
hopeforreturnslowlydiminishes.Thisdistinctionisparticularlyapparentamongliterature
beforeandaftertheSix-DayWarin1967whentheArabforcesweredecidedlycrushedbythe
Israelimilitary.Incontrast,becauseSudaneseproductionswerecreatedwithinameredecade
andahalf,theeffectoftimeontheseworksaremuchlessapparent.Assuch,mydiscussionon
SudanesenarrativeswilltakeonagreaterdepthasIelucidatetheroleoftimeandgenerational
differenceswithinthesenarrativesasopposedtoSudaneseproductions,whichmoreso
representasnapshotintime.Duetothesedifferences,thegoalofthisthesisisnottocompare
PalestinianandSudaneserefugeenarrativesbutrather,toanalyzetheroleofnationalstatus
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withinthenarrativesthatemerge,takingintoaccounthowrefugeeproductionsevolveover
time.
Inchapterone,IexaminestorylineswithinPalestinianandSudaneseproductions,
identifyingthenarrativesthatemergefromthesetwogroups.AmongPalestinianrefugees,I
alsotracehowtheirnarrativeshaveshiftedthroughouttimeasaresultofthepolitical
environmentregardingPalestine.Ithenanalyzetheroleofnationalstatusinshapingthese
narrativesandanalyzehoweachgroupmobilizesthesenarrativeswithintheirrespective
movements.Chaptertwoexploreshownationalstatusaffectsnarrativeformsanddevices
withinPalestinianandSudaneseproductions.Inparticular,IhighlighthowUNHCRexpectations
shapeSudaneserefugeenarratives,resultinginhighlystructuredproductionsthatcastthe
refugeesasinnocentvictims.Ontheotherhand,asaresultofthePalestinians’continuedand
uncertainstrugglefornationalrecognition,thePalestiniannarrativethatemergesinmanyways
transcendstimebybuildingonpreviousworksbybothPalestiniansandotherstatelessgroups.
Inchapterthree,IexaminehowPalestinianandSudaneserefugeenarrativesillustrateeach
group’sdiasporiccommunities.Ithenidentifyfactorsthatdrivethesedifferentmanifestations
ofcollectivenessandexploretheroleofthesecommunitieswithineachrefugeemovement.
Literaturereview
“Hostipitality”
Oneofthemostinfluentialpeopletohaveshapedpresent-dayrefugeetheoryisFrench
philosopherJacquesDerrida,whoseworkhasgreatlyimpactedcontemporaryresearchon
diasporicmovements.Amonghiscontributions,oneofthemostwell-knownishisconceptof
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“hostipitality,”whichhediscussesinaseriesoflecturesdocumentedinOfHospitality.He
deriveshisdiscussionofhospitalityfromEnlightenmentphilosopherImmanuelKant,who
coinedtheconceptofuniversalhospitality,basedonthenotionthatindividualsshouldhave
therighttotravelwithoutfearofhostility.Derridafurtherclaimsthatunlimitedhospitality
requiresthehostopenuphis/herhometotheguestwithnopre-conditionsandnoexpectation
thattheactionbereciprocated(Derrida77).Yet,inreality,thislawalsocoexistswiththelaws
(plural),“thoserightsanddutiesthatarealwaysconditionedandconditional,astheyare
definedbytheGreco-RomantraditionandeventheJudeo-Christianone[…]acrossthefamily,
civilsociety,andtheState”(77).Oneparticularlawthatcreatesanunequalpowerdynamic
betweenthehostandguestisthelawofprivateproperty.Shouldtheguestbeginintrudingon
thehost’ssovereignty,this“pact”ofhospitalityisrenderedvoid:“Anyonewhoencroacheson
my‘athome,’onmyipseity,onmypowerofhospitality,onmysovereigntyashost,Istartto
regardasanundesirableforeigner,andvirtuallyasanenemy”(Derrida53-55).This
simultaneoushospitalityandhostilityiswhatDerridaterms“hostipitality”—thetension
betweenhostingaguestwhilestillmaintainingsovereigntyoverone’sspace.
Yet,thoughthenotionofhospitalityinregardstoimmigrants/refugeesiswidely-
accepted,itisananalogythatisnotwithoutflaw.InPostcolonialHospitality,MireilleRosello
exploresthefluidnatureofhospitality,whatshecallsa“kaleidoscopicradianceofaforeverchangingmosaic”(Rosello7).Inherbook,sheproblematizesthecomparisonbetween
hospitalityandimmigration.Inparticular,shearguesthatcomparingimmigrantstoguests
suppressesmanyissueswithintheimmigrantexperience.First,whileguestsareinvited,
immigrantsarrivewithdifferentmotivations.Refugeesinparticularimmigrateoutofnecessity,
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sotocomparethemtoaguestwoulddiminishtheurgencyoftheirsituation.Secondly,
depictingimmigrantsasguestsimpliesthattheyareinherentlyequalandabletoperhaps
reciprocatethehospitalityshouldthesituationarise.Thirdly,thisanalogycreatesa
“generosity”narrative,inwhichthehostiscommendedforhis/herhospitality,obscuringthe
rightoftheimmigrant/refugeetohaveaccesstoasylum(8-9).Ultimately,bothRoselloand
Derridaagreethatthenotionofhospitalityasaone-waystreetshouldbedismantled:“ifthe
rolesofguestsandhostsaresetinstone,ifimmigrantsaretreatedasiftheyalwayshaveto
behaveasguests,ifhostsarealwaysgeneroustotheirpoorrelations,[…]thecontinuum
betweenguestandhostdisappears”(167).
Giventheshortcomingsofthehospitalityanalogy,theanthologyMobilizingHospitality
workstodismantletheconcept,takingintoaccountthelimitationsacknowledgedbyDerrida,
Roselloandotherscholarsofthetopic.Throughobservationsofbothimmigrantsandtourists,
thisworkdeconstructsthehost/guestandgive/takedichotomiesandchallengesthespacesin
whichhospitalitycanexist.Particularlyofinterestisitsacknowledgementoftheimpactof
colonizationondeepeningtheimmigrant/diasporicdivide—oneofthefirstinstancesinwhich
colonizationisreferencedwithinthisbodyofliterature:“Descendantsofpostcolonialmigrants
stillcarrytheimageoftheex-colonial‘immigrant’withitsviolentcolonialresiduethatrelegates
themtothemarginsofsocietyonthebasisoftheir‘cultural’,‘ethnic’,‘religious’andsocial
affiliationsthataresometimesdeemedincompatiblewithEuropeanvalues”(Molzetal.189).
Despitethesetensionsintheconceptofhospitality,Derrida’s“hostipitality”is
nonethelesshelpfulinsheddinglightonthesimultaneoushospitalityandhostilitywithinthe
refugee-hostrelationship.“Hostipitality”manifestsinseveralwaysthroughouttherefugee
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resettlement.Thefirstisthroughtheselectionprocessinwhichthehostexercisespowerover
his/herhomeby“choosing,electing,filtering,selectingtheirinvitees,visitors,orguests,those
towhomtheydecidetograntasylum,therightofvisiting,orhospitality”(Derrida55).In
America,refugeequotasandscreeningprocessesareexamplesofthistension—theconflict
betweentheinternationalexpectationthatAmericaplayaroleinthepresentSyrianrefugee
crisisanditscommitmenttothesafetyofitscitizens.Thesecondformof“hostipitality”is
appearsinlanguage:guestsareexpectedtospeakthehost’slanguage,whetherliterally,legally
orintermsofculturalnorms.AccordingtoDerrida,theforeigner“isfirstofallforeigntothe
legallanguageinwhichthedutyofhospitalityisformulated[…]Hehastoaskforhospitalityina
languagewhichbydefinitionisnothisown,theoneimposedonhimbythemasterofthe
house,thehost,theking,thelord,theauthorities,thenation,theState”(15).Withinthis
languagepowerdynamicemergesrefugeeculturalproductions.Sometakethehost’s
language—thatis,reflectthehost’sexpectations—andothersareameansbywhichrefugees
regainagencyovertheirlanguage.Nonetheless,regardlessofwhose“language”theyuse,
throughtheseproductionsrefugeesareabletotakesomeownershipoftheirstoriesinaspace
dominatedbytheirhosts.
Refugeeculturalproductions
Oneofthemostwidelystudiedaspectsofrefugeenarrativesisthewayinwhichtheyhave
beenmobilizedtoconstructidentities.Inherarticle“StoriesasLivedExperience:Narrativesin
ForcedMigrationResearch,”socialanthropologistMaritaEastmondarguesthatbecausethe
refugeeexperienceinvolvesrupturesinidentityandenvironment,refugeesoftenemploy
narrativesto“createasenseofcontinuityinwhotheyare,linkingselvesindifferentwaysto
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timeandplace”(Eastmond254).Inparticular,theverisimilitudequalityiswhatallowsrefugees
tonegotiatetheiridentitieswithinnarratives.AspsychologistJeromeBrunerinhisbookThe
NarrativeConstructionofRealitydescribes,verisimilitudequalityis“aversionofrealitywhose
acceptabilityisgovernedbyconventionand‘narrativenecessity’ratherthanempirical
verificationandlogicalrequiredness”(Bruner4).Existinginademi-reality,narrativesarenot
heldtoastandardofabsolutetruthfulness,andassuchtheysimultaneouslyallowrefugeesto
illustratetheirplightwhilealsogivingthemspacetomodifytheirstoriestotrulycapturethe
livedrealityoftheirexperience.
Amonganalysesonrefugeeculturalproductionsemergestwodominantthemes:
explorationsofhowrefugeesrememberthepastandhowtheyreconstructtheiridentitiesin
exile.VijayMishraexplorestheconceptofmelancholiclossofthehomelandinLiteratureofthe
IndianDiasporainwhichheclaimsthatthediasporicimaginaryisitselfaconditionofmourning
thatlaterbecomesmelancholia.Hearguesthatmelancholiaisdefinedasabsence,and
moreover,itpersistsinthemelancholicindividualbecausehe/sheisunabletoobtainanother
objectofequalaffection(Mishra8-9).RogerBromleyinNarrativesforaNewBelonging
observesasimilarmourningaswell.InhisresearchofChinesediasporicliterature,hefound
thathomewas“aplaceofnostalgiaandchildhoodmemory,partof[an]‘imaginary’,anda
locusofchange,conflict,andsplitting”(Bromley127).Healsoencountersthisnostalgiainhis
workwithHaitianandIndianworksaswell—referringtothemas“Haitiofthemind”and“India
ofthemind.”Inparticular,hedescribes“Indiaofthemind”asthe“mythicplaceofdesireinthe
diasporicimagination”andthe“placeofnoreturn”(73,143).Theseidealisticconceptionsof
thehomeland,thoughemotionallysatisfyingbecausetheyallowtherefugeesto“return”
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home,ultimatelygivesrisetoMishra’sdefinitionofmelancholia.Bromleyincludesaquote
fromthestory“Homecoming”thatillustratesthejuxtapositionoftheidealistichomelandand
thepresentreality—atensionthatoftenresultsinasenseofemptinesswithintherefugee:“It’s
liketwosidesofmecomingtogetherandtheydon’tfit”(127).Ireturntothistensioninmy
discussionofPalestineofthemindinchapterthree.
AnothertopicwidelyexploredisthatwhichBromleyreferstoasthe“borderlines”—not
onlynation-statebordersbutalsogender,ethnicityandclass—ofrefugeeidentities.For
refugeeswhoseidentitiesbecomedestabilizedasaresultoftheirdisplacement,hearguesthat
culturalfictionsareespeciallyeffectiveatreterritorializingspaces:“Diasporicculturalfictions
produceanendlessseriesofflexibletranslations,arcsorbridgesofnewpossibility,brought
aboutbyacreativefracturingofsurfaceculturalrepresentations”(Bromley97).Hefurther
arguesthatasaresultofdisplacement,refugeeidentitiesunavoidablybecomeglobalized—that
itisimpossibletomaintainculturallyandethnicallyclosedidentitiesinexile.Yet,researchon
PalestinianculturalproductionscontestBromley’sclaim.InSusanSlyomovics’Objectof
Memory,forexample,sheargues,“Place,gesture,andwordsconjointhedoublePalestinian
traumasof1948and1967,fusinginal-Mudawwar’sconsciousness,therebyobligatinghimto
preservethememoryofwhatwas.Inhiscase,thisobligationhadgivenrisetoanasyet
unpublishedaccountabouthisnativevillageofDayrGhusunandanoralhistoryofthe1936-39
ArabRevolt”(Slyomovics12).Palestinianproductionsrevolvepreciselyaroundcreatinga
strongnationalcommunityastheycontinuetostruggleforastateoftheirown.Assuch,
thoughmanyPalestinianshaveresettledaroundtheworld,theirdiasporicproductions
nonethelesshaveremainedfaithfultothePalestiniancauseandidentity.InPurityandExile,
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LiisaMalkkisuggeststhatbothSlyomovics’andBromley’sobservationsarevalid,arguingthe
modern-daydisplacementcanresultintwooutcomesforthegroupsdisplaced.Thefirstisthat
thedisplacedgroupwillattempttoconformtothenotionofnationalitybycreatinga“nation”
amongstthemselves,andthesecondIsthatthegroupwillbecomeglobalized,refusingtobe
classifiedbyonlyonenationalityoranyotheridentity(Malkki4).
Throughoutthisthesis,IwilldrawonMalkki’sassertionregardingthetwotypesof
refugees—PalestiniansconformingtothenotionofnationalitywhiletheSudanesebecoming
moreglobalized—toanalyzehowtheidentityofthesegroupschangewiththeshiftingof
boundaries.IwillalsousethecaseofPalestinianrefugeestochallengethehospitalityanalogy,
whichfailstoaccountforstatelessgroupswhodonotwanttoacquireanothernationalitybut
yetareunabletoreturnhome.
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ChapterOne:DiasporicStorylines
Donotlookuponyourselfinthewaytheywriteaboutyou.Donotinvestigate
theCanaaniteinyouinordertoestablishthatyouexist.Rather,seizethis
reality,thisnameofyours,andlearnhowtowriteyourproof.Foryouare
you,notyourghost,theonewhowasdrivenawaythatnight.
–MahmoudDarwish,AbsentPresence
ThoughtheUNHCRwasoriginallycommissionedtoprovideassistancetorefugees,itsmission
wasexpandedtoincludestatelesspeoplesafterthe1954ConventionrelatingtotheStatusof
StatelessPersonsandthe1961ConventionontheReductionofStatelessness.Later,in2014
theUNHCRlauncheda“campaigntoeradicatestatelessnessby2024,whichwillseekgreater
politicalcommitmenttoresolveprotractedsituationsofstatelessnessandtopreventnew
situationsofmassstatelessnessduetostatesuccessionorarbitrarydeprivationofnationality”
(“TheCampaigntoEndStatelessness”).ThecaseofPalestiniansrefugeesisdistinctbecause
unlikeotherstatelessgroups,theyhaveaseparateUNorganizationdevotedtotheir
protection—UNRWA(UnitedNationsReliefandWorksAgencyforPalestineRefugeesinthe
NearEast).Asevidencedbytheneedtocreateanentirelyneworganizationtoaddressthe
needsofPalestinians,statelessnessplaysalargeroleinimpactingagroup’srefugeeexperience
andtheirneeds.Theserefugeessharethesamebasiccomponentsoftherefugeejourney—
homeland,violence,displacement,exile.However,thewayinwhichtheyexperienceeachof
theseeventsdiffers.Foroutsiders,byidentifyingwhichaspect(s)oftherefugeejourneymost
characterizeseachgroup,webegintobetterunderstandhowrefugeesdepicttheirown
identities.
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Thischapterexaminesthevarioussegmentsoftherefugeejourneythatareemphasized
withinSudaneseandPalestinianrefugeenarratives,analyzingtheroleofnationalstatusin
drivingthestorylinesthatemergewithinSudaneseandPalestinianrefugeenarratives.Ibegin
bydiscussingtheconditionssurroundingeachgroup’sdisplacementandidentifyingthe
narrativeswithinwhicheachgroup’sstoriesaresituated.Ithenexplorethestorylinesthat
emergewithinSudaneseandPalestinianrefugeeculturalproductions,particularlyexamining
howtheseworksemployplottoparticipateinpublicdiscourseonissuesspecifictoeachgroup.
Finally,Iconcludewithadiscussionofhownationalityorlackthereofinfluencestherefugee
narrativesthatemerge.
Sudan:Thearchetypalrefugeenarrative
Historicaloverview
Attheturnofthe20thcentury,afterthefailedmovementforindependenceledbyMuhammad
Ahmadibnal-Sayyid,alsoknownastheMahdi,Sudanonceagainfellunderthejurisdictionofa
British-Egyptiangovernment.Inmanyways,British-EgyptianruleoverSudanlaidthe
groundworkforthepresent-dayconflictsinSudan.Firstofall,whileculturally,ethnicallyand
religiouslydiversenorthernandsouthernSudanweregovernedasseparateprovinces,they
werenonethelessruledasoneentity.Thelevelsofmistrustbetweentheseregionswere
heightenedwithBritain’stendencytofocusitsdevelopment“tothevicinityofthecapital,the
agriculturalregiontoitssouth,andthetownsalongthecolonialrailwaythatconnectedthese
totheRedSea.Darfur,asindeedmuchoftherestofthecountry,wasneglected”(Daly2).
Britain,inparticular,disregarded“SouthernSudan’sremoteandundevelopedprovinces—
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Equatoria,Bahral-Ghazal,andUpperNile[…]exceptforeffortstosuppresstribalwarfareand
theslavetrade,”claimingthatSouthSudanwasnotyetpreparedfor“exposuretothemodern
world”(Berry26).Furthermore,inthe1920s,BritainpassedtheClosedDistrictsOrdinances,
whichforbadetravelbetweentheNorthandSouthwithoutapassportorpermit,further
reinforcingthedisparitiesbetweenthetworegions.Ultimately,asidefromtheinfluenceof
Christianmissionaries,theSouthwasessentiallyisolatedfromtheoutsideworlduntilWorld
WarI.
