The Josianic Reform:
Deuteronomy, Prophecy, and Israelite Religion
Student Manual, Version 2.0
by
David Tabb Stewart
Adam L. Porter
NOVEMBER 2010
THIS MANUSCRIPT IS CURRENTLY IN DEVELOPMENT AS PART OF THE “REACTING
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Welcome to Jerusalem!
It’s an exciting time to be in Jerusalem! Recently King Josiah ordered that much-needed
repairs to the Temple be undertaken. Imagine the surprise of the workmen the High Priest Hilkiah
discovered an ancient scroll! He read it and showed it to Shaphan, the king’s secretary. Shaphan
took the scroll to the king and read it to him. Upon hearing the words of the scroll, Josiah was
greatly distressed (2 Kgs 22:3-10).
He discussed the scroll with Hilkiah, Shaphan, Ahikam (Shaphan’s son), and Achbor. Perhaps
not wanting to believe the words of the scroll, the king ordered it authenticated. The men
consulted the prophetess Huldah and she confirmed that the scroll was authentic: the word of
Yahweh (2 Kgs 22:11-16).
It is because of this discovery that the king has called this conference in Jerusalem. He is
trying to figure out whether to order a large-scale reform of Judah’s religious practices, to bring
them into line with the laws described in the newly discovered scroll. Of course, proposals to
change the status quo, to alter religious practices hallowed by ancient tradition, have elicited great
concern among many Judahites. Hence, Jerusalem’s population has swelled for this conference
and rumors of arguments between different groups reached you even before you left your
hometown.
As you approach Jerusalem from the south, you see Solomon’s Temple, built on top of the
hill. It hovers over the rest of the city. David’s city, the oldest part of Jerusalem sits on a spur of
land between two valleys. A newer portion of the city stretches out to the left, across the valley
and up the adjacent hill. Although you can’t see it from where you are, you know that a major
new section of town was added about a century or so ago north-west of the Temple, to
accommodate refugees from Israel, who fled south when the Assyrians destroyed Samaria.
As you enter Jerusalem, you run into a group of Levitical priests. They come from a local
sanctuary (known as a bemah [plural: bemot] or “high place”) a religious site for Yahweh outside
Jerusalem that the newly discovered “book of the law” would outlaw. Surrounding you, they
argue that to consume animals that have not been sacrificed to God is an abomination and is
forbidden by Moses (Lev 17:1-4). They think the idea of just slaughtering animals, without
sacrificing them to God, does not show respect to God.
If all the high places, like the one at which they serve, were closed, it would eliminate the
possibility of people in the area eating meat that was properly sacrificed to Yahweh. To allow
people to eat meat, the “book of the law” permits secular slaughter -- to kill animals and not offer
any portion of them as a sacrifice to Yahweh. The Levites argue that this new-fangled idea is
nonsense and, since the so-called “book of the law” disagrees with priestly traditions, it cannot be
legitimate.
The Levites gather around you to urge you to join them in advocating a continuation of
traditional religious practices. They also mutter, sotto voce, that the prophetess Huldah did not
give a genuine prophecy. Doesn’t her husband, Shallum, work for the king? She is telling him
what he wants to hear. . .
You decline to make your position clear to them, but assure them that you look forward to
learning more about their position.
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Climbing higher up the hill, you enter the Temple. Although old -- Solomon built it almost 400
years ago -- it is beautiful. Of course, its doors looked better before King Hezekiah stripped them
of gold (2 Kg 18:16). As you enter the Temple courtyard, you encounter a old man. He tries to
sell you a memento of your trip to Jerusalem, a piece of a broken pot that has a picture of the
Temple on it. He tells you he has been working in the Temple’s courtyard for many, many years.
He likes the repairs Josiah and Hilkiah have made to the Temple recently, but is worried about the
proposed reform program.
He points out the beautiful horses at the entrance to the Temple erected by the kings of Judah
and shows you small replicas you can purchase to take home with you. He also sells images of
Asherah, like the one found in the Temple. He happily tells you, “As long as I can remember,
we’ve been blessed by having many different deities here. We know Yahweh is the most-high god,
but there are others you can pray to for certain afflictions. Asherah, Yahweh’s wife, is popular
with women -- and men -- who want children. Baal is popular with farmers, since they believe he
brings rains.” But his face darkens as he begins to rant about the proposed reform, “But Josiah
and his lot are going to irritate both the gods and their worshipers by throwing them out of the
Temple!”
You get the sense that he is also concerned that part of his market for religious charms and
images will disappear -- what will he do with all those images of Asherah? -- but he doesn’t voice
this concern overtly. After listening to his ranting for a bit, you edge away without purchasing
anything from the old trinket seller. This irritates him and he calls after you, but you hurry away,
escaping his wheezy cries.