TheSudanesenationalisticmovementbeganafterWorldWarI,arisingpredominantly
fromthenorth.Intheearly1940s,Britainagreedtograduallytransitiontheirgovernmenttoa
systemofself-government.Severalyearslaterin1946,theSudanAdministrativeConference
decidedtouniteNorthandSouthSudanunderonegovernment,abolishingprevious
restrictionsbetweenthetworegions.Aconferencewasheldin1947toaddressthe
Southerners’concernsregardingtheformationofaunitedgovernmentoverbothregions.
However,thisconferencedidlittletoalleviatetensions.Infact,duringthisperiodsuspicion
grewamongtheSouthasthenewgovernmentadoptedArabicasthelanguageof
administrationexcludingEnglish-speakingsouthernersfromgovernmentalpositions.
Thefirstmajorpost-colonialconflictbetweentheNorthandSoutheruptedinAugust
1955whensomeSouthernsoldiersprotestedbeingplacedunderNorthernofficers,killing
severalhundredNorthernersduringtherebellionandinitiatingthefirstofSudan’scivilwars.
ThefirstcivilwarlasteduntiltheAddisAbabaAgreementof1972,whichgavetheSouthalevel
ofautonomy.Asaresultofthefirstcivilwar,overfivehundredthousandpeoplewerekilled
andhundredsofthousandsmoreweredisplaced.
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In1983thesecondcivilwareruptedasaresultofconflictsovernaturalresourcesand
theNimeiryregime’spolicyofIslamization.In1979oilreserveswerefoundontheborder
betweenNorthandSouthSudan,sotheNorth’sattemptstoredrawtheirboundariestoinclude
thereservesservedasaninitialsourceoftensionbetweenthetworegions.Moreover,though
theAddisAbabaAgreementwasoriginallysignedunderNimeiryin1972,inthe1980shis
policiesbegantoshifttowardanIslamistgovernment.In1983,heenactedSharialawoverallof
Sudan,resultinginmassiveprotestamongSoutherners,manyofwhomwereChristianor
animists.Furthermore,thisdeclarationeliminatedSouthSudan’sautonomy,violatingandthus
terminatingtheAddisAbabaAgreement.
Thesecondcivilwarlastedfrom1983to2005,makingitoneofthelongestcivilwarsin
history.ThewarwasbetweenSudanPeople’sLiberationArmy,agroupofrebelforcesledby
JohnGarangandtheSudanesegovernment.ThewareventuallyendedwiththeComprehensive
PeaceAgreementsignedinEthiopiain2005andtookanenormoustollonSudan,killingtwo
millionpeopleanddisplacinganotherfourmillion.Anotherconsequenceofthewarwasthe
outbreakofslavetrade,whichenslavedapproximatelytwohundredthousandSouthSudanese
womenandchildren.
Thoughthecivilwarhasofficiallyended,Sudanisstillfarfrompeace.Ongoingconflict
since2003thewarinDarfur,aregioninWesternSudan,betweentheSudanesegovernment
andprimarilynon-Arabrebelforceshasresultedinhundredsofthousandsofdeaths.According
totheUNHCR,betweenJanuaryandAugust2014alone,fourhundredthousandinternally
displacedpeoplewereregisteredinthecountry.Somewhohavetheresourcesorconnections
gotoCairotoapplyforasylumandthenrefugeestatus.Otherstravel,oftenbyfoot,torefugee
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campsincountriessurroundingSudansuchasChad,Ethiopia,KenyaandtheCentralAfrican
Republicandapplyforrefugeestatusthere.Manyoftheserefugeescomefromruralareasand
leavetheirhomeswithverylittle,ifany,resources.ThestoriesthatdominateSudanese
narrativesarefromasmallgroupoftheserefugees—namedtheLostBoys.Theseorphaned
childrentraveledbyfootfromtheirhomestorefugeecampsinEthiopiaandKenya.Yearslater,
aftertheseboyshaveresettledandacquiredaneducation,theywouldretelltheirnarrativesof
theirrefugeejourneys,whichhavebeendocumentedinthenovels,memoirsandfilms.
Sudanesediasporicnarratives
TheSudanesediasporicexperiencefollowsthearchetypalrefugeestorylinethatdominates
within21stcenturydialogue—agroupofpeopledisplacedasaresultofwarandviolence
beyondtheircontrol—astoryreminiscentofmanyothergroupssuchastheAfghans,Iraqisand
Congolese.UponmyinitialdiveintoSudanesediasporicculturalproductions,Iwasimmediately
struckbytherepetitionofstorylineswithinliteratureandfilm.Theseworksarenotentirely
homogenous,butinthischapter,Ifocusonthesimilaritiesinordertohighlighttheemerging
storylinewithintheseworks.Infuturechapters,Iwillexpandmydiscussiontoincludethe
particularitiesoftheseworks.
Sudanesediasporicnarrativestypicallybeginwithavillageunderattackduringwhich
childrenareseparatedfromtheirparentsandareforcedtoseeksafetyontheirown.
Eventually,theseorphanedchildrengrouptogetherandundertheleadershipofanolderchild
oryoungadult,makethetrektothenearestrefugeecamp,whichwasoftenthousandsofmiles
away.Alongtheway,theyfacestarvation,attacksbywildanimals,disease,andassaults/forced
recruitmentbyrebelforces.Overhalfofthesechildrendieduringtheirjourney.Thosewho
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survivethisarduoustrekfindasyluminarefugeecampwheretheycanapplyforrefugeestatus
andawaitresettlement.
Inparticular,thevastmajorityoftheseproductionshighlighttherefugees’journeyfrom
theirhomestotherefugeecamps.AsValentinoAchakDengstatesinhisnovel,“Everyone’s
accountincludesattacksbylions,hyenas,crocodiles.Allhavebornwitnesstotheattacksbythe
murahaleen—government-sponsoredmilitiasonhorseback—toAntonovbombings,toslaveraidings[…]Butnow,sponsorsandnewspaperreportersandthelikeexpectthestoriestohave
certainelements,andtheLostBoyshavebeenconsistentintheirwillingnesstooblige”(Eggers
21).AccordingtoDeng,thisnarrative,whichdepictsthechallengesrefugeesmustovercomein
theirjourneysearchingforsafety,isnotonlyasharedexperienceforSudaneserefugees,but
further,thisstorylineisanessentialcomponentoftheSudanesediasporicnarrative,
particularlywhentheoutsideworldistheaudience.
Inmanyrespects,thisnarrativeishighlyreminiscentoftheancientGreekepicpoem
Odyssey,aworkknownforitsroleinestablishingtheWesterncanon.Thepoembeginsafter
theTrojanWarandfollowsOdysseus’sjourneyhomeafterbeingreleasedfromcaptivity.
Duringhisvoyage,heencountersvariousobstaclesthathemustovercomeinordertoreachhis
finaldestination—theLotus-eaterswhodruggedhismen,theenchantressCirceturningallhis
menintopigsandthetemptationoftheSirens,tonameafew.Alongtheway,allofhiscrew
perishesinashipwreckasaresultofeatingsacredcowsbelongingtoHyperion.Odysseusisthe
lonesurvivorandiswashedashoretotheislandofOgygia.There,heisatthemercyofKing
AlcinoüsandQueenAretewho,fortunately,aresympathetictohisstoryandprovideashipthat
finallybringshimhome.
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ThoughfortheSudanese,theirnarrativesdepicttheirjourneyawayfromhome,there
nonethelessaremanysimilaritiesbetweenthesetwostorylines.First,similartoOdysseythe
Sudanesenarrativeismarkedwithavarietyofchallengesaswell.Theserefugeesoftenhadto
trekthousandsofmilesonfoottoreachthenearestrefugeecampsinborderingcountries.
Amongthevariousterrainstherefugeespassed,thedesertwasbyfarthemostbrutalsegment
oftheirjourney:“Therewasnowaterandtherewasnofood.[…]Withinafewdays,ourpace
becamesluggish,andboysbegantogomad”(Eggers214).“Ihavewatchedtoomanyyoung
boysdieinthedesert,someasifsittingdowntosleep,someafterdaysofmadness”(25).
Duringtheirflight,theywerealsovulnerabletoattacksbywildanimals:“Onenight[a]lion,
nyanjuan,camewhileweweresleeping.Itpickedupaboysleepingnearme”(Ajaketal.115).
“Ihaveseenboystakenbylions,eatenhaphazardly.Iwatchedthemliftedfromtheirfeet,
carriedoffintheanimal’sjawsanddevoured[…]closeenoughthatIcouldhearthesnapping
soundsofthetearingofflesh”(Eggers25).Moreover,thoughtherefugeesencounteredpeople
throughouttheirjourneywhowerewillingtotemporarilyfeedandshelterthem,theywere
alsoconstantlyatriskofbeingattacked:“Alwayswewerereadytorun;everyboyhadaplanif
themilitiascame”(Eggers163).“Therearebadtribesonthewaywholiketoattackthewalking
people.Theykillthemandtakeawaytheirbelongings”(Ajaketal.77).Fortherefugees,these
obstaclesservetopurifytheiridentities.Inthemidstofacivilwarinwhichvirtuallyeveryoneis
insomewayconnectedtothegovernment-sponsoredmilitiaorSPLArebelforces,these
challengesserveto“depoliticize”therefugees’identity.Afterenduringtheinjusticesoftheir
journey,therefugees’victimidentitiesaresolidified.Theyarenolongerfightingagainst
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governmentforcesbutfortheirownsurvival.Assuch,theyacquireanidentityof“innocence,”
thusmakingthemmore“deserving”ofaid.
AsecondsimilaritybetweenSudanesediasporicproductionsandOdysseyisthe
individualisticnatureoftheflight.InOdyssey,thoughOdysseusstartshisvoyagewithacrew,
heeventuallylosesallofthemasaresultofashipwreck.Thestorythusbecomesoneof
individualsurvivalandsuggeststhatthisquestforhomeisapersonalexperience.This
individualityisalsoapparentwithinSudaneseproductions—thoughtherefugeesbegintheir
journeyingroups,thesegroupsquicklydwindleaspeoplefallvictimtotheharshconditionsof
theflight:“Dengwasthefirsttodiebutsoonboysdiedfrequentlyandtherewasnotimeto
burythedead.Boysdiedofmalaria,theystarved,theydiedofinfections.Eachtimeaboydied,
DutandKurdidtheirbesttohonorthedead,butwehadtokeepwalking”(Eggers174).InThey
PouredFireonUsFromtheSky,asimilarstorylineemergesduringBenson’sjourneytothe
KenyanrefugeecampKakuma.Heinitiallybeganthisjourneywithasmallgroupofolderboys,
butalongtheway,thegroupgrewwearyandoptedtorest.Knowingthatrestingintheshade
oftenleadstodeath,Bensondecidedtocontinuewalking.“Ihopedotherswouldfollow,but
regardlessIwasdeterminedtotakemychancesgoingaloneratherthanlyingunderatreeand
neveropeningmyeyesagain”(Ajaketal.248).FortheSudanese,thejourneyisacollective
experiencefortheserefugeesandindeed,thereisalevelofemotionalandphysicalsupport
amongtherefugees.Nonetheless,intheend,asuccessfuljourneyrequiresthattherefugees
themselvesmust,onanindividuallevel,overcomethechallenges.
Athirdsimilarity—thoughseeminglycontradictorytomydiscussiononindividuality
above—isthatwithinbothSudanesediasporicnarrativesandOdyssey,thoughtheprotagonist
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overcomestheobstaclessetagainsthim,heintheendreliesonthehelpofonewithgreater
power.InOdyssey,KingAlcinoüsandQueenAreteprovidehimwiththemeanstocompletehis
journeyandultimatelyreturnhome.ForSudaneserefugees,this“higherpower”istheUNHCR.
WhileatthePinyudorefugeecamp,Bensonencountersthese“whitepeople[…]comingfrom
AddisAbabatolookatoursituation”forthefirsttime.Atranslatornearbyexplainedtohim,
“TheyareUNHCR[…]Thewomenarecryingbecausetheyfeelsorryforyoursuffering.[…]They
willbringsomemoreblankets,foodandmedicinefortheyhaveseenenoughsufferingoutof
you.Theywillhelpyou”(Ajaketal.91).Beyondprovidingfortheirphysicalneeds,theUNHCR
isalsothepartyresponsibleforresettlingrefugeestoathirdcountry.WithinbothOdysseyand
theSudanesenarratives,weseethecoexistenceofindividualityanddependence.Uptoa
certainpoint,theprotagonistmustovercomeaseriesofchallengesindividually.Oncethat
pointisreached,though,itisthehigherpowerwhoultimatelydecideswhethertoallowthe
protagonisttocompletehisvoyage.Interestingly,bothOdysseusandtheSudaneserefugees
relyonstorytellinginordertoenlistthehigherpower’sassistanceforthemcompletetheir
journey.
ThiscomparisonofSudanesediasporicnarrativeswithOdysseyraisestheissueofhome.
ForOdysseus,theultimategoalofhisvoyageistoreturnhometohiswife,butSudanese
refugeesarefleeingtheirhomes.Yet,interestingly,withinSudanesenarratives,thelongingfor
homerarelyappears.Infact,inoneofthefewworksthatdepictsaSudaneserefugee’sreturn
home,TheLostBoyinfactdepictsrefugeeAherAropBolreunitingwithhisparentsbutsoon
thereafterreturningtoSouthAfricatopursuehiseducation.Thoughhemaintainsaconnection
withhishomeinSudan,henonethelesschoosestoremaininSouthAfrica,anillustrationofthe
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instabilityofhomefortheserefugees.ThroughoutmyresearchonSudaneseproductionsand
throughmyowninteractionwithSudaneserefugees,theyunfailinglyidentifyeducationastheir
ultimategoal.Coulditbethatforthisgroup,homeisnotnecessarilyconfinedtowhereone
wasbornbutrather,whereonecanpursuehis/herfullestpotentialinsafety?
Palestine:Thestatelessnarrative
Historicaloverview
ThoughJewshadbeengraduallyimmigratingtoPalestinemanyyearsbefore,inthe1880s
Jewishimmigrationdramaticallyincreasedasaresultofeconomicproblemsandpersecutionin
EasternEurope.TheincreasingnumberofJewishimmigrantsandthefalloftheOttoman
EmpireintensifiedtheJewishcommunity’sefforttocreateanIsraelistate.
OneofthefirstdocumentstopavethewayinthecreationofanIsraeliStatewasthe
Sykes-PicotAgreementof1916inwhichtheUnitedKingdom,FranceandRussiapreemptively
dividedtheMiddleEastamongthemselvesinpreparationforthefalloftheOttomanEmpire.
Theyearafter,theBalfourDeclarationof1917waswritten,whichwasoneofthefirsttimesthe
intentionofcreatingaJewishstateinPalestinewaspublicallyexpressed.
Interestingly,however,theBalfourDeclarationwasprecededbyanotheragreement
thatisoftenoverlookedinliterature—thatis,theHusain-McMahonCorrespondenceof19151916.WithintheseexchangesbetweenBritishHighCommissionerinEgyptSirHenryMcMahon
andSharifofMeccaHusaynbinAli,theBritishagreedtoprovide“assistanceinattainingArab
independenceinexchangeforArabrebellionagainstthesultan”oftheOttomanempire
(Krämer144).
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Despitetheseagreementsanddeclarations,thefateofPalestineremaineduncertain
afteritsindependencefromtheOttomanEmpirein1918whentheBritish-ledEgyptian
ExpeditionaryForcecapturedSyria,LebanonandPalestineandtheOttomanEmpiresignedthe
ArmisticeofMudros,surrenderingtheLevant.Between1918-1920,aBritishmilitary
governmentwassetupinPalestinewiththepurposeofprovidingrelief,securityand
administration.In1920,theBritishtransitionedthemilitarygovernmenttoacivilian
governmentwithZionistSirHerbertSamuelinitscharge.Threeyearslater,theBritishmandate
overPalestinewasestablished.
TheprovisionsoftheBritishmandateofPalestineweredistinctfromitsmandatesover
otherArabterritories.UnlikeSyriaandIraq,theMandateTreatyforPalestinedidnotincludea
clauseallowingPalestinianstoseekautonomousgovernanceafteralevelofstabilityhadbeen
reached.Furthermore,thetreatycontainednoprovisionstocreatearepresentative
governmentinPalestine.Instead,themandatorygovernment,undertheleadershipofthehigh
commissioner,retainedcontrolofvirtuallyallpower.Noteworthyaboutthistreatyisits
inclusionoftheBalfourDeclaration,promisingtocreateaJewishhomewithinMandatory
Palestine.ThisagainreaffirmsthattheUnitedKingdom’sintensionsfromthebeginningofthe
mandateperiodtoestablishanIsraelistateinPalestine.
Palestine’sfirstfewyearsundertheBritishmandatewererelativelypeacefulwithjusta
fewscatteredriots.Thetensionbegantoescalatein1928,however,whenriotsbrokeatthe
WailingWallfollowedbyseveralmoretheyearafter.Moreover,withJewishimmigrants
continuingtoarriveandpurchasingPalestinianlands,shiftingpopulationdemographics
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becameaseriouscauseofconcernforthePalestinianswhofearedtheywouldbeoutnumbered
bytheirJewishneighbors.
ThetensionscontinuedtointensifyresultingintheArabuprisingof1936-1939.The
revoltsbeganinthesummerof1936witharmedresistance,mainlyinthecentralandnorthern
regionsofPalestine.BritishandArableadersintervenedlaterintheyear,resultingina
temporaryhalttotheuprisings.In1937,thePeelCommissionproposedthePartitionPlan,
whichrecommendedlimitingJewishimmigrationto12,000ayearforfiveyearsandthe
creationofaplantodividePalestineintoanArabandIsraelistatethatistobefacilitatedwith
populationtransfers.However,neithertheArabsnorBritishreceivedthisplanwith
enthusiasm,andtheuprisingsbrokeoutagainin1938.Therevoltsfinallyendedwhenthe
BritishincreasedtheirmilitarypresenceinPalestinein1939.
WiththearrivalofWorldWarIIcameanewsetofquestions.Asaresultofthe
escalatingpersecutionofJewsinEasternEurope,increasingnumbersofJewswereemigrating
fromtheirhomes.UnabletosustaintherapidinfluxofJewishrefugees,Palestinebecamethe
idealsolutiontohelpalleviatepressureonothercountries.Thus,duringthecourseofWorld
WarII,theinternationalcommunityincreaseditseffortstocreateaJewishstateinPalestine.
In1947theUnitedKingdomrealizeditcouldnolongermaintainitsmandateover
Palestine,sotheyhandedovercontroloftheregiontotheUnitedNations.TheUnitedNations
SpecialCommissiononPalestine,whichwassenttoreviewthesituation,proposedtopartition
thelandintoArabandJewishstates.However,theplanwasrejectedbytheArabsonthe
groundsthat“injusticeinonecase[…]couldnotberemediedbyinjusticeinanother”(Krämer
307).Nonetheless,theUNGeneralAssemblyvotedinfavorofthepartitionplan,butbeforeit
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couldbeimplemented,civilwarbrokeoutPalestine.Asaresultofthe“foodshortagesandthe
senseofmilitaryvulnerabilityandisolationcausedbythepresenceofJewishsettlementson
thecity’saccessroads”and“theconcomitantbreakdownoflawandorder,”manyArabsfled
duringthisperiod(Morris44).ByMarch1948,over75,000Arabswereeitherinternally
displacedorhadfledthecountryaltogether.
BetweenAprilandMayof1948,theHaganah,ortheJewishparamilitaryinPalestine,
launchedPlan“D,”changingtheirstrategyfromadefensivepositiontooffense.Withthisshift
instrategy,theirplanwastotakeoverlandsgiventothembythepartition.Consequently,
manyofthevillagesandtownsborderingJewishlandsweredestroyedanditsinhabitants
drivenoutduringthisperiod.InMay1948,thedateoftheestablishmentofthestateofIsraeli
warbrokeoutbetweenthetwogroupswhichlasteduntilspringof1949.Thenumberof
refugeesbetweenJune1946toMay1948aloneamountedtoapproximately711,000people.
Pre-1967Palestiniandiasporicnarratives:Al-Nakba
SimilartotheSudanese,manyoftheearlyPalestiniandiasporicproductionsemphasizeonthe
refugees’flightexperience.InGhassanKanafani’sshortstory“TheLandoftheSadOrange,”for
example,afamilyisforcedtofleefromtheirhomesintheaftermathofanIsraeliattackon
theircity,Acre.ThefamilydepartedfromAcrebycar,andassuch,theirjourneywasnotas
physicallystrenuousastheSudanese.Nonetheless,thestorydepictstheemotionally
excruciatingexperienceofleavingone’shomeland.Inparticular,thisisapparentwhenthe
familyarrivesattheborder—whentherealityoftheirsituationfinallydawnsonthem,“I
startedweepinginaloudsharpway.Yourmotherwasstilllookinginsilencetotheoranges.In
yourfather’seyeswerethereflectionofalltheorangetreeshehadleftbehindfortheIsraelis,
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allthecleanorangetreeshehadplantedonebyoneglitteredinhisface.Hefailedtostopthe
tearsthatfilleduphiseyes,whenfacingthepoliceheadofficer”(“TheLandoftheSad
Oranges”).Beyondthedespairofleavingthehomeland,Kanafanialsodepictsaspiritual
depletionassociatedwiththejourney—thatwhenthefamilydrivesacrosstheborder,they
somehowlostpartsofthemselvesintheprocess:“Theroadabsorbedusamongmanyother
things.Yourfathersuddenlybecameolderthanbefore,helookedasifhedidn’tsleepforalong
time”(“TheLandoftheSadOranges”).
Asidefromtheemotionaltraumaofleavingone’shomeland,Kanafani’snovellasalso
depicttheviolenceandchaossurroundingthePalestinians’departure.In“TheLandoftheSad
Orange,”asthefamilywasdrivingawayfromAcre,“fromadistance,weheardthesoundof
gunshotsasifgreetingusfarewell”(“TheLandoftheSadOrange”).In“ReturntoHaifa,”
Kanafaniillustratesasimilar,thoughlessromanticized,sceneofamobofPalestinians
attemptingtofleeatonce:“Theskywasonfire,cracklingwithshots,bombsandexplosions,
nearandfar.Itwasasthoughtheverysoundsthemselveswerepushingeveryonetowardthe
port”(Palestine’schildren155).Whiletheseal-Nakbanarrativespermeatethroughoutearly
literature,aftertheSix-DayWar,thesestoriesbegintogivewaytolandnarrativewhichserves
twopurposes:1)tovalidatethePalestinians’claimtothelandand2)topreservethememory
ofhomeamongthoseinexile.Idiscusstheformerpurposeinthisnextsectionandthelatterin
chapterthree.
Post-1967Palestiniandiasporicnarratives:Theland
ThePalestiniansituationisdistinctfrommanyotherrefugeegroupsinhistorybecausetheir
storyissituatedinawell-knownbiblicalnarrative.ReferringtoPalestineasCanaan,thestory
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portraysCanaanitesasbarbaricidolatersandrefertothelandastheJews’“PromisedLand.”
CanaanfirstappearsintheBibleinGenesiswhenGodcallsAbramto“gofromyourcountry,
yourpeopleandyourfather’shouseholdtothelandIwillshowyou”(HolyBible:New
InternationalVersion,Genesis12:1).Later,inLeviticus,Godjustifiestheexpulsionbyciting
theirimmorality:“Donotdefileyourselvesinanyoftheseways,becausethisishowthenations
thatIamgoingtodriveoutbeforeyoubecamedefiled.Eventhelandwasdefiled;soIpunished
itforitssin,andthelandvomitedoutitsinhabitants”(Leviticus18:24-25).
Inthe20thcentury,Zionistsemployasimilar“PromisedLand”narrativetopromote
theiragendainPalestine,arguingthatbecauseoftheirancestors’tieswiththeregion,theland
isrightfullytheirs.Furthermore,inregardstothemassPalestinianexodusin1948,Israelisclaim
that“theArabsfledvoluntarily(notunderJewishcompulsion)and/orthattheywere
asked/orderedtodosobytheirPalestinianandArabstates’leaders”(Morris1).Theycontend
thattheeasewithwhichtheArabslefttheirhomessuggeststheirlackofconnectionwiththe
landinthefirstplace.Inresponse,PalestiniandiasporicculturalproductionsofferacounternarrativethatlegitimizesthePalestinians’connectionandownershipoftheland.
AfirstargumentthatPalestinianproductionsusetovalidatetheirconnectionwiththe
landistheclaimthattheyandtheirfamilieshavehistoricallybeencaringfortheland.InBorna
Refugee,DixianeHallajdepictsastoryoftwowomenwho,becauseoftheiroldage,areno
longerabletocarefortheirolivegrovesanylonger.Asthemaincharacterandcommunity
activist,Aliexclaims,“Iftheycan’tgettheirolivegrovestendedandthecropharvested,their
landwillbedeclaredabandonedpropertyandtheIsraeliswilltakeitandbuildanother
settlement.Itisn’tfair!”(Hallaj33).ThisstorylinedirectlycontraststheBiblicalnarrativein
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whichGodpromisestotheIsraelite,“WhentheLordyourGodbringsyouintothelandhe
sworetoyourfathers,toAbraham,IsaacandJacob,togiveyou—alandwithlarge,flourishing
citiesyoudidnotbuild,housesfilledwithallkindsofgoodthingsyoudidnotprovide,wellsyou
didnotdig,andvineyardsandolivegrovesyoudidnotplant—thenwhenyoueatandare
satisfied,becarefulthatyoudonotforgettheLord,whobroughtyououtofEgypt,outofthe
landofslavery”(Deuteronomy6:10-12).Inthispassage,thereisnoreferencetothebuilders
andfarmers—itsimplystatesinthepassivevoicethatthehouseswerealreadybuiltandthe
landsalreadyfarmed.Tocounterthisnarrative,BornaRefugeereemphasizesthePalestinians’
investmentofsweatandtearstodeveloptheagriculturalindustryinPalestineandthatany
“abandonment”waslikelyaresultofIsraeli’spolicyonlandownership.Bytellingthisstory,
HallajgivesthepassiveBiblicalnarrativeasubject,therebyhumanizingtheirpresencewithin
theBiblicalstoryline.
Secondly,PalestinianproductionsclaimthattheyknowthelandbetterthantheIsraelis,
whoaredepictedastooreliantontechnology.ThisisapparentinthefilmWeddinginGalilee
whenafterhavinglostaprizedpurebredracehorseinaminefield,Palestinianvillagersand
Israelisoldiersworkedtogethertodirectthehorsebacktosafety.Thesoldiersinitially
attemptedtoleadthehorseoutofthefieldbyfiringshotsatit,promptingittoruninacertain
direction.However,beingdistressedbytheshots,thePalestinianownerinsteadaskedthe
soldierstogivehimthedirections,andhewouldnavigatethehorsehimself.Insteadofusing
bullets,theownerbeganwhistlingtodirectthehorseoutofthefield.TheIsraelisoldiers
reactedwithstunnedsilencewhenthehorseobeyedhisowner’scallsandsafelyexitedthe
minefield(WeddinginGalilee).OneofthereasonsPalestiniansfaredsopoorlyisbecausethe
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JewshadbroughtfromEuropemoreadvancedtechnologyandweaponry.Inthisstory,
Palestinianscontinueplayingonthetechnologically-advancedversusorganicimage.However,
insteadofdepictingthemselvesasinferiorinlightoftheJews’superiortechnology,theyargue
thattheJews’relianceontechnologyisitselfatestamentoftheiraloofnessfromtheland.
Lastly,athirdclaimPalestinianproductionsrelyonistheirdeeplovefortheland,
oftentimesevenpersonifyingthelandtobeanextensionoftheirfamily.InSusanAbulhawa’s
novelMorningsinJenin,whenYehya,thepatriarchofafamilylivinginexileforfiveyears,
realizedthatthehopesofreturninghomewereslim,hedecidedtomakethedangerous
journeybackbyhimself.Uponhisarrivalhome,he“roamedhisfields,greetinghiscarobandfig
treeswiththeexcitementofamanreunitingwithhisfamily”(Abulhawa43-44).Incontrastto
Yehya’saffectionfortheland,theJewsweredepictedascluelessandincompetent:“’Those
peopledon’tknowadamnthingaboutolives.They’relily-skinnedforeignerswithno
attachmenttotheland.Iftheyhadasenseofthelandthenthelandwouldcompelinthema
lovefortheolives,’”(Albulhawa46).NotonlyarePalestiniansdepictedasbeingmore
knowledgeableintermsofagriculture,thisfamiliaritygiveswaytoadeeploveforthelandas
well.ThePalestinians’affectionstandsincontrasttotheJewswhoaredepictedasforeigners
becausetheyhaveonlyrecentlybegunsettlinginPalestine.Moreover,thisnarrativehighlights
theoutdated-nessoftheJews’claimtotheland—thoughthelandatonepointbelongedtothe
Jews,theyhavefailedtomaintaintheirrelationshipwithitthroughouttheirmillenniainexile.
Theexamplesgivenaboveareonlyafewinstancesinwhichweseethemotifof
agriculturepermeatingPalestiniandiasporicliterature.However,whilemanyPalestinian
refugeescomefromruralareas,particularlyasaresultoftheJewishimplementationofPlan
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“D”duringAprilandMayof1948,manyothersfledfromurbancenterssuchasHaifaaswell.
Why,then,doesagricultureemergesofrequentlywithinliterature?WhyisthePalestineofthe
mindtypicallyportrayedasruralandagriculturally-dependentwhenalargesegmentofthe
displacedpopulationalsofledfromurbanareas?Isuggesttwopossibleexplanations:First,the
relationshipfarmershavewiththeirlandismuchmoreintimatethancitydwellers.Thus,by
depictingthePalestinians’strongagriculturalrelationshipwiththelandand,incontrast,the
Jews’incompetencyinmaintainingit,theculturalproductionsdrawasharpdistinction
betweenPalestiniansastherightfulinhabitantsandJewsasmerelyforeigners.Secondly,the
themeofagricultureemergedwithinPalestiniandiasporicculturalproductionsatthesame
timethatJewsbeganurbanizingpartsofPalestine.Thisurbanizationcameatacostfor
PalestiniansasvillageswereoftendestroyedtomakeroomforJewishexpansion.By
emphasizingthePalestinians’strongruralidentity,theseculturalproductionshighlightthatnot
onlywasJewishurbanizationtakingovertheirlands,buttheJewishdestructionofPalestinian
agriculturewasanattempttowipeoutPalestinianheritageaswell.
Conclusion
CurrentdiscussionaboutrefugeesfocusongroupssuchastheSudaneseandSyrianswhoare
fleeingtheirhomesasaresultofcivilwarbuthavenotlosttheirnationality.Unfortunately,
statelessrefugeegroupsliketheKurdsandPalestiniansareoverlookedbecauseofthe
unique—andoftenhighly“politicized”—natureoftheirsituation.Assistanceforthefirstgroup
takestheformofhumanitarianassistanceandpoliticalpressuretoendtheviolencewithin
theircountries.Forthesecondgroup,aidbecomesmuchmorecomplexbecausetheyare
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seekingthecreationofanation-statethatwillgivethemasenseof—anoutcometheydesire
perhapsmorethanimmediatehumanitarianassistance.
Assuch,thenarrativesthesetwogroupsconveyarequitedistinct.TheSudanese
narrativedepictsanOdyssey-likejourneyexperiencethroughwhichtheymustovercome
challengesagainstnatureandhumans,ultimatelyprovingthattheyare,indeed,worthyof
assistance.ThePalestinianstoryline,ontheotherhand,thoughinitiallydepictstheevents
surroundingal-Nakba,ultimatelyevolvestobecomealandnarrative.Theselaternarratives
validateandcelebratetheirtieswiththelandandemphasizethelabortheyhaveinvested,
theirknowledgeofagricultureandtheiraffectionfortheland.Ultimately,thisnarrativespeaks
notjusttotheconnectionmodern-dayPalestinianshavewiththeregionbutalsotheirancestral
historyofcultivatingtheland,makingittheagriculturallythrivingregionitistoday.Unlikethe
Sudanesenarrativeinwhichtheultimategoal—home—isvague,Palestiniansreiteratethat
homewillalwaysbethelandoftheirancestors.Theyadvocatenotonlyforthereturntobut
alsotherestorationoftheirhomeland.
Thesestorylineswithindiasporicproductionsfromthetwogroupsarenotsurprising,
giventheirrefugeeexperiences.FortheSudanese,themostdifficultaspectoftheirexperience
wastheflight—theyhadtotravelthousandsofmiles,enduringtheextremeconditionsoftheir
journeyforseveralmonthsbeforefinallyreachingtherefugeecamps.Becausethosedisplaced
weretypicallyfromvillages,theywereforcedtoendurethejourneywithverylittle,ofany,
resources—somewithhardlyanyclothesontheirbacks—havingtomakeduewiththe
resourcesgiventothemalongtheway.Onthecontrary,Palestiniansgenerallydidnothaveas
difficultanexperiencefleeingfromtheirhomes.Mostofthosewhofledhadthemeanstofund
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theirownjourneys,andoftentimes,formajorurbancenters,transportationwasarrangedto
assistwithevacuationinanticipationofJewishattacks.Themostchallengingaspectofthe
Palestinianexperiencewas,oncetheyreachedrefugeecampsinthesurroundingcountries,the
realizationthattheymightneverbeabletoreturn.PalestinianrefugeecampsandUNRWA
weresupposedtobetemporarysolutionstothePalestinianproblem.However,almostseventy
yearslater,boththerefugeecampsandUNRWAstillexist,andthePalestinianissueremains
unresolved.
WhileSudaneserefugees,whohaveahomelandtoreturnto,havethelibertytoadapt
theirdefinitionofhomedependingontheircircumstances,Palestiniansdonothavethis
freedom.AcquiringanewnationalityforthePalestiniansisequivalentofgivingupontheir
struggleforanautonomoushomeland.Thisiswhy,evenafternearlyseventyyearsofexile,
PalestinianscontinuewritingabouttheirhomelandwhereasSudaneseproductionstendto
concludewithanoteofoptimism—ahopefulnessforthefutureanddesiretomakethemostof
theirnewhome.
SudanandPalestineareonlytwocasestudieswithinthelargergroupsofrefugeeswith
nationalityandthosewithout.Theirnarrativesbynomeansarerepresentativeoftheselarger
groupsofrefugees.Infact,Sudaneserefugeesareamongthegroupswiththeleastresourcesin
comparisontootherrefugeegroups.ThePalestiniancaseisuniquebecausemoresothan
others,theirstoryisshapedbythenarrativecontoursthathaveshiftedovermillenniaasa
resultoftheirhistoricstrugglewithJews/biblicalIsraelites.Nonetheless,throughthesecase
studies,wecanbegintoidentifytrendsthatemergeamongthesetwodistinctsubcategoriesof
refugees.Tofurthersolidifythisanalysisondiasporicplots,morecasestudiesshouldbe
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examined,inparticularexploringtheroleofclass,religionandraceinshapingthestorylines
thatemerge.
Throughoutthischapter,Ihavefocusedonhownationalstatus—whetherrefugees
belongtoarecognizedstate—affectthestorylinesthatemerge.However,nationalstatus
influencesmorewithinPalestinianandSudanesediasporicproductionsthanplotalone.Inthe
nextchapter,Iexpandonthisdiscussionbyexamininghownationalstatusinfluencesthe
narrativeformsanddevicesemployedbySudaneseandPalestiniandiasporiccultural
productions,therebyimpactingnotjustthetypesofstoriesthatrefugeestellbuthowthey
relaythesestoriesaswell.
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ChapterTwo:DiasporicNarratives
Storiescannotbeseenassimplyreflectinglifeaslived,butshouldbeseenascreative
constructionsorinterpretationsofthepast,generatedinspecificcontextsofthe
present.–MaritaEastmond,“StoriesasLivedExperience”
Asmuchasrefugeesemploytheirnarrativestoasaformofagency—givingthemselvesvoicein
themidstofadominantstorylinethatdoesnotincludetheirperspective,refugeestoriesalso
donotexistinisolationawayfromthepubliceye.Assuch,theirstoriesaregreatlyshapedby
audienceandthepurposewhichtheyserveinthecollectivemovement.AsMaritaEastmond
argues,“Recountingthesameexperienceforadifferentpurpose,asinanasylumhearingwith
amoreskepticalaudienceassessingthestorywithadifferentsetofcriteria,wouldnecessarily
affectthenarration,requiringamorestrategicpresentationofself”(Eastmond250).Stemming
fromtheirdifferenceinnationalstatus,theprocesswherebyPalestiniansandtheSudanese
becamerecognizedasrefugeesalsodiverges.ForPalestinians,refugeestatusisautomatically
giventothoseoutsideoftheslowlydeclining(andpresently,completelydisappeared)
autonomousPalestinianlands.TheSudanese,ontheotherhand,havetoapplyforrefugee
status.Assuch,theyareessentiallytaskedwithconvincingtheUNHCRthroughtheirpersonal
storiesthattheywereindeedfleeingfrompersecutionandthusmeritingrefugeestatus.Years
aftertheorganizationcommissionedrefugeestatustothesegroups,theseexpectations
continuetoshapethenarrativesthatemergetoday.