While crossing the Temple courtyard, you see another man suddenly stop walking, throw off
his cloak, and leap up onto some steps. He stands out from the crowd, because whereas everyone
else is modestly attired, he is almost naked. Wearing only a loincloth and very much in need of a
shave and a bath, he loudly proclaims that the word of Yahweh came to him and commanded him
to come to Jerusalem and to tell Yahweh’s messages to everyone. His words are beautiful, wellchosen and colorful. He speaks with great passion, expounding in poetry, repeating lines two or
more times with subtle variations. You are glad he does, because it is noisy and you can’t always
hear the first time he says the line. You have seen prophets before, but this fellow is especially
good.
His message condemns Jerusalem for being irreligious and not obeying Yahweh. The great
city’s inhabitants have ignored the plight of the widow and orphan. He reminds the people that
they were slaves in Egypt, but Yahweh delivered us out of bondage, with a mighty hand and an
outstretched arm. He criticizes the king for ignoring Yahweh’s statutes and commandments, but
he also blames the priests. The prophet says that Yahweh doesn’t really care about sacrifices very
much. And he says the inhabitants of Jerusalem are too complacent. God is willing to destroy
Jerusalem if everyone doesn’t repent.
But before he can prophecy further, some soldiers (or perhaps Temple priestly guards?) show
up and grab him. They wrap him in his cloak and hustle him off, being none too gentle with him.
You hope he doesn’t get too hurt and are relieved that the word of Yahweh has not come to you.
Being a prophet is generally quite difficult.
Approaching the altar of uncut stones, you meet a group of Jerusalem’s priests. They are led
by Hilkiah, the priest who discovered the “Book of the Law,” but he is old and, according to the
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rumors, overly fond of wine . Some of the priests would like to replace Hilkiah with a younger
priest, but many other priests hold Hilkiah in high esteem, especially since he discovered the
“book of the Law.” If its laws are implemented, Jerusalem will become far more important, since
local sanctuaries will be closed. People will have to bring their sacrifices to Jerusalem, which, of
course, would benefit the Jerusalem priesthood. When you ask about this, they also assure you
that centralizing worship in Jerusalem would also please Yahweh, which is -- of course -- the main
reason to do it! The priests seem united behind the idea of the reform, but doubtful about their
leadership. When they ask you your opinion about Hilkiah, you decline to make a clear reply,
saying that you look forward to the meeting to discuss these issues.
After leaving the Temple, you go towards the king’s palace. As you enter the palace, several
of Josiah’s advisers come over to you. They explain that their main goal is to make sure they rule
in accord with God’s desires. They are very eager to avoid chaos and civil disruption since they
understand one of God’s major mandates to be the maintainance of public order. They are eager
for news about foreign relations -- since you come from a border region, they hope you might
offer your insight into the international situation:
Do you think Assyria will regain its footing? Should we continue to pay it tribute? Or will the
conflict between different pretenders to the throne fatally weaken it?
Or do you think Babylon -- which is also suffering by having several people claim the throne -will gather its resources and overwhelm Assyria? Perhaps the distant Medes will help destroy
Assyria?
Or maybe Egypt -- certainly a closer threat to us! -- will regain its strength and invade Judah
and the former Israelite kingdom’s lands again?
One reason they are so concerned with these questions is that some of them would like to
expand Judah’s boundaries. Some advocate moving south and expelling the Edomites from
Judah’s old territory. Others want to move west and capture a coastal city, giving Judah a port.
And others look covetously northwards, towards the rich terriory of old Israel.
Unfortunately for them, you don’t have great insight into these questions. And when you ask
them about the “book of the law” and the proposed reform, you are surprised that many members
of the court don’t seem too worried about religious issues, except where religious practices
impact the royal tax coffers and help or hinder the government’s ability to govern. Surely God
expects more of his chosen people’s government and its officials?
In the palace, you come across several other people in Jerusalem for Josiah’s meeting. As you
chat with them, everyone realizes that you are all staying in the same inn and decide to walk to it
together. As you wend your way through the narrow streets of Jerusalem, the strangers explain
their view to you. They strongly support implementing the reforms described in the “Book of the
Law.” They think this book is the authentic final speech of Moses, given just before his death. It
provides guidance, not only on how to live properly religiously, but also directs the king on the
proper way for him to live and govern. Your new companions explain that the political
government can’t be separated from religion. Kings have, all too frequently, ignored the clear
statutes and commandments sent by Yahweh via his prophets, like Moses and Isaiah. But ignoring
God’s commandments will (eventually) anger God and prompt him to punish Judah, as he
punished Israel about 100 years ago. He will bring a foreign oppressor to terrorize our people
and, if we don’t repent, capture and destroy Jerusalem. They explain to you that is it is imperative
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that Josiah’s reforms not be undone, but rather expanded and finished: all should obey the book of
the Law, including the King, the Priests, and all the people.
By the time you arrive at the inn, you have a pretty good idea of where they stand on many of
the issues. They ask you to join them for a drink, but you have a headache and go straight to your
room.