AnotherdifferencebetweenPalestinianandSudanesediasporicexperiencesisthe
continuityoftheirstruggles.TheSudanesestruggleforindividualsurvivalwasprimarily
confinedtotheirflightfromSudan.Afterarrivingattherefugeecampsandlaterresettlement,
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theymoreorlessexperiencesomesortofsecurity,andthemajorchallengestheyface—
education,finances,etc.—nolongerrevolvearoundtheissueofsurvival.Onthecontrary,the
Palestinianstruggletoreturntothehomelandisanongoingbattlethatwillcontinuetopersist
untilsuchaPalestinianspaceiscreated.Consequently,Palestinianwritersandproducersare
underthedemandbythePalestiniancommunitytocreateworksthatrepresentthecontinued
battlefornationalrecognition.
Inthischapter,Iaddresshowboththesedifferences—narrativeexpectationsand
continuityofstruggle—impacthowrefugeesmobilizenarrativeformsanddeviceswithintheir
productions.Inthefirsthalfofthischapter,IdiscusshowUNHCRexpectationshaveshaped
SudanesenarrativesevenafterresettlementincontrasttoPalestiniannarrativeswhich
generallyarenotexpectedtoconformtoanestablishedstructuralframework.Inthesecond
half,IexplorehowtheprolongedPalestinianstrugglehasimpactedPalestiniannarratives,
comparingthemtoSudaneseworkswhichdepictastruggleconfinedwithinaperiodoftime.I
concludewithadiscussionofhownationalstatusdrivesthetypesofnarrativesandnarrative
devicesthatappearwithindiasporicproductions.
Narrativeexpectations
UnlikePalestinianswhoareautomaticallyconsideredrefugeesupondeparturefromtheir
homesandfallundertheprotectionofUNRWA,Sudaneseasylumseekersneedtoapplyto
acquirerefugeestatus.Inaccordancewiththedefinitionsetoutbythe1951Refugee
Convention,inorderforrefugeestatustobegranted,theasylumseekers’storiesmustprovide
convincingevidencethat1)theyarefleeingfromfearofpersecutionasaresultofrace,
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religion,nationality,membershipofaparticularsocialgrouporpoliticalopinionandasaresult,
2)areunwillingorunabletoreturntotheircountryasaresultthisfear.
ThedocumentaryTheArtofFlightonSudaneseasylumseekersinCairodescribesthe
refugeeapplicationprocessasconvolutedandtheoutcomesarbitrary.Inthedocumentary,
BarbaraHarrel-Bond,theco-funderofRefugeeLegalAidinCairo,comments,“Refugeesdon’t
knowhowtomaketheirownargumentsforrefugeestatus,sotheyneedtoberepresented,
theyneedtohavesomeonewriteuptheirtestimony.[…]Theyneedtohavelegalarguments
fortheircase.”Unfortunately,becausemanyrefugeesdonothaveaccesstosuchlegaladvice,
theirapplicationsaredenied—notbecausetheirexperienceswereinvalidbutrather,because
theirstorieswerenotcommunicatedeffectively.InaninterviewwithKikeBayin,anasylum
seekerwhowasdeniedrefugeestatus,whenaskedwhyhebelievedhisapplicationwas
rejected,heresponded,“Idon’tthinkUNHCRbelievedme.Theymusthavethoughtmycase
wasweak”(TheArtofFlight).Beyondthechallengesofeffectivelycommunicatingtheirstories,
duringtheapplicationprocessrefugeesalsoencounterthearbitrarinessofbureaucracy.Alitair
Boulton,aUNHCRresettlementofficerhimselfadmitsthisunpredictability,“Iacknowledgethat
tosomeextentwhetherornotyouwererecognizedasarefugeewasafunctionoftiming”(The
ArtofFlight).Refugees,then,arenotonlytaskedwithretellingtheirnarratives,buttheyalso
mustconveytheirstoriesinaconvincingmannertoUNHCRresettlementofficers.The
simultaneousambiguityoftheapplicationprocessyettheprecisenessoftherefugeecriteria
haslikelyplayedalargeroleinshapingtheSudanesenarrativesthatemerged,notonlyin
standardizingthestoriesasIhaveexaminedinthepreviouschapterbutalsoimpactingthe
narrativeformsanddevicesemployed.
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Narrativeforms
IncontrasttoPalestinianworkswhichtakeavarietyofformsrangingfrompoetry/proseto
shortstories,Sudaneseproductionsgenerallyappearasnovelsormemoirs.Onefactorthat
contributestothisdivergenceinnarrativeformsislevelofeducation.WhereasearlyPalestinian
diasporicwriterswerelargelyintellectualsandtrainedinliteratureandculture,Sudanese
writersdidnotreceivethesamelevelofeducation.ThoughSudaneserefugeecampsprovided
somesomeformofschooling,manyoftherefugeesdidnothavetheopportunitytoseriously
pursuetheireducationuntilresettlement.Assuch,Sudanesediasporicproductions—
particularlythosewrittenbytherefugeesthemselves—arefairlysimple,plainlycommunicating
thevariousphasesoftheirrefugeejourney.Creativeexpressionwithintheseworksare
minimallyusedsimplybecauseitrequiresadeeperknowledgeofEnglishlanguagethatthe
refugeeshadnotyetacquired.Theoneworkinwhichweseeagreaterlevelofcreativityis
WhatistheWhat,whichemploysflashbackstoillustrateAchak’srefugeeexperience,was
entirelywrittenbyAmericanauthorDaveEggers,confirmingthispoint.
Thougheducationmayappeartobedisconnectedtonationalstatus,inactualityittoo
hasrootsinthenatureoftherefugees’experience.InthecaseofPalestine,thecollectiveloss
ofnationalityresultedinanentirepopulationbecomingrefugeesofsomesort—eitheroutside
ofPalestine/IsraelorwithinOccupiedPalestinewhichisnotrecognizedasastate.Asaresult,
thepeoplewhocarriedthismovementwerethosewhowerealreadypoliticallyinvolved—the
intellectuals,thosefromwell-knownfamilieswhohadaccesstohighereducationeveninexile.
Incontrast,thesituationinSudanonlyaffectedcertainsegmentsofthepopulationwiththe
lowerclassexperiencingthegreatestburdenandtheeliteminimallyaffected.Assuch,itis
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apparentthatnationalitystatus—andmorespecifically,whethertheentirepopulationwas
displacedoronlyasegment—affectseducationlevelamongrefugees,inparticularcreatinga
distinctionbetweenthevoicesofeachdiasporicmovement.Thesedifferencescan,inturn,
impacttheformsofnarrativesformsthatemerge.
Beyonddisparitiesineducationlevel,expectationsoftheUNHCRandhumanitarian
organizationsareanotherdrivingforcebehindthesedifferentnarrativeforms.Unlike
Palestinians,inorderforSudanesestoriestobeconsidereddiasporicnarratives,theyare
expectedtodepicttheatrocitiestherefugeeshaveexperiencedinordertoconvinceoutsiders
oftheir“refugee-ness.”Further,virtuallyallSudanesewritersareresettledrefugeesadvocating
notonlyforincreasedaidbutalsotheresettlementofotherrefugees.Assuch,Sudanese
diasporicwritersmustdepictaresolution,oratleastthebeginningsofoneintheirstoryin
ordertoillustratethatresettlementisaviablesolutionandgivereasontowhyotherSudanese
asylumseekersshouldbegiventhesameopportunity.ThesemotivationsgiverisetowhatI
havediscussedbeforeasthejourneynarrative—aseriesofchallengesfollowedbyaresolution.
Giventhisplotstructure,novelsandmemoirsareoftenemployedbecausetheygenerally
followasimilarstorylineprogression.Thoughpoetryattimesnarratesanextendedplot(epic
poetry,forexample),morecommonlypoemsdepictemotionasopposedtorecountingastory.
Assuch,Sudaneseproductionstendtoemploynarrativesandmemoirsbecausethosearethe
meansmostconventionallyusedtoillustrateOdyssey-likenarrativessuchastheirs.Onthe
otherhand,becausePalestiniannarrativesarenotexpectedtoconformtoaspecificstoryline
solongastheycontributetothenationalstruggle,Palestinianwritersandproducershavemore
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spaceforcreativityintheirworks.Thusemergesthewiderrangeofdiasporicproductions
amongPalestinianrefugees.
Victimnarratives
Intermsofnarrativedevices,oneofthemostwidely-usedwithinbothSudaneseand
Palestinianproductionsisthevictimnarrative.FrancescaPollettainherbookItWasLikeA
Feveronstorytellinginactivismconsiderstheconceptofvictimnarrativesandthewidely-held
beliefthat“representingoneselfasavictim[…]cannotbutdiminishone’ssenseofagency.”
Contrarythispopularassumption,Pollettaarguesthat“toclaimoneselfavictimisnot
necessarilytotradeagencyforpassivity”(Polletta111).Furthermore,“withtherightnarrative
tools,disadvantagedgroupstodaymaybeabletostylevictimsasguidestothesocialbasesof
inequality”(140).Assuch,victimnarrativesneednotremainpowerlessstoriesofoppression
butrather,theycanbemobilizedtocombatthesocialinjusticesthatcreatedvictimsofthese
individualsinthefirstplace.
BothPalestinianandSudanesediasporicculturalproductionsdepictrefugeesasvictims
ofanunjustforce,whetheritisasaresultofIsraeliaggressionortwocivilwars.Thoughboth
setsofproductionsmobilizevictimnarratives,theydifferinhowtheyconstructthediasporic
victimidentity.PalestinianworkstendtodepictPalestinianrefugeesashighlypoliticizedand
aggressivewhereasSudaneseproductionsillustrateaninnocentanddocileSudaneserefugee
identity.
Onewayinwhichthisdistinctionemergesisthroughhoweachgroup’sproductions
depictchildren.Stereotypically,childrenareasymbolofpurity,oftendepictedasapolitical.
Indeed,Sudanesenarrativesfollowthisinnocentidentityconstruction:“Wewere,inmany
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cases,tooyoungtoknowwhatthese[tribal]distinctionsmeant,butevenifwewereaware,we
hadbeentaughtandhadagreedtosetasideoursupposeddifferences”(Eggers49).Within
Palestinianproductions,however,evenyoungchildrenbecomeinvestedinthePalestinian
nationalmovement.InthedocumentaryJeninJenin,forexample,ayounggirlwhohadgrown
upattheJeninrefugeecampswearstotakeupthePalestiniancauseevenifitcostsherlife:
“Proudaseagleswewilllive.Erectaslionswewilldie”(Jenin,Jenin).Similarly,thenovelBorna
RefugeeillustratesyoungboysintheKalandiarefugeecampthrowingrocksatsoldiersand
tanks.ThoughtheyknowthattheyarenomatchagainstIsraelisoldiers,throwingrocks
nonethelessbecomesawayforthechildrentoengageinthePalestinianstruggleadifferent
way:“Inastraightbulletsversusstonesbattle,bulletswineverytime,butthere’sanotherwar
thatwe’veignoredfordecades.Thisisthewarforattention[…]Wejustgotobserverstatusin
theUnitedNations.Wedidn’tgetthatbysittingandwaiting;wegotitbecausewemadenoise,
andpeoplearenoticing”(Hallaj3).Onthecontrary,Sudaneseproductionsnotonlydepoliticize
victimnarrativesbutalso,byprimarilydocumentingtheexperiencesofrefugeechildren,these
productionspreservethesenseofinnocencethroughouttheirnarratives.
SimultaneoustothevictimidentitieswithinSudaneseandPalestiniannarratives,a
senseofagencyalsoemergesthroughbothproductionsinwhichdespitetheatrocitiesthey
haveendured,therefugeesnonethelesscontinuetousetheirstoriestoadvocatefortheir
respectivecauses.However,distinctivebetweenthesetwosetsofproductionsisthewayin
whichagencymanifestsitselfwithinandthroughtherefugeenarratives.
ForPalestinians,diasporicproductionsareameansbywhichPalestiniansempower
themselves.WithinthepoliticalbattletopreservethePalestinianidentity,theirstorieshave,in
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asense,becomeweaponsthroughwhichtheyhopetoovercomeIsrael’smilitarydominance.In
AbsentPresence,DarwishadmonishesbothhimselfandthePalestinianpeopletocontinue
wieldingtheirwordsinordertocontinuefightingfortheplaceofPalestine:
Theplace,then,ispulledwiththeleashofexpression;bearit,asyoubearyour
name,notyourshadow,inyourimagination,notinasuitcase.Onlywordsare
qualifiedinthissunsettorepairthebreakagesofTimeandplace,tonamegods
whohaveignoredyouandplungedintotheirwarswithprimitiveweapons.
Wordsaretherawmaterialsforbuildingahouse.Wordsareacountry.(Absent
Presence61)
WithinthecontextofPalestinetoday,whichisoccupiedandlimitedtotheWestBankandthe
GazaStrip,culturalproductionshavebeenameansthroughwhichboththoselivingunder
Israelioccupationandthosewhohaveresettledelsewherecanmaintaintheirstruggleforthe
Palestiniancause.
Sudanesediasporicproductions,ontheotherhand,depictadifferentformof
empowerment.ForPalestinians,theirworkswereinternallyinitiatedinthemidstofacollective
struggletoreclaimtheirhistories.Incontrast,Sudaneseproductionsemergedwithin
collaborationsbetweenoutsidersandrefugees,andspecifically,theyareofteninitiatedbythe
outsider.InTheyPouredFireonUsFromtheSky,forexample,JudyBernsteinrevealsthatthe
ideatopublicallysharetherefugees’storieswasinitiallyhers:“Touchedbytheiraccountsand
outragedbythesituation,Iwanttheworldtohearoftheirtragicandremarkableexperiences
andtoknowwhatishappeninginSudan”(Dengetal.xxiii).Similarly,inWhatistheWhat,a
socialactivistandfounderoftheLostBoysFoundationMaryWilliamswas“thepersonwhofirst
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spoketo[producerBobbyNewmyer]abouttheideaofafeaturefilmonourlives”(Eggers165).
InTheLostBoy,BolwasinspiredbyretiredSouthAfricanteacherSannieMeiringtowritehis
autobiography:“Mystorytookmanyhourstotell,butwhenIhadfinished[Meiring]said,‘So,
Santino,whydon’tyouwriteabook?’[…]MaSannieofferedmetheuseofhercomputer.And
that’showIbeganwritingmybook”(Bol157).IncontrasttoPalestinianswhocreatedcultural
productionsinordertoforgeforthemselvesaninternationalvoice,theseSudaneserefugees’
storiesarenotonlyreadilyheardbutalsoadvocatedbyasympatheticandprivilegedoutsider.
DepictingSudaneserefugeesasbeinggivenagencyasopposedtotakingitthemselves
contributesto,asIdiscussedabove,theinnocentanddocileimageoftheserefugees,which
standsinstarkcontrasttoPalestinianrefugeeswhoaredepictedashighlypoliticalizedand
confrontational.
Continuityofstruggle
Interactionofrefugeeproductionsacrosstime
AsopposedtotheSudaneserefugeeswhoencounteredthemostchallengingaspectsoftheir
refugeeexperiencesduringtheirflightfromSudan,Palestinianshavecontinuedlivingthemost
difficultaspectoftheirrefugeeexperience—thehopelessnessoftheimpossibilityofreturn—
sincetheiroriginaldisplacement.Assuch,Sudanesediasporicproductionsworktoadvocatefor
SudanesecommunitiesunderthreatofattackinSudanorlivinginrefugeecamps.However,the
personalstruggleforthesewritersandproducersinmanywayshascometoacloseasthey
adjusttolifeintheirnewhome.Asaresult,Sudanesediasporicnarrativeshavesincecalcified—
reflectiveofadiasporicidentitynotofthepresent,butrather,ofthepast.Palestiniandiasporic
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narratives,ontheotherhand,representacontinuedstrugglewithinthecommunity.They
revealadiasporicidentitythat,contrarytotheSudaneseidentity,isconstantlysubjecttothe
testoftime.BecausethePalestinianstruggleremainsaliveevenaftersevendecades,the
Palestiniandiasporicidentityisconstantlybeingnegotiatedbythosewithinthecommunity.As
such,incontrasttoSudanesestories,Palestiniandiasporicnarrativesarefluid,subjectto
changeasaresultoftimeorchangeincircumstances.
Withinthisanalysis,Iemploythenarrativedeviceofcanonicityandbreach.Inthewords
ofPolletta,“Thebestfictionalnarratives[…]recallfamiliarplotlinesbutdepartfromthem”
(Polletta126).Brunerdiscussesthisconceptinfurtherdetail,claiming“thefunctionof
inventivenarrativeisnotsomuchto‘fabulate’newplotsastorenderpreviouslyfamiliarones
uncertainorproblematical,challengingareaderintofreshinterpretiveactivity”(Bruner13).In
somesense,canonicityandbreachdemonstrateofalevelofalivenessinthetextandwithin
thecommunityinwhichitissituated.Itsuggeststhatnotonlyarestoriesbeingpreservedbut
peoplearestillengagingwiththetextsaswell.
WithinSudanesediasporiccanon,anareaofdiscontentmentischaracterandvoice.
WhatistheWhatillustratesthiswithasceneinwhichSudaneserefugeesweregatheredata
conferencetodiscussafeaturefilmontheirrefugeejourneys:
Everyone[…]waslookingtoprotecttheirinterests.Therepresentativeoriginally
fromtheNubaregionofSudanwantedtomakesureNubawasproperly
represented.ThosefromBorwantedtomakesuretherewereprovisionsforthe
needsofthosefromBor.[…]TherewasaLostGirlpresent[…]andshewantedto
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knowwhatwouldbedoneforthefemalerefugeesofSudan.LostBoys!shesaid.
AlwaysLostBoys!WhatabouttheLostGirls?(Eggers166)
Oneofthemostcontentiouspointsinthisdisputeisinregardtogender.VirtuallyallSudanese
diasporicproductionsdepicttheflightoftheLostBoys.Asaresultofthisgenderdialogue,
somewritershavebeguntoincludewomenintotheirnarratives—anexampleisthefilmThe
GoodLiewhichdepictsthejourneysoffourrefugeestoAmerica,oneofthembeingawoman,
Tabitha.Ironically,evenwithinthisfilm,mostofthescreentimeisgiventodocumentthe
men’slivesbecauseTabithagetsresettledinadifferentcitythantherestofthegroup.
ProductionsdedicatedsolelytodocumenttheLostGirlsarenonexistent,acontroversialvoid
withinthissetofproductions.WithintheSudanesecommunity,thoughweseesomelevelof
engagementamongtherefugeesregardinghowtheircollectivediasporicnarrativeisconveyed,
thesedialogueshavebeenminimallyincorporatedintotheSudanesediasporiccanon,which
remainsfairlystagnant.
IncontrasttoSudaneseworkswhichtendtobeunchangingandfreestanding—thatis,
independentfromotherSudanesediasporicproductions—Palestinianworkscanoftenbeseen
indialogue,buildingoffofeachother.GhassanKanafani’sReturntoHaifaandSusan
Abulhawa’sMorningsinJeninprovideaparticularlycompellingexampleofcanonicityand
breach,bothworksdepictingthestoryofalostPalestinianson.InReturntoHaifa,SaidS.and
Safiyyalosetheirson,Khaldun,inthemidstofthechaosanIsraeliattack.Safiyya,whowas
stayingathomewithKhaldun,hadleftinsearchofherhusbandwhowasoutduringtheattack.
“HowmuchtimepassedbeforesherememberedthattheinfantKhaldunwasstillinhiscrib”
(Palestine’schildren156)?Whenshereturned,shefoundthecribwasempty—thatsomeone
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hadtakenherson.Shelaterdiscoveredthatinthemidstofthecommotion,“thedivorced
[Jewish]womanwholivedwithhersmallsononthethirdfloor,rightaboveSaidS.,hearda
soundcomingfromthesecondfloorofababyweaklingcrying”(170).Shetookthebabytocare
forhim.However,afterseveraldayswhensherealizedshecouldnolongercontinuetaking
custodyofhim,shepassedhimtheofficeoftheJewishAgencyinHaifa.Theorganization
offeredthechildtoIphratandMiramKoshenwhentheyrealizedthecoupledidnothave
childrenoftheirown.Inexchangeforadoptingthechild,theyalsoofferedthemahouse—Said
S.andSafiyya’shome.
ThoughMorningsinJeninandReturntoHaifaillustrateasimilarstoryline,onepointof
distinctionbetweenthetwoworksinvolvesthecircumstancessurroundingKhaldun’s
disappearance.ReturntoHaifadepictsalevelofambiguityconcerningKhaldun’s
disappearance—coulditbeconsideredasabandonmentifSafiyyawasplanningtoreturnor
wasittheftbecausetheIsraeliwomantookthechildwithoutanyattempttofindhisparents?
MorningsinJenin,incontrast,portraysthechild—Ismael/David—aswillfullystolenfromhis
motherbyMoshe,anIsraelisoldier:
HowcouldGoddeny[hiswife]theelementalgiftofmotherhoodwhile
grantingsomanyhealthychildrentoArabs,whowerealreadysonumerous?The
injusticeofitallsolidifiedinhimaresolvetotake—byforceifnecessary—
whateverwasneeded.
Afterthebombingthefollowingday,inthecrowdoffleeingvillagers,hesaw
thatArabwoman,herbabyheldtightlytoherchest,herdefiantanklebracelet
asprettyasshe.
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Moshemadehiswaytowardthecrowd,comingupbehindtheArabwoman.
Beforehereachedher,thethrobbingcrowdjostledthebabyfromherarms,into
thatfatefulinstant.Inaflash,Moshesnatchedthechild,tuckeditinhisarmy
sack,andkeptmovingwithoutlookingback.(Abulhawa37)
IncontrasttoKanafani’sversionwhichgavetheaudiencespacetointerpretthesituationon
Palestine,Abulhawa’snoveldirectlyestablishesatheftnarrative.Assuch,bybuildingon
Kanafani’swidely-knownnarrative,Abulhawanotonlymakesthestorymorerelevanttothe
Palestinianreader,butshealsoparticipatesinadialogueregardingal-Nakbathroughherwork.
WhilethelevelofinteractionbetweenPalestinianandSudaneserefugeeproductions
cannotbecomparedbecauseSudaneseworkshavenothadsubstantialtimetodevelop,this
nonethelessraisesthequestionofhowSudaneseproductionswillevolveinthefuture.Will
Sudaneseworkscontinuetoexpandoristhepresentwaveofworkssimplythat,awave?
Moreover,astheculturesurroundingSudanesediasporicproductionssolidifies,willfuture
worksattempttoengagewithpreviousproductionsorwilltheyremainstandinginisolation,
depictingafewrefugees’storieswithoutengagingwithSudanesediasporiccultureasawhole?
Incorporationofnarrativesfrompreviousmovements
NotonlydoPalestiniandiasporicproductionsrevealthevibrantcommunityamongPalestinian
refugeesandthecontinuityoftheirstruggleforthehomeland,theseworksalsorootthe
Palestinianmovementwithinahistoricalnarrativeofstatelessnessbybuildingonexisting
narratives.Brunerreferstothisasnarrativeaccrual,stating,“Whatcreatesaculture,surely
mustbea‘local’capacityforaccruingstoriesofhappeningsofthepastintosomesortof
diachronicstructurethatpermitsacontinuityintothepresent”(Bruner19-20).Revivingthe
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storiesofpaststatelessgroupsdemonstratesthetimelessnessofPalestiniandiasporic
narratives,simultaneouslyresilientagainstthetestoftimeandestablishedwithinatragic
historyofinjustice.
AsIclaimedinthepreviouschapter,manyPalestinianproductionsarestructuredas
counter-narrativestobiblicalIsraeli/Canaanitenarratives,legitimizingthePalestinians’claimto
theland.However,anothernarrativestrategythatPalestinianproductionsemployisusingthe
Canaanitenarrativetogivevoicetotheirexperiences.InDarwish’spoemOnaCanaanitestone
attheDeadSea,hequestionswhytheancientIsraeliteswereunabletolivepeacefullywiththe
Canaanitesbuthadtodrivethemoutoftheirhomes:
TaketheCanaanitewoman’sprayers
atthefeastofhergrapes.Takeourcustoms
ofirrigation.Takeourarchitecture.
Layasinglebrickandbuildup
atowerfordoves,tobeoneofus,
ifthat’swhatyoudesire.Beaneighbor
toourwheat.Takethestars
ofouralphabetfromus,stranger.[…]
Haveyoucome...thenmurdered...theninherited
inordertoincreasethesaltofthissea?(TheAdamofTwoEdens75-76).
DarwishportraystheCanaanitesaswillingtocoexistandwilingtocompromiseinordertodo
so.Yet,theIsraelitesweredissatisfiedanddespitetheoffersofgoodwill,murderedthe
Canaanitesandinheritedtheland.
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DarwishnotonlyusestheCanaanitevoice,buthispoetryalsoembodiesthatofother
statelessgroupsaswell.In“ElevenplantsinthelastAndalusiansky,”forexample,heusesthe
theplightoftheAndalusianMoorswhoafterthefallofGranadain1492wereforcedtoconvert
toChristianityorbeexiledbyFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainin1502.Acenturylater,these
convertedMoors—knownasMoriscos—werealsoexpelledbyKingPhillipIII:
Ihearthejanglingofkeys
inourgoldenhistory’sdoorway
Goodbyetoourhistory.[…]
Fivehundredyearscomeandgone,
andthebreakupisn’tcompletelyoverbetweenus!
Lettersneverstoppedpassingbackandformbetweenus,
warsneverchangedmyGranada’sgardens.(TheAdamofTwoEdens156-157)
NotonlydoesDarwishdepictthepainofleavingone’shomeland,buthealsoarguesthatthe
connectiontoone’shistoricalhomelandisapermanentrelationshipthatneithertimenor
distancecanbreach.
AnothergroupwhosenarrativeDarwishemploysistheNativeAmericanswhowere
collectivelydisplacedasaresultofAmerica’sbeliefinManifestDestiny,anideologynotmuch
differentfrommodern-dayZionism.In“SpeechoftheredIndian”Darwishwritesthefollowing:
“Webringyoucivilization,”saidthestranger.
“We’rethemastersoftime
cometoinheritthislandofyours
MarchinIndianfilesowecantallyyou
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onthefaceofthelake,corpsebycorpse.
Keepmarching,sotheGospelsmaythrive!
WewantGodalltoourselves
becausethebestIndiansaredeadIndians
intheeyesofourLord.”
TheLordiswhiteandthedayiswhite.(TheAdamofTwoEdens136)
BeyondcomparingtheNativeAmericanandPalestinianexpulsionexperiences,inthispoem
Darwishaddressestheissuesofreligionandrace.SimilartoManifestDestinywhichwas
interwovenwithChristianrhetoric,ZionismtooisstronglymarkedwithJudeo-Christian
ideology.Here,hecriticizesthewaybothmovementshaveusedChristiantheologytosupport
theiractsofviolence.Moreover,DarwishtakesitfurtherbyarguingthatZionistsand
AmericansemployintheircampaignsnotjustChristianitybutwhiteChristianity,makingitalso
anissueofracialoppression.
BydrawingonthenarrativesoftheancientCanaanites,theMoorsandNative
Americans,DarwishbothmobilizestheirvoicestotellthePalestinianstorywhilealsosituating
theplightofPalestinianrefugeeswithinthisgreaterhistoryofstatelessnessandoppression.It
illustratesthetimelessnessofthePalestinianstruggle—extendingasfarbackasBiblicaleraand
continuingeventothisday.
Conclusion
AsSudaneserefugeeliteraturecontinuestoemerge,thereappearstobeatrendtowardsmore
independenceinhowtheynarratetheirstories.WhileWhatistheWhatwascompletely
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writtenbyanAmerican,laterworkssuchasTheyPouredFireonUsFromtheSkyandTheLost
Boyshowmorecollaborationandautonomyinthewritingprocess.Asrefugeesappeartoown
theirstoriesmoreandhavetheopportunitytopursueeducation,productionsmaycontinueto
emergedepictingtheirindividualexperiences.However,whiletheymaycontinuetellingtheir
stories,theextenttowhichtheywillbeabletoacquireandmaintainanaudienceisuncertain.
InBruner’sdiscussionofcanonicityandbreach,hearguesthatinorder“tobeworthtelling,a
talemustbeabouthowanimplicitcanonicalscripthasbeenbreached,violated,ordeviated
frominamannertodoviolenceto[…]the‘legitimacy’tothecanonicalscript”(Bruner12).As
such,unlessfutureSudanesenarrativesareabletopresentadifferentaspectoftheir
experienceorotherwisebuildonthealready-establishedcanon,Iprojectthatthemomentum
createdbytheseearlyworkswillsubsideinthefollowingyears.
WhileconflictsarestillprevalentinSudan,theindependenceofSouthSudanhas,in
manyways,endedtheSudanesestruggle.TheSudanesestorythusconcludeswithan
encouragementfortheremainingSudanesetoreturnhome.InthewordsofSouthSudan’s
MinisterofInterior,BrigadierAleuAyienyAleu,“Weshouldcallourbrotherstoreturnto
Sudan.[…]Thereiswatertomakeyourlandagreenlandandyouwillbeabletofeedyourself”
("ReturnHomeNowPossibleforSouthSudan'sRefugeesinUganda”).Whiletheindependence
ofSouthSudancouldmarktheendofSudaneserefugeeproductions,perhapsinsteadofa
completediscontinuationoftheseworks,thiswillgiverisetoanewcanonemergingfromthe
previousworksontheSudaneserefugeeexperience.InTheLostBoy,Bolconcludeshis
narrativewithareturnhome,thoughatthattimeSouthSudanhadnotyetgainedits
independence.FutureworksontheSudanesemaycontinuetobuildonthis“return”storyline,
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potentiallydepictinghowindependencehas(orhasnot)affectedtheirperceptionoftheirold
homes.Forthosewhohaveresettled,perhapstheirproductionswillfollowthenarrativeofThe
GoodLie,depictingastoryoftheLostBoysovercomingtheoddstoattainwhatwasmost
precioustothem—aneducation.
WiththeSudaneseandotherrefugeegroupswhohavenationalstatus,thedisplacing
event—beitwarornaturaldisaster—tendstobemoreorlesstemporary.Sudaneserefugees
areananomalyinthattheircivilwarslastedforfivedecades.Yet,theirsituationnonetheless
cametoanend,whichwilllikelyresultineitheracompleteterminationoforashiftintheir
refugeeproductions.Palestinianproductionsalsodisplaysimilartransitionsintheirnarratives.
However,becausetheyfaceamuchmoreindefinitestruggle,theseshiftsmoresoreflectthe
politicalenvironmentsurroundingtheirhomeland—likethetransitionfromtheal-Nakba
narrativetoalandnarrativeintheaftermathoftheSix-DayWar.Interestingly,despitethese
shiftsinnarrativestorylines,Palestinianproductionsalso,asIhaveargued,haveatimeless
quality.Perhapsitisthesimultaneousenduringnatureandyetplasticityofthesenarratives
thatallowthemtopersistacrossgenerations,throughouttheshiftingenvironmentsin
Palestine.
Inthepasttwochapters,IhaveexaminedthenarrativeaspectsofSudaneseand
Palestiniandiasporicproductions,exploringhownationalstatusimpactsthestoryline,narrative
formsandnarrativedeviceswithintheseworks.However,thegoalofthisthesisisnotonlyto
investigatehowrefugeesmobilizetheirstoriesbutalsotostudywhattheseproductionsreveal
abouttheserefugeecommunities.Inthischapter,Iexploredthecommunitythatappears
amongsttheserefugeeproductionsbyanalyzinghowvariousworksinteractwitheachother.In
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thefollowingchapter,Ishifttofocusonthecollectiveidentitiesthatemergeamongthe
refugees,identifyingthedifferenttypesofcommunitiesthatappearandanalyzingthedriving
forcesbehindthesedifferences.
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ChapterThree:DiasporicCommunities
“Idon’tknowwhyI’msowidelyread,butIfindthattherearegenerationsof
Palestinianswhobecomeacquaintedwiththeirhomelandandtheirpastby
embodyingthescenesofmypoems.Mypoemsdonotdelivermereimagesand
metaphors,butdeliverlandscapes,villages,andfields,deliveraplace.Itmakesthat
whichisabsentfromgeographypresentinitsform.Thatis,oneisabletoresideinthe
poetictext,asifresidingonhisland.”–MahmoudDarwish,MahmoudDarwish(1997)
InmycomparisonofSudanesenarrativeswithOdysseyinchapterone,Idiscussedthe
individualityoftheSudaneserefugeeexperience—thoughtheyfleefromtheirhomesingroups,
theirsisastoryofindividualsurvival.Ontheotherhand,Palestinianproductions,whichworkto
legitimizetheirclaimtotheland,representastrugglefornationalsurvival.Already,itappears
thatthegroupstrivingfornationalrecognition—thePalestinians—aremorelikelytorelyona
greatersenseofcollectivenesswithintheirnarratives.However,inthischapterIcomplicate
thisdichotomythatemerges,arguingthatthoughrefugeeexperiencescanrangefrombeingan
individual’sstruggleforsurvivaltoanationalcampaignforrecognition,thesestoriesare
nonethelesssituatedwithinacollectiveframework.Despitehowindividualizedtherefugees’
experiencesare,theynonethelessarebeingdisplacedasacollective—asaresultofsimilar
causesandsubjecttosimilarfates.
Internally,thesecommunitiescanserveassourcesofphysical/emotionalsupport
wherebymemberscansharetheburdenofloss.Externally,communitiescanalsoactasaform
ofpoliticalleveragethroughwhichrefugeescanmobilizetheircollectivevoicetoaccomplisha
certainagenda—apoliticalpowerderivedfromtheirnumbers.Thischapterisdevotedtothe
explorationofwherecollectivenessemergeswithinPalestinianandSudaneseproductions.
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Throughoutit,Idrawonboththeinternalandexternalaspectsofdiasporiccommunitiesinmy
discussionofthecollectivethatemergeswithinPalestinianandSudanesediasporic
productions.Iendbydiscussingpotentialdrivingforcesforthedifferentcommunitiesthat
appearwithineachgroup’ssetofproductions.
Inthischapter,IrelyheavilyonhistorianandpoliticalscientistBenedictAnderson’s
conceptof“imaginedcommunities.”InhisinfluentialbookImaginedCommunities,heusesthis
termtodescribethemodernnation-state.Hedepictsthenationasimagined“becausethe
membersofeventhesmallestnationwillneverknowmostoftheirfellow-members,meet
them,orevenhearofthem,yetinthemindsofeachlivestheimageoftheircommunion”anda
communitybecause“regardlessoftheactualinequalityandexploitationthatmayprevailin
each,thenationisalwaysconceivedasadeep,horizontalcomradeship”(Anderson6-7).He
arguesthatthisnationalisticsentimentaroseasaresultofprintcapitalismwhichstandardized
languageswithincertainregions,creatingimaginaryborderswhichultimatelybecamethe
nation-state.RefugeesdonotfallintoAnderson’snation-stateparadigmbecausetheyhave
fledtheirhomelandbuthaveyettofullyintegrateintotheirhostcountries.However,theyalso
similarlycreatecommunities(andforthePalestinians,nationality)throughdiasporiccultural
productions.Assuch,Imobilizethisconcepttodiscusshownarrativesareemployedtocreate
andrenegotiatebordersamonggroupswhofalloutsideofthisnation-stateparadigm.
Palestine:Anationalcollective
ThePalestiniannationalidentityisarelativelyrecentphenomenonthat,asPalestinian
AmericanhistorianRashidKhalidiargues,hasbothlocalandArabroots(Khalidi19-21).Priorto
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theearly20thcenturyandasaresultofOttomanrulebetweentheyears1516to1918,
communitywithinPalestinewaslocally-centered.UndertheOttomanempire,local
communitiesoperatedwithahighlevelofindependence:“TheOttomanadministrativeunits
weremostlyrelevantforthepurposesoftaxcollection[…]Mostvillageandurbancommunities
appearedtotheirmembersandtooutsidersasautonomous,andthedefenseofthisautonomy
greatlymatteredtothem”(Krämer41,43).Simultaneously,thebordersofthePalestinian
collectivealsoextendedtoincludethelargerArabiccommunityaswell:“mostPalestinian
Arabshadnosenseofseparatenationalorculturalidentitytodistinguishthemfrom,say,the
ArabsofSyria,LebanonorEgypt”(Morris18).Assuch,uponthearrivalofthe20thcentury,the
Palestiniancollective—whileexistent—wasnotyetwell-defined.Nonetheless,duringthis
periodundertheOttomanempire,nationalistdialoguebegandevelopingamongPalestinian
communities,markingthebeginningsofanemergingPalestinianidentity.
Theyearsleadinguptoal-Nakbaandal-NakbaitselfultimatelysolidifiedthePalestinian
nationalidentity.SimilartohowtheexperiencesoftheHolocaustreinforcedtheJewish
collective,thecatastropheof1948toostrengthenedthePalestiniancommunity.Ironically,this
nationalidentity,thatwhichwassupposedtoholdtogetherapeoplewithinageopolitical
border,emergedstrongestasPalestinianswereleavingtheirhomeland.Fortheremainderof
thisdiscussiononthePalestiniancollective,IwillrelyonPalestiniandiasporiccultural
productionstoexploretheimaginedcommunitythatariseswithinthisgroup.
Palestineofthemind
Pickingupfrommydiscussioninchapteroneofthelandnarrativeswithinpost-1967Palestine,
anothermanifestationofthelandnarrativethatemergesduringthistimeisthecreationofthe
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imaginedhomeland—Palestineofthemind,whichisconstructedthroughtheuseofmemories
bythoseinexile.AftertheSix-DayWarwhenthehopeofreturnbegantofadeandPalestinians
weremorestrictlyprohibitedfromreturningtotheirhomes,thisimaginedhomeland
developedwithinliteratureasawaytopreservethememoriesofPalestine.Amongother
diasporicwritersandproducers,MahmoudDarwish—alsoknownasthePalestiniannational
poet—arguablydevelopsthisimaginedPalestinemostthoroughlywithinhisworks.Ashestates
inaninterview,hispoemshavebecomerenownbecausethey“donotdelivermereimagesand
metaphors,but[they]deliverlandscapes,villages,andfields,deliveraplace[…]Itmakesthat
whichisabsentfromgeographypresentinitsform,thatis,abletoresideinthepoetictext,asif
residingonhisland.Idon’tthinkthatapoetisentitledtoagreaterhappinessthanthatsome
peopleseekrefugeinhislinesofpoetry,asiftheywererealhouses”(MahmoudDarwish).Fora
peoplewhohavenotonlylosttheirhomesbutalsotheirhomelands,Darwish’spoetry
recreatesforthemahomeinexile,pavingthewayforhisaudiencetoreturntoPalestine
throughtheirmemories.
Oneoftheanalogieshegreatlyreliesonthroughouthisworkisthecomparison
betweenPalestineandEden.Oftentimes,withinhispoetryDarwishprojectsthisEdenwithin
hispoetrythroughtheromanticizationofthehomeland:
Goodeveningtoyou!Sayhellotoourwell!
Sayhellotoourfigtrees!Stepgingerly
onourshadowsinthebarleyfields
Greetourpinesonhigh[…]
Greetourhouseforus,stranger.
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Thecoffeecupsarethesame.
Canhisyousmellourfingersstillonthem?(TheAdamofTwoEdens51-53)
Inthispassage,oneaspectofthisromanticizationarisesfromtheidealisticbeliefthatPalestine,
evenafterdecadesofexile,wouldbethesameasbefore.ThisthemeisnotlimitedtoDarwish’s
poetry—anotherworkthatillustrateasimilarmotifisGhassanKanafani’sReturntoHaifa.In
Kanafani’sshortstory,whenSaidSandSafiyyareturntovisittheiroldhomeafterbeinginexile
fortwentyyears,theyfindthatminordetailshadchanged—thebellwasdifferent,threeofthe
chairshadbeenexchangedandtwopeacockfeathershadbeenremoved(Palestine’schildren
162-163).Asmuchasthecoupleattemptedtooverlookthesedifferences,theynonetheless
werethrownoffbalancebythesechangesinthehomethatusedtobetheirs,evidencethat
theyhadcarriedwiththemanidealisticandstagnantimageoftheirhomethroughouttheir
timeinexile.
Asecondaspectofthisromanticizationofthehomelandemergeswhenthoseinexile
depictthehomelandasperfection.AsDarwishwrites,inexile“thelostgrowswithinyou,grows
inthissunsetandbestowsondistancethequalitiesofParadise,cleansingitofallevil”(Absent
Presence61).ForDarwish,memoryisthetoolusedtoreconstructtheidealizedhomelandand
re-establishplacewithinthedistantobjectofmemory:“andthereareinthememoryenough
cosmetictoolstoestablishtheplaceinitsplace,toarrangethetreesonthepulsationofdesire,
notbecauseitisinsideus,evenifwearenotinsideit,butbecausehopeisthepowerofthe
weakwhorebelagainsttrade”(AbsentPresence10).Interestingly,thoughDarwishdepictsa
flawlessandunchangingPalestineinhispoetry,heisalsocriticalofthisimage,warninghis
audienceofthelimitationsofhispoetry:“Ontheotherhand,oneborninexileandhaving
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heardofallthegoodqualitiesoftheotherplaceisdisappointedbyaparadiseconstructedfor
himaloneoutofwordshehasimbibedandmadeintomotionlesspictures,tobehisguidein
diversity”(AbsentPresence95).
WhiletheromanticizedhomelandplaysacrucialroleinDarwish’sconstructionofthe
Palestineofthemind,healsoemploysthisanalogybetweenPalestineandEdentodescribethe
Palestinianpeople’sexpulsionfromEden:“I’mtheAdamoftwoEdenslosttometwice./Expel
meslowly.Killmeslowly”(AdamofTwoEdens154).Palestiniansaresubjecttothelossoftwo
Edens:thefirstbywayofAdamandEve’ssinandthesecondasaresultofIsraeliaggression.As
muchasDarwish’spoetryreliesonanidealisticconstructionofthePalestinianhomeland,his
worksarealsofaithfultodepicttheHelloflivingoutsideParadise.IfPalestineisillustrated
vibrantandabundantinlife,lifeinexileisdescribedastheexactopposite—hopelessand
withoutmeaning:
SincethedayyouwereexpelledfromParadiseasecondtime
ourwholeworldchanged,
ourvoiceschanged,
eventhegreetingbetweenusfell
echoless,likeabuttonfallingonsand.(AdamofTwoEdens87)
HequestionswhetherlifeoutsideofParadisecantrulybelifeifitisrootedinanotionthatno
longerexists—aphysicalautonomoushomeland:“Welive,sofaraswecanlive,inaninfant
pastwhichisplantedinfieldswhichwereoursforhundredsofyears(AbsentPresence31).
AnotherwayhewhichheportraysthisHellisbycomparinglifeoutsideofPalestinetobeing
confinedinprison:
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Everywinteryougrieveforthejoyofwhatisabsent;youwalkundertherain,
oneintwopersons:yourselfandthemanyouwereinanotherwinter,andyou
speaktoyourselfinwordsyoudonotunderstand,becausememoryisunableto
recallpastemotion,becauselongingcanlavishwhatisnotonwhatwas,sothat
treebecomesforest,thestone,acanopy,anditisasifyouwerehappyinacell,
whichyounowseeasmorespaciousthanapublicpark.(AbsentPresence82)
Withinhispoetry,DarwishmobilizesHelltoconveytheemptinessoflifeinexile.Withoutthe
lifebloodfoundinthehomeland,Palestiniansexistinastateoflivingdeath.Beyondthis,as
depictedintheprisonanalogy,HellalsorepresentsthestateofdesirePalestinianslivein—the
longingtoreturnhomebuttheimpossibilityofdoingso.Yet,inspiteofthis,nostalgiaand
memoryallowhimtoreturntoPalestineofthemind,findingrefugeintheEdenheconstructs
throughhispoetry.
Landscapeandbordersofthepost-OsloimaginedPalestine
Palestineofthemindexistsintheabsenceofspatiotemporalboundaries.Asadiasporic
community,imaginedPalestineextendsacrossbordersandspatialdivides,andthrough
collectivememory,ittranscendstime.AnyonewhohasPalestinianrootshasaccesstothis
imaginedcommunity.KeepingwiththeinclusivenessofthePalestinianimaginedcommunity,
thesediasporicproductionsalsotendtoflattenoutthePalestinianidentity—blurringoutclass
andreligiousdifferences.Asidefromtheoccasionalclassindicatorssuchastypeofhouse
(typically,apartment)andmodeoftransportation(usually,personalcars),socioeconomic
statusisrarelyreferencedandclassstrugglesarevirtuallynon-existent.Likewise,religionisalso
largelydisregardedwithintheseproductions,withitsoccasionalreferencetypicallybeingused
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todiminishreligiousdivides:“Whatdifferencewasittothemwhether/itwasIsaacorIshmael
whowas/God’ssacrificiallamb?”(AdamofTwoEdens177).
Similartotheimaginedcommunitiesofnation-stateswhicharenotonlydefinedby
whatiswithinthebordersbutalsothebordersthemselves,thePalestinianimagined
communitytooissolidifiedbyitsboundaries.Oneparticularborderthatreappearswithin
literatureistheboundarybetweentheimaginationandreality.InorderforPalestineofthe
mindtomaintainitscoherency,itmustexistintheimaginary.Onceitbecomessuperimposed
onreality,thisimaginedcommunityfallsapart.Thisclashbecomesapparentinproductions
createdaftertheOsloAccordsof1993whichallowedmanyPalestiniansreturntotheir
homeland.
In1995,Darwishexperiencedthisdiscrepancyfirst-handwhenhewaspermittedto
resettleinRamallah.Yet,despitebeingbackinhishomeland,hestillfeltasenseofemptiness:
“Thisisthelandofmypoem.Butme,bothinmypoemandonthisland,Ifeelsomewhatlikea
stranger.Onemayfeelastrangereveninthemirror.Thereissomethingmissing,thatiswhat
painsmemost.IfeelthatIamlikeatouristbutwithouttherightofatourist.Thisfeelingof
beingavisitorisdevastating.Themostdifficultthingistobeavisitortooneself”(Mahmoud
Darwish).MouridBarghoutiexperiencesthesamesensationwhenhereturnedtoRamallahin
1996afterthirtyyearsinexile:
TheOccupationhascreatedgenerationswithoutaplacewhosecolors,
smells,andsoundstheycanremember;afirstplacethatbelongstothem,that
theycanreturntointheirmemoriesintheircobbled-togetherexiles[…]The
Occupationhascreatedgenerationsofusthathavetoadoreanunknown
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beloved:distant,difficult,surroundedbyguards,bywalls,bynuclearmissiles,by
sheerterror.
ThelongOccupationhassucceededinchangingusfromchildrenofPalestine
tochildrenoftheideaofPalestine.(Barghouti62)
ForbothDarwishandBarghouti,Palestineofthemindbecomessovividwhiletheyareinexile
thatwhentheyreturn,theyfindthat,somehow,theirimaginedPalestineengagestheirsenses
evenmoresothantheactualhomelanditself.
EvenwithinfictionalworkssuchasSaharKhalifeh’sTheInheritance,asimilartension
emergesbetweenmemoriesandreality,exceptinthisnovel,thememoriesarenotZayna’s
ownbutinheritedfromherfather’sstoriesaboutthehomeland.Inthenovel,Zaynagrowsup
toherfather’sidealisticillustrationsofPalestine:“Ifyouneedhelp,youfindathousandhands
stretchedouttohelpyou.Ityouneedmoneyyoucantakeitfromafriend,nobanks,nochecks,
andnoheadaches.Attheendofthedayyoucansitinthecafeforhoursonend,thengothe
mosqueortothediwan.There,peoplearegenuineMuslims,eventheChristiansaregoodheartedandknowGodexactlyaswedo”(KhalifehKindleLocations125-128).Yearslater,the
grownZaynahasbecomethechairofheranthropologydepartment,yetshenonethelessfeels
withinherselfavoid—anemptinesslikelydepositedbyherfather’sstories.Afterhearingnews
ofherfather’simpendingdeath,shetravelstotheWestBank.However,whenshearrives,she
discoversthatthePalestineinfrontofhereyeswascompletelydifferentcomparedthe
homelandpaintedbyherfatherthroughhisstories:“Myeyeswanderedinalldirectionsinthe
streetthatwasjammedwithbuildingslinedupwithoutharmony.Iwassearchinginvainforthe
charmofthiscountryIhadlongdreamedofseeing,butIfoundonlyemptiness,silence,and
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clutter”(KindleLocations463-464).WhilePalestineofthemindiseffectiveinpreservingthe
struggleforPalestiniannationalityoutsideofthehomelandpriortotheOsloAccords,this
idealisticconstructionofPalestinebeginstodisintegratewiththereopeningofPalestine,giving
risetoasetofnarrativesthatjuxtaposePalestineofthemindtotheland’sflawedreality.
Collectivememory:21stcenturyPalestiniannarratives
ThroughoutthepredominantmajorityofPalestinianworks,Palestinianswritersrelyimmensely
onmemorytoreconstructPalestineofthemind.Palestiniandiasporicproductionsand
PalestiniancollectivememoryplayaninterdependentroleinpreservingPalestiniancollective
identities.Notonlydowritersandproducersdrawfromcollectivememoriestoproducetheir
works,buttheseworks—whichoftenexemplifysomecombinationofthewriter’sown
experiencesinterwovenintothecollectivestoryline—alsoredefinethecollectivememory.
Theconceptof“collectivememory”wasoriginallydevelopedbyFrenchphilosopherand
sociologistMauriceHalbwachs.InhisbookOnCollectiveMemory,Halbwachsarguesthat
collectiveframeworksarenotmerelyarandomcompilationofindividualrecollectionsbut
rather,are“preciselytheinstrumentsusedbythecollectivememorytoreconstructanimageof
thepastwhichisinaccord[…]withthepredominantthoughtsofsociety”(Halbwachs40).
Moreover,thiscollectivememoryisneitherestablishednorstagnant.It“needscontinuous
feedingfromcollectivesourcesandissustainedbysocialandmoralprops”(Halbwachs34).It
reliesonthetellingandretellingofindividualexperiences.
Darwishemploysbothpersonalandcollectivememorytorecreatetheimagined
homelandwithinhispoetry.Hispoetryinspiresinhisaudienceagainmemoryofthehomeland,
andasheargues,“Memory,yourpersonalmuseum,admitsyoutothecontentsofwhatislost”
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(AbsentPresence61).MemoryitsthekeybywhichPalestiniansareabletoaccesstheir
collectivecommunity.Havingonlyspentsixofhischildhoodyearsinpre-1948Palestineandthe
remainderofhislifeineithernewly-establishedIsraelorinexile,Darwishhadtonavigate
betweenpersonalandcollectivememorieswithinhispoetry.However,beyondbeingonlyan
expressionofhismemories,hispoetryalsoservesasthegroundsbywhichhisaudience
negotiatestheirpersonalandcollectivehistoriesaswell.Darwish’sworksinvitehisreadersto
journeytothePalestineofthemindtogether,creatingaformofcommunityamonghis
audience.
IfmemoryplayssuchacrucialcomponentofthePalestinianidentityandinfact,isthe
keytoenteringintothisimaginedcommunity,howthendoesthiscollectivenessendure
decadesafterthedisplacementamongthosewhoneverexperiencedthedisplacingevent
themselves?ThefactthatthePalestinianidentityhascontinuedtothriveevenaftermanyin
thedisplacedgenerationhavepassedawaysuggestsofaformofcollectivememoryamongthe
Palestiniancommunity.AmorerecentlypublishednovelMorningsinJeninbyPalestinian
AmericanSusanAbulhawaillustratesthisconcept.
SusanAbulhawa’sexperiencewithinPalestineisquitedifferentfromthatofDarwish.
Herparentswererefugeesofthe1967warwhohadfledtoKuwait,wheretheygavebirthto
Abulhawain1970.Asaresultofhervolatilefamilysituation,Abulhawawaspassedbetween
theUnitedStates,KuwaitandJordanbetweenvariousfamilymembersbeforeendingupatan
orphanageinJerusalem.Atagethirteen,sheresettledintheU.S.,underthecareofhernew
fosterparents.ShehasremainedintheU.S.since.
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IncontrasttothestoriesofDarwishandmanyotherPalestinians,Abulhawa’spersonal
displacementwasmoresoadirectconsequenceofherfamilysituationthanIsraeliaggression.
Moreover,unlikemanyotherPalestinianwriters,muchofAbulhawa’schildhoodwasspent
outsidethePalestiniancommunity.Assuch,herstoryisoneofrediscovery—inwhichonly
duringadulthooddidshebegintoexploreheridentityasaPalestinian:"Maybeitwashavinga
childthatmademereallystartthinkingaboutmyrootsandwhatIwantedhertogrowupwith,
whatreligionandwhatlanguage”(Yacoob).ThisledtohertripbacktoPalestinein2000and
2002,whichshesayswerecrucialinherjourneyofrediscoveringheridentity.Asshestatesin
aninterview:"Iwastransformedbythatwholeexperience[…]YougrowupasaPalestinian
knowingaboutthesemassacresandthewarsandtheinjusticebutitwascompletelydifferent
tobethere”(Yacoob).AsaresultofhervisitstoPalestine,shepennedherdebutnovel
MorningsinJenininwhichshedrawsfromboththeimaginedPalestiniancollectiveidentityand
herownmemoriestoreconstructafictionalizedhistoryofaPalestinianfamily.
Duringaninitialread,MorningsinJeninappearstofollowagenericPalestinianfamily.
However,uponcloserexamination,weseethatAbulhawasituatesherselfwithinthecharacter
ofAmal.Bothwereborninexile,bothspentaperiodoftimeinanorphanageasaresultof
theirfamily’sinabilitytocareforthem,bothattendedgraduateschoolattheUniversityof
SouthCarolinaandlaterresettledinPennsylvania,andbothrevisitedPalestinewiththeir
daughtersinefforttopreservethePalestinianheritageamongtheirposteriorgenerations.
Complementingthesedistinctpersonalexperiencessheincludesinhernovel,Abulhawa
alsodrawsonseveralkeymotifswithinPalestiniandiasporicliterature.Oneofthemost
prominentthemessheincludesistheseparationoftwobrothers—onegrowingupina
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PalestinianfamilyandtheotherinaJewishfamily.SimilartoGhassanKanafani’sshortstory
ReturntoHaifa,inMorningsinJeninAmal’sbrother—Ismael,renamedtobeDavid—wasstolen
fromhisparentsasaninfant,raisedbyanIsraeli,andlaterbecomesanIsraelisoldier.Amal’s
otherbrother,Yousef,encountersIsmael/Davidforthefirsttimeafterthisseparationatan
Israelicheckpoint.Farfrombeingawarmbrotherlyreunion,Ismael/Davidgetstheimpulseto
beatupthemanwhoremindshimsomuchofhimself.
Abulhawa’sstoryisdistinctfromotherPalestinianwritersbecausehermovefrom
KuwaittotheU.S.wasnotprimarilyaresultofnationality.Assuch,hersisastoryofcomingto
termswithherPalestinianidentitylateroninlife—ajourneyofself-discovery.Asshe
rediscoversherPalestinianroots,shebeginstostepintothePalestinianimaginedcommunity,
inheritingthecollectivememoriespresentwithinthiscommunity.InMorningsinJenin,
Abulhawasimultaneouslysituatesherselfastheprotagonistofthestorywhilealsodrawingon
aprominentthemewithinPalestinianliterature,negotiatingbetweenthesetwodistinct
storylineswithinhernovel.Ultimately,MorningsinJeninisanexpressionofhow,through
collectivememory,thePalestinianimaginedcommunityisabletopermeatetheboundariesof
timeincludingposteriorgenerationswereneverthemselvesvictimsofthedisplacement.
Sudan:Atribal/familialcollective
Inthelate19thcentury,withinthevoidofstronggovernanceandgeneraldissatisfactionof
Egyptianrule,theMahdiledarevoltthatresultedinthefallofKhartoumandEgyptianrule.
However,withinamonthafterhisKhartoumvictory,theMahdidied.Hissuccessorcontinued
hisexpansionagendauntil1898whentheBritishreclaimedSudanfortheBritish-Egyptian
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government.ThisMahdistmovementwasoneofSudan’sfirstattemptsatnationalism.Though
thecampaignultimatelyfailed,itnonethelessreinvigoratedamongtheMuslimSudanesea
senseofSudanesenationalidentity.Keytonotehere,though,isthatbecausetheMahda
identifiedhimselfasanIslamicsavior,themovementlargelyfellalongracialandreligiouslines.
ThefailednationalisticmovementledtothereestablishmentoftheBritish-Egyptian
governmentoverSudan.AsIpreviouslydiscussed,underBritishruletensionsbetweenthe
NorthandSouthdeepenedasaresultofBritain’sfocustodeveloptheNorthernregionsatthe
expenseoftheSouth.Later,whenthenationbegantotransitionfromBritish-Egyptian
governmenttoself-rule,theculturally,raciallyandreligiouslydistinctNorthandSouthregions
ofSudanwereunitedasonestateunderanArabgovernment.Thelackofrepresentationofthe
non-Arabcommunityandthegovernment’sattemptstoArabizethenationlaidthefoundation
forSudan’stwocivilwars,ultimatelyleadingtothecreationofSouthSudanin2011.
Tribalcollective
Asaresultofthecivilwar,onewouldexpecttheemergenceofabifurcatedSudaneseidentity
withNorthernandSouthernimaginedcommunitiesappearingthroughoutSudanesediasporic
productions.However,areviewoftheSudanesediasporicproductionssuggeststhatwhile
theseidentitiesexist,theyareweakcomparedtoothercollectivesthatemerge.InWhatisthe
What,Achakobservedthatintherefugeecamps“inEthiopiatherewerenoNuer,noDinka,no
FurorNubians”(Eggers48-49).Yet,thisunityamongthetribeswasfragile.Afterresettlement,
“theSudanese[inAmerica]haveregressedtotribalism,tothesameethnicdivisionswegaveup
longago”(Eggers48).InTheyPouredFireonUsFromtheSky,forBenson,aDinka,inter-tribal
tensionsmanifestedevenduringhisrefugeeexperienceinEthiopia:“Idon’tknowwhatmade
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mesitnexttoaNuermanandhiswifethatday,butwhenthemovementofthetruckcaused
metofallacrossherlegs,themangrabbedmebymybellywithhisrighthand.Hisfingersdug
intomytummyandheshookmeupanddown,hittingmeagainsthisknee.Icriedbutnobody
cared”(Ajaketal.86).
BecauseofthesharedpurposeamongtheSouthSudanese—thecollectivemovement
forindependenceKhartoum—wewouldanticipateaformofcommunityemergingfromthis
mutualcause.Tosomeextent,thiscollectivestruggledidbridgeacrossdividesamongvarious
tribesofSouthSudan.However,thisforgedcommunitywaspronetorupturedependingonthe
surroundingenvironment.EvenamongSouthSudan’srebelforces,theSudanPeople's
LiberationArmy(SPLA),whomoresothantherefugeessharedacollectivevision,experienced
dividesamongtheirranks:“Afewnightslaterathunderousgunbattlekeptusawakeandwe
knewthosetwo[SPLA]commandershadstartedwarringagainsteachother.Inthemorningwe
heardthatHonorableChiefhadbeenambushedbyMercilessCrocodile.[…]JohnGarang,the
leaderoftheSPLAarmy,cameandhewasangrybecausehalfofthetroopsfightingthe
governmenthadtobewithdrawntostopthefightingbetweenhiscommanders”(Ajaketal.
196-197).ThoughtheSPLAwereunitedintheirvisiontoliberateSouthSudanfromthe
oppressivegovernmentofKhartoum,thetensionshereagainreflectthereemergenceoftheir
historyofinter-tribalconflict.Forrefugeeswhoselivedrealityiscenteredarounddisplacement
andpersonalsurvivalasopposedtothemovementforindependence,thiscollectivevisionis
evenlesssoaunifyingforce.
Amongtherefugees,perhapswewouldexpectasenseofcommunityappearingasa
resultoftheirshareddisplacementexperiences.However,thisdiasporiccommunityisvirtually
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nonexistentwithinSudaneseproductions,withthedividednatureoftheSudaneserefugee
communityhighlightedasopposedtotheircollectiveness.ForAchak,thesedivisionsemerged
intheformofahierarchicalsystemamongtherefugees.Oneexampleoccurredduringhisflight
toEthiopiawithagroupofotherchildren.Theyhadarrivedatavillageafteralonglegofthe
journeyhopingtobeassistedbythevillagers.However,theirarrivalcoincidedwiththatof
anothermuchlarger,moreprivilegedgroup:“Therewerefamiliesandadultsinfineclothing
buttherewereamongthemmanyboys,smallboys,lookingverymuchlikeus.Theonly
differencewasthatthenewgroupwasbetterfed.Theireyeswerenotshrunken,theirbellies
notbloated.Theyworeshirtsandshoes”(Eggers224).Notonlydidthelargergroupreceive
prioritytothevillage’sresources,buttheyalsorefusedtosharewithAchak’smuchsmaller
cohort.Recallinghisfrustration,Achakstates,“Myangerwasmoreintensethanithadever
beentowardthemurahaleen[thepro-governmentmilitia].Itwasbornoftherealizationthat
therewerecasteswithinthedisplaced.Andwe[theorphanedrefugees]occupiedthelowest
rungontheladder.Wewereutterlydispensabletoall—tothegovernment,tothemurahaleen,
totherebels,tothebetter-situatedrefugees”(Eggers205).Later,thishierarchicalsystem
reappearedinrefugeecampsevenamongtheorphanedboys.InthePinyudorefugeecamp,
Achakobserved“aclasssystem,wherebytheboyswhohadshirtsandpantsandshoeswere
consideredthewealthiest,andthenextwerethosewhohadtwoofthethree.Iwasluckytobe
consideredupper-middle-class,withoneshirtandtwoshoesandapairofshorts”(Eggers234).
Achak’saccountofdivisionsamongtheSudaneserefugeecommunitywaslargelya
reflectionofhisstruggleforsurvival.Withintherefugees’journey,hierarchicalsystemsstood
formorethansimplysocialstanding.Theyindicatedoftherefugees’accesstolimitedresources
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suchasfoodandcleanwaterandconsequently,refugees’abilitytosurvive.Aparticularlyvivid
exampleofAchak’spersonalconflictbetweenhisstruggletosurviveandhisdesireto
empathizewithotherrefugeesisportrayedinhisdescriptionofthelargeinfluxofrefugeesto
theEthiopianrefugeecampPinyudo:“Thepeoplecamewithoutend,andeachtimethey
crossedtheriver,weknewitmeantthatthefoodwehadwouldneedtobefurtherdivided.I
cametoresentthesightofmyownpeople,toloathehowmanyofthemtherewere,how
needful,howgangrenous,bug-eyed,andwailing”(Eggers259).ThoughAchaktosomeextent
identifiedwiththeincomingrefugees(“myownpeople”),hisownpersonaldeprivation
transcendedthiscollectiveidentityeventothepointthathementallywantedtoharmthe
incomingrefugees:“inmymind,Ithrewrocks[…]Ithrewrocksatthewomenandthechildren
andwantedtothrowrocksatthesoldiers”(259).InAchak’sstory,thecollectivebasedonthe
SouthSudanese’ssharedvictimnarrativeisdominatedbytheindividualrefugees’strugglefor
survival.
IncontrasttothefragileSouthSudaneserefugeecommunityasawhole,tribal
communitiesontheotherhandplayaprominentrolewithintheSudanesediasporic
experience.WithinSudaneseproductions,manyoftheLostBoysmaketheirjourneytorefugee
campswithintheirtribalcommunities.Benson’sflightnarrative,forexample,beganwhenhe
entrustedhimselftotheguidanceofanoldermaleintheDinkatribe:“’Don’tbeafraid.Come
withme.Iwilltakecareofyouforyourfather.[…]Youshouldcallmeuncle[…]Iwilllookafter
youuntilwemeetyourparents”(Ajaketal.59).Likewise,aftertheattackonhisvillage,when
AchakfindshimselfaloneinthewildernessofSudan,he“heardavoice,aDinkavoice,singinga
Dinkasong.Irantothesinging”(Eggers98).ThemanledAchaktoacampsitewhereother
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Dinkapeopleweregathering:“TheygavemewaterandIwatchedtheirDinkafacesredinthe
fire”(99).There,AchakmettheyoungmanwithwhomhewouldfleeSudan.Withinboth
narratives,intheabsenceofbloodkinship,tribalcommunitiesplayedforbothBensonand
Achaktheroleoffamily,offeringthemtheleadershipandprotectiontheywouldneedasthey
journeytotherefugeecamps.
Thoughwithintheseproductionsweseethegreatestexpressionoftribalcommunityon
alocallevel,thiscollectivealsoextendstoincludeothersubgroupsoftheDinkatribeinother
regionsaswell.InTheyPouredFireonUsFromtheSky,afterAlephocrossedtheNile,heis
receivedbytheAliabDinkawhoofferedthemcows,providingtherefugeeswiththeirfirstreal
mealafterweeksofdeprivation(Ajaketal.117).Another—thoughlesspleasant—instancein
whichtheexpectationofthistribalcollectiveemergesisduringBenson’stimeintheEthiopian
refugeecampPanyido.ThinkingthatsomegirlsbytheriverwereDinka,heaskedthemfor
somewater.BythetimeherealizedtheywerenotDinka,itwastoolate.“Puttingahandon
eachhip,theywalkedtowardmethrowingwordsIdidn’tunderstand.Istaggeredbackward
andwhentheybegantothrowstones,Iturnedandran”(Ajaketal.88).Thoughthegirlshe
metultimatelywerenotDinkan,Benson’srequestrevealsanexpectationofatribalimagined
community—thatthoughhehadnevermetthegirlsbefore,becausetheywerefromthesame
tribe,hewasabletoaskafavorofthem.
Familialcollective
AlongsidetheprominentroleofthetribalcollectivewithinSudanesediasporicproductions,a
familialcollectivealsoemergeswithinthesenarratives.Infact,inmanyways,thesefamilial
communitiesformthecoreofSudaneseidentity—evenmoresothanthetribal.Becausemany
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oftheseproductionsrevolvearoundtheplightoftheLostBoyswhoareknownforbeing
orphaned,thefamilialcollectiveisnotalwaysapparent.However,throughouttheirnarratives,
whenafamilialcollectivedoesappear,itcarriesmuchmoresignificancefortherefugeesthan
anyothercommunitytheyidentifythemselveswith.
InTheyPouredFireonUsFromtheSky,whenAlephoisreunitedwithhisolderbrother
Yier,heimmediatelybeginsfeelingatease,knowinginhisheartthataslongashisYierwas
around,hecouldrestincomfortandsafety.Likewise,Bensonfeelsthesamereliefuponhis
reunionwithYier:“Hewasanelderwhocaredaboutourfamilyandcoulddosomething.That
senseoflonelinessfinallyleftmyheart”(Ajaketal.153).WhenYierwascalledawaytofight,
Alephoagainexperiencesavoidinhisheart,“Familyhadbecomesoprecioustome.Withoutit
Iwaslikeatreealoneinadesert”(Ajaketal.111).AlephoandBensonhadbeenunderthe
leadershipofoldermenthroughouttheirjourney,yetasmuchastheleaderstriedtocarefor
theboys’needs,therenonethelesswasavoidintheboys’heartsthatonlyfamilycouldfill.
Eventoagreaterextent,theTheGoodLiealsoillustratesthedepthandselflessnessof
siblingrelationshipsamongtherefugees.Inthefilm,astherefugeeswerehidinginthegrass
duringtheirflight,Mamerewokeuponemorningandwasspottedbygovernmentsoldiers.In
ordertopreventthesoldiersfromdiscoveringtherestoftheboyslyinginthegrass,Mamere’s
olderbrotherTheoturnedhimselfin.Yearslater,afterMamereisresettledinAmerica,he
returnedtoKenyatosearchforhisbrotherwiththehopesofbringinghimtotheStatesaswell.
HefoundTheobutwasunabletoattainpermissionforhimtoleavethecamp.Intheend,
MameredecidedtoswitchplaceswithTheo,givinghimhispassport.Mamereremainedin
Kenya,workingatacamphospital.
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Anothermemoir,Bol’sTheLostBoydepictsaparticularlypoignantrelationshipbetween
Bolandhisparents.Unlikeothernarrativesinwhichrefugeeshadlosttheirparents,Bol’s
memoirisuniquebecausenotonlyarehisparentsstillalivebuthealsohastheopportunityto
returnhome.InspiteofBol’smanysuccessesincludinghisresettlementinSouthAfricanand
education,hisnovelconcludeswithareunionwithhisparentsinhishomevillage:“LittledidI
know[…]mylong-cherisheddreamwouldcometrue.[…]Ihadfinallycometolookformy
parentswhohadbeenlostforsomanyyears”(Bol161).Inthebook’sfinalscene,Boldepicts
himselfrunningintohismother’sarmsafteryearsofseparation:“Andthere[mymother]was,
comingfromthedirectionofmygrandmother’svillage.[…]ThenIstartedrunning.Iranto
regainmylostworld.Iranoverthedrysorghumstalkstowardsmymother’slove”(Bol184).
Bolconcludesthenarrativeembracinghismother.ForBol,despitehispersonal
accomplishments,heultimatelyfeelsmostfulfilledwhenheisreunitedwithhisfamily.
Thisemphasisonthefamilialcollectivestandsinstarkcontrasttothecollectivewithin
Palestinianproductions.WhereasSudanesediasporicnarrativesdepictfamiliesasthe
quintessentialformofcommunity,Palestiniannarrativesamplifythenationalidentity
oftentimesattheexpenseofkinshiprelations.AclassiccounterexampletoSudan’sfamilial
collectiveisKanafani’sReturntoHaifa.Uponmeetingtheirsonagainforthefirsttimein
twentyyears,SaidSandSafiyyadiscoveredthattheirson,originallyKhaldounbutrenamedto
DoffbyhisIsraeliparents,hadbecomeanIsraelisoldier.Unabletoreconcilewiththeirson’s
betrayal,thefamilydisownedhimandforetoldofanimminentbattlebetweenhimandtheir
othersonwhowasatthetimetrainingtojointhePalestinianresistancemovement.
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LandscapeandbordersoftheSudanesecollective
TheSudaneseidentitythatappearswithinthesediasporicproductionshaverootswithin
centuries-oldregional,tribalandcolonialdynamicswithintheregion.Therecentcivilwars
attempttounifytheNorthandSoutharoundaspecificcause,butthisregionalcollectiveis
unstable,likelybecausethelonghistoryoftribalconflictswithintheregionthatcolonial
powersoftenexploited.Inthemidstofthedistrustbetweentribes,astrongtribalandfamilial
communityemerges.Ultimately,withintheseSudanesenarratives,trustandcarearetwo
indicatorsofthesecommunities.
SimilartothePalestiniannationalcollectivewhichflattensoutthePalestinianidentity
particularlyinregardstoclassandreligion,Sudanesediasporicproductionsalsoleveloutthe
Sudaneseidentity.However,unlikethePalestiniancollectiveinwhichreligiousandclass
differencesareminimallyreferencedcreatingasenseofinclusivityforallPalestinians,
Sudaneseproductionsrepeatedlyemphasizetheseidentities,inasensealienatingotherswho
donotbelongtothiscollective.VirtuallyallthemaincharacterswithinSudanesediasporic
productionsidentifyasChristianandcomefromalowerclassbackground.Whiletheseworks
donotnecessarilyattempttospeakonbehalfofallSudaneserefugees,theirpersonalstories
nonethelessdepictanarchetypalSudanesediasporicnarrativethatinmanyways
misrepresentsoftheSudaneserefugeeexperience.Indeed,theSudaneselowerclassdoestend
tobedisproportionatelyaffectedbythecivilwar.However,theexclusiveemphasisonChristian
refugees’storiesdiscountsthelargeMuslimSudaneserefugeepopulationresettledinAmerica
andbeyond.
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Alimitationtothisstudyisthatwhiletribesandfamiliesformrobustcommunities,the
productionsabovedonotdepictinstancesinwhich,similartoReturntoHaifa,tribaland
familialloyaltiesarecalledintoquestion.Tribesandfamiliesareillustratedassupportiveand
nurturingwithinthesenarratives,sotherefugeesnaturallytrustthesecommunities.InThe
GoodLieforexample,Theoselflesslysurrendershisownfutureforhisyoungerbrotherandthe
otherchildreninhisvillagewithoutdemandinginreturn.However,thisselflessnessisless
apparentinotherworks.InTheyPouredFireonusFromtheSky,forinstance,whenAlephoand
BensonfindYier,theyhaveasubconsciousexpectationthatYierwouldbeabletochangetheir
situation.However,ifYierwereincapableofprovidingthemthissecurity,wouldBensonand
Alephohavebeenjustasenthusiastictoseehim?Inordertomorepreciselyunderstandto
whatextentthesenarrativesdepictkinshiprelationsamongdiasporiccommunities,future
studiesshouldalsotakeintoaccountworksthatillustrateplacesoftensionwithinSudanese
diasporictribalandfamilialcommunities.
Conclusion
DiasporiccommunitieswithinPalestinianandSudaneseproductionsultimatelyserveboth
internalandexternalpurposes.Forthosebelongingtotheseimaginedcommunities,collective
narrativescreateasenseofsolidarityamongtherefugees,anaffirmationthattheyarenot
aloneintheirexperiences.EspeciallyforPalestinianswhocontinuetoliveintherealityofthe
lossoftheirhomeland,thesenarrativesserveasareminderthatallPalestinianssharethesame
stateofexile.TheseproductionsactasculturalsystemspreservingthePalestinians’collective
memoriesandensuringthattheirexperienceswillberememberedwellbeyondtheirlifetimes.
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Thesecommunitiesalsoserveasnetworksforadvocacyandsupportforthemarginalized
withintheseimaginedcommunities.BothPalestinianandSudaneseproductionsemployvoices
ofthemoreprivilegedwithinsociety—whetherasaresultoftheirclass,educationorpersonal
connections—insupportofthecollectivecause.Sudaneseproductionsarepredominantly
writtenbyrefugeeswhohavesuccessfullyresettledandacquiredaneducationwhile
Palestinianworksaregenerallyproducedbytheupperclasswhoalreadyhaveapoliticalvoice.
Lastly,thesecollectivesactasleveragetomobilizeinternationalsupportinwaysthatthe
individualvoicecannot.WhileinmanycasesbothPalestinianandSudaneseworksillustratethe
storiesofindividualrefugees,becauseofthecollectivenatureofeachgroup’sdisplacement,
theseindividualstorieshavecometorepresentthecollective’splight.
Yet,thoughtheseareindividualnarratives,eachgroup’sstoriesaresituatedwithina
distinctcollective.ThePalestinianimaginedcommunityisformedonnationalitywhereasthe
Sudanesecollectiveiscenteredaroundtribesandfamilies.Thesedifferencescouldbe
attributedtothewritersandproducersthemselves.Palestinianproductionswerecreatedby
intellectualslikeDarwish,KanafaniandBarghoutiwhoweredeeplyinvolvedinthePalestinian
nationalmovement,oftenriskingtheirlivesforthecause(Kanafaniwas,infact,assassinated
forhisinvolvement).Assuch,thesewritersweremorelikelytoprioritizethenationalnarrative
overtheirownexperiences.Incontrast,Sudaneseworksweregenerallyproducedbyrefugees
whohaddefiedtheodds,earningtherighttoresettleabroad.Inparticular,thesenarratives
focusonthestoryoftheLostBoys,whoatthetimeoftheirdisplacementwereconsideredtoo
youngtojointheSPLA.Oftentimestoonaïvetounderstandthepoliticsoftheirsituation,the
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boyslivedinthedailyrealityofthebattleforsurvival.Assuch,tribesandfamilies,whowere
abletoprovidesomesortofprotection,becametheprimarycommunityfortheserefugees.
AsecondpotentialexplanationforthisdifferencelieswithinSudanandPalestine’spast.
PerhapsthereasontribaltensionsemergesoconspicuouslywithinSudaneseproductionsisa
resultofthecountry’sdeephistoryoftribalconflicts.Priortothe20thcentury,communities
withinbothSudanandPalestinewerehighlylocalized.However,inSudan,tribalidentities
prevailedwhileinPalestinethesecommunitiestooktheformofvillageandurbancommunities.
UnlikePalestineinwhichseparatecommunitiessharedethnicbonds,tribeswithinSudanwere
diverse—mostlyArabbutmanyotherindigenousgroupswererepresentedaswell.Asaresult
oftheabsenceofasharedsenseofcommunityamongthesetribes,conflictsoftenerupted,in
particularoverland.TheBritish-Egyptiangovernmentexacerbatedthesetensionswhenthey
attemptedtoruleSudanasoneentitybutyettreatedvariousregionsunfairly.Thishistoryof
mistrustamongtribeslikelyalsocontributedtothelackofinter-tribalunitywithinthe
Sudaneseproductions.
Finally,athirdpossibledrivingforceforthedistinctionbetweenPalestinianand
Sudanesediasporiccommunitiesrevolvesaroundtherefugeeidentitiesthateachgroup
attemptstoproject.AsIdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,becausetheSudaneseareexpected
toprovetheir“refugee-ness”throughtheirnarratives,anapoliticaland“innocentvictim”
narrativeoftenemergeswithinculturalproductionsfromthisgroup.Duetothecivilwarsin
Sudan,regionalidentities(NorthversusSouth)havebecomehighlypoliticized.Perhapsinan
attempttocharacterizeSudaneserefugeesastheprototypicalinnocentvictimsofanunjust
force,Sudaneseproductionsfocusonfamilialandtribalcommunitieswhicharemore
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disconnectedfromthecountry’spoliticalstruggle.Palestinianproductions,ontheotherhand,
worktorallyinternationalsupportforthereturnofPalestinianstotheirhomeland.Assuch,itis
imperativethatPalestinianproductionsillustrateastrongnationalcommunity,givingasenseof
unityandsolidarity.Further,thePalestinians’desiretoberecognizedasanationstateinmany
wayslimitsitsabilitytodepictconflictswithintheirnationalcommunitybecausesuchdivisions
couldcompromisetheirbattleforrecognition.
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Conclusion
Whyshouldourstory,ourparticularstory,deservetobelistenedtobythe
world?[…]Thecapitalsoftheworldrefusetoreceiveusascorpsesasthey
refusetoreceiveusalive.Andifthedeadbydisplacementandthedeadby
weaponsandthedeadbylongingandthedeadbysimpledeatharemartyrs,
andifpoemsaretrueandeachmartyrisarose,wecanclaimtohavemadea
gardenoftheworld.
—MouridBarghouti,ISawRamallah
Nationalstatusimmenselyshapesagroup’slivedexperienceasarefugee—theirflight,the
processwherebytheybecamearefugeeandtheircollectiveidentities.Ultimately,thesefactors
contributetothedivergenceinrefugeenarrativesamongPalestiniansandtheSudanese.Yet,
despitetheirvastlydistinctexperiences,thesegroupsareoftenclusteredtogetherundera
generalizedrefugeeidentitywithinstudiesondiasporicliterature.Assuch,thepurposeofthis
studywastoaccentuatetheparticularitiesofstatelessdiasporicnarratives,exploringtherole
ofnationalstatusindrivingthesedifferences.
SudaneseandearlyPalestinianrefugeestoriesbothemphasizetheroleofthejourneyin
constructingtheirrefugeeidentity.Theyechothe1951refugeedefinitionhighlightingtwo
componentstoattainingrefugeestatus:thefirstbeingfearofpersecutionandthesecond,that
therefugeeisoutsidethecountryofhis/hernationality.Whiletheseproductionsacknowledge
bothaspectsoftherefugees’experience,thereappearstobemoreofanemphasisonflight,a
spaceoftransitionandchange.Perhaps,asLiisaMalkkifoundamongtheTutu,“refugeeness
entail[s]aprocessofbecoming.It[is]agradualtransformation,notanautomaticresultofthe
crossingofanationalborder”(Malkki113).FortheSudanese,thisprocessof“becoming”
includedovercomingchallengesagainsthumansandnature.ForPalestinians,“becoming”
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meantenduringtheemotionalagonyofleavinghomeandlater,theanguishoftheimpossibility
ofreturnandadaptingdesireforreturnwithprolongedsojournselsewhere.However,while
Sudaneseproductionscontinuetofollowthisnarrativeformula,Palestiniantextshavesince
evolvedtowardsalandnarrative,reflectiveofthePalestiniannationalstruggleforthe
homeland.
AftertheSix-DayWarin1967,whenthebordersofOccupiedPalestinebecamemuch
moredemarcatedandthehopeforanautonomoushomelandbegantodissipate,Palestinian
refugeeproductionsbegantoshifttowardsahomelandnarrativethatservedtobothvalidate
thePalestinians’connectionwiththelandwhilealsocreatinganidealizedPalestine,allowing
thoseinexiletoreturnwiththeirimaginations.Asdiscussedintheintroduction,the
Palestinians’melancholiclossandthecreationofahomelandofthemindisnotaunique
phenomenon—othergroupssuchasHaitianAmericansandSouthAsianBritishhavealso
developedsimilarimaginaries.Interestingly,thoughneithergrouplosttheirhomeland,Bromley
describesthemasnonethelessunabletoreturn,suggestingthatitisintherealizationofthe
impossibilityofreturnthatthisimaginedhomelandarises.AsIargueinchapterthree,forthe
Palestiniansinparticular,thisimaginedhomelandismuchmorevividandfar-reachingwithin
thePalestinianconsciousnessbecausenotonlyaretheyunabletoreturnbutthisimagined
homelandalsoservestosustainthePalestiniannationalidentityandstruggle.ForSudanese
refugees,thisreturnwasmuchmorefeasiblebecausetheydidnotlosetheirnationalstatus.As
such,thissenseofnostalgiaisvirtuallynonexistentwithinSudaneseproductions.
Nationalstatusiscentraltothecollectiveidentities,whichemergewithinPalestinian
andSudaneseproductions.ThePalestinians’struggleisdependentonastrongsenseof
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nationalidentitythroughoutspaceandtime.Inefforttocreateaunifiedcommunity,the
Palestiniancollectiveblursoutindividualandsubgroupdifferencessuchasclassandreligion,
highlightinginsteadtheircommonnationalidentities.Palestinianrefugeenarrativesalso
typicallydepictexperienceswithwhichallPalestinianscanidentifyeitherthroughtheir
experienceorexposuretothecollectivenarrative—whetheritisal-Nakbaormemoriesofthe
homeland.Incontrast,theSudaneserefugeeexperienceprimarilyrevolvesaroundthestruggle
forsurvival.Assuch,theirjourneysarehighlyindividualistic,withcollectivenessvisibleata
familyandtriballevel.Evenamongtherefugeeswhosharethesameexperiences,tensionsand
hierarchiesemerge,oftenasaresultoflimitedresourcesinrefugeecamps.Individual
relationshipscanbreakthroughtherefugees’classboundaries,buttheserupturesarefewand
farbetween.
Theabsenceofculturalartifactsmediatingbetweenindividualandcollectivememoryis
acontributingfactortothelackofunityamongSudaneserefugees.BecausethePalestinian
expulsionaffectedthosefromallsegmentsofsociety,influentialvoiceslikeGhassanKanafani
beganmobilizingsupportforthenationalmovementsoonaftertheexodus.Palestinian
productionshavesincebeencontinuouslyproduced,bothemergingoutofandperpetuating
thecollectivestruggle.Throughtheseworks,thePalestiniancollectivememoryisconstantly
beingnegotiatedandrevitalized.Ontheotherhand,amongtheSudanese,thelower-classwas
disproportionatelyaffected.Somebegantheireducationinrefugeecamps,butmostdidnot
acquireastableeducationandliteracyuntilafterresettlement.Assuch,Sudaneseproductions
begantoappeardecadesaftertheinitialdisplacement,bywhichpointtheSudanesecollective
hadalreadybeensolidified.
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Refugeenarrativesdonotonlyhaveahistory,buttheyhaveatrajectoryaswell.The
Palestinianstruggleisunlikelytoendanytimesoon,andassuch,Iexpectculturalnarrativesto
continueexertingapowerfulinfluenceonthememoriesandidentitiesofthosewithinthe
diaspora.ForSudaneserefugees,ontheotherhand,itislessclear,particularlywiththerecent
independenceofSouthSudanandthegradualreturnofrefugeetotheirhomes.Inthisnext
section,IbrieflydiscusswhereIbelieveSudaneseandPalestinianrefugeenarrativesaregoing,
andIclosewithremarksontheconceptofhospitalityinthecontextofstatelessness.
Projections
Sudan:Returnnarratives
Onathematiclevel,SudaneserefugeeproductionsfollowasimilartrajectoryasPalestinian
works.Palestinianproductionsfollowa“journey”to“homeland”to“return”narrative
progression.Excludingthehomelandnarrative,Sudaneseworkssimilarlyemphasizethe
refugees’journeywitharecentmemoir—TheLostBoy—depictingareturnhome.Thework
depictsBol’sreturnlesssotorenewhisconnectiontothehomelandbutrather,toreunitewith
hisfamily.Further,thereturnisdepictedasbothcelebratoryandrestorative—thoughhehad
becomeeducatedandaccomplishedoutsideofofhiscountry,hewasnotfulfilleduntilhewas
abletoreturnhome.
WiththerecentindependenceofSouthSudanin2011,itisquitelikelythatmore
Sudanesereturnnarrativeswillemergeinthefuture.IncontrasttoPalestinianreturn
narrativeswhichdepictadisappointingphysicalPalestineincomparisontotheidealized
Palestineofthemind,IsuggestthatSudanesereturnnarrativeswillcontinuetoillustratethis
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senseofcelebration—especiallybecauseSudanesenarrativesnevercreatedanEden-like
homeland,andassuch,thereislessofanexpectationthatSudanconformtoanidealized
standard.FutureSudanesereturnnarrativesmayalso,similartoTheLostBoy,depicta
celebratoryreunionbetweenfamilymembersasopposedtothelanditself(incontrastto
MorningsinJeninwhenYehyariskshislifetoreturntoPalestinejusttorevisithisolivegroves).
Inthisway,kinshipthroughbloodisprioritizedoverconnectiontolandasvaluedinPalestinian
depictionsofbelongingtoahomeland.
Palestine:Postmemoryworksandthefluidityofbelonging
WithinPalestiniandiasporicproductionsinthe21stcentury,comestheemergenceofAmerican
novelsbythosewhowerenotthemselvesPalestinianrefugees,authorssuchasSusan
AbulhawaandDixianeHallaj.ThepassageofmemorythatbothAbulhawaandHallajrelyonis
whatMirianneHirschterms“postmemory”—traumaticmemoriesthatwere“transmittedto
themsodeeplyastoseemtoconstitutememoriesintheirownright”(Hirsch103).Withthe
originaldiasporiccommunitypassingawaywhiletheissueofthePalestinianhomelandstill
unresolved,thecontinuationofthePalestinianstrugglethroughliteraturewillberelianton
authorssuchasthese.
Whileitisunclearhowpostmemorywillinfluencethethemesinthisneweraof
Palestiniandiasporicproductions,whatisinterestingisthatmostofthesemorerecent
productionstendtotaketheformofnovels—similartoSudaneserefugeeproductions.Perhaps
thisshiftfrompoetry/prosetonovelsreflectsthegenerationalshiftswithinthePalestinian
community.Previously,poetryandprosewereusedtocapturetheemotionsofthoseinexile.
Whilenovelsengageemotion,theirprimarypurposeistotellastory.Thistransitionfrom
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poetryandprosetonovelssuggestsofachangeinPalestiniandiasporicproductionsfroman
emotionalpleausingmelancholiclosstostorytellingasaformofpoliticalactivism.Intermsof
postmemory,thisshiftsuggeststhatwhilememoriesareinheritedwithinfamilies,the
emotionsassociatedwiththesememoriesarenottransmittedwiththesamedepth.
Closingthoughts
ThecaseofPalestinianrefugeeschallengestheconceptofhospitality,whichhaslaidthe
groundworkforrefugeetheory.Firstofall,inasocietywhichrevolvesaroundthenotionof
nation-state,thetheoryofhospitalityonlyallowsfortworoles:theguestandthehost.
However,forPalestinians,claimingresidenceinahost’sspacealsomeanspermanently
surrenderingtheirrightofreturn—oneofthereasonswhyPalestinianrefugeecampsstillexist
almostseventyyearsafteral-Nakba.Assuch,theyareinapositionwheretheyareneither
guestsnorhosts.Secondly,thenotionofhospitalityimpliesthatbeingaguestisaprivileged
andhighlydesirableposition.Whilerefugeesfromothergroupsmustapplyforrefugeestatus,
Palestiniansareironicallyautomaticallygrantedastatustheydonotwant.Theyarenotseeking
refugebutrather,desiretoexercisetheirrightofreturn.
Assuch,theterm“refugee”impliesadesiretobetakeninasaguest.Thisiswhy
Palestiniansareoftenhesitanttobecalledrefugeesthoughbythe1951definition,they
technicallyare.ThePalestiniancasegivesustheopportunitytorethinkrefugeetheoryonce
more.Doesoneneedtobeseekingrefugeinordertobeconsideredarefugee?Inwhatspaces
canrefugeesexist?Dopeopleeitherneedtobehostorguest—canpeoplealsoforgefor
themselvesspacesinbetweenaswell?
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