You are sure that your brief tour of Jerusalem is the cause of your headache. You met many
people today who disagreed about the issues Josiah called the meeting to resolve. You had
thought the meeting might be short and fairly civil. But now you realize that the different groups
strongly disagree and so achieving consensus will be a challenge. You sigh as you lie down and
recall Wisdom’s words:
Hear instruction and be wise, and do not neglect it.
Happy is the one who listens to me, watching daily at my gates, waiting beside my doors.
For whoever finds me finds life and obtains favor from the LORD;
but those who miss me injure themselves; all who hate me love death. (Prov 8:33-36)
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Josiah Game Expectations
It’s 622 BCE,1 the 18th year of King Josiah’s reign. During repairs to the Temple, ordered by
King Josiah, the High Priest Hilkiah found a “book of the law” in the Temple. Hilkiah and
Shaphan both read the book and then took it to the king. Shaphan read it aloud to king Josiah.
The book shocked and frightened the king, who tore his clothes. But perhaps it wasn’t authentic?
Josiah ordered several men to take the book and “inquire of Yahweh” to verify it. They went to
the prophetess Huldah who reported the book’s dire warnings were indeed true. But what if she’s
wrong (or perhaps even lying?)?
What to do now? Josiah has called a meeting to see if the book’s laws should be implemented
immedately: should Judah’s religion be changed dramatically, altering hallowed and ancient
traditions? This is the primary question facing the people of Jerusalem!
But persuading people to implement these reforms isn’t straight-forward. They would have a
variety of different impacts:

The Book of the Law (Deuteronomy 12-26) is very different from traditional religious
practices of the common people and the vast majority of Judahites. People would have to change
their religious practices greatly.

The Book of the Law is also somewhat different from the religious laws taught and
practiced by Judah’s religious specialists, the priests. It is possible that the new religious rules
would actually make it more difficult to worship Yahweh!

The fact that it has been confirmed by a woman prophet is not as reassuring as it might
appear:
Prophecies often fail to come to pass, so their reliability is dubious.
Some prophets try to discern the desires of the king (or whoever is asking for a prophecy)
and tell them what they want to hear, so their reliability is dubious.
And sometimes Yahweh forces prophets to lie, so as to bring about the end God desires (1
Kg 22:19-28)!

In addition to religious considerations, implementing the religious reforms required by the
Book of the Law would have significant economic impact:
If tithes and offerings can only be given to Yahweh in Jerusalem, Jerusalem would become
much wealthier, but all other sites and towns with religious sanctuaries would become poorer.
Shutting down remote religious sites will cause the priests officiating there to become
unemployed. How will these people feed themselves and their families?
-----------------------------------1
BCE and CE are abbreviations for “before the common era” and “common era.” The “common
era” is the era during which Judaism and Christianity both existed. Thus, these labels are more
ecumenical than the traditional BC (“before Christ”) and AD (“Anno Domeni” or “Year of our
Lord”).
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The game encourages you to think about how these changes would impact different groups by
dividing the class into four schools (Royals, Priests, Prophets, Judahites). These are public
identities, know to all players.
But there are also two secret factions (the Deuteronomists and the Traditionalists), who are
strongly divided about the religious reforms. There may be members of these factions in all
schools, since some of the priests (or royals or prophets or Judahites) may actually favor the
traditional worship practices over those advocated by the Deuteronomic faction, found in the
book of the law. If you are in a secret faction, you will need to carefully try to find allies without
revealing your secret allegience! Tread carefully, especially if you are a Traditionalist, lest you be
put on trial and exiled!
- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o
A second set of issues that need to be decided relate to foreign policy. Judah has been an
obedient vassal of Assyria for about 75 years, paying its tribute annually and without rebellion.
This has ensured peace, which has allowed Judah to prosper, rebuilding the cities the Assyrians
destroyed during Hezekiah’s reign. But their peace also allowed Judah’s enemies, especially the
Ammonites and Edomites to grow strong, too. The Edomites, in particular, took over portions of
the Negev formerly regarded as part of southern Judah.
If Assyria is weakening, perhaps it is time to make an alliance with Egypt or Babylon and throw
off the yoke of Assyria! Surely these other states would not require the crushing tribute demanded
by Assyria. Of course, Assyria has come back from previous periods of weakness, so rebelling
might be as dangerous now as it was during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Kg 18:13) . . .
- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o Counterfactual hypothesis: The Bible does not report that Josiah convened a council to discuss
what to do now that the Book of the Law was verified. Rather, it immedately describes Josiah’s
efforts to change Judah’s worship. However, it hints that he consulted with his inner circle and it
is likely that there were longer discussions that the Bible does not describe. He summoned all the
elders of Judah and Jerusalem (2 Kgs 23:1), had the Book of the Law read aloud to all, small and
great (v.2), and made a covenant with God to which the people joined (v.3). All of this implies a
process to gain the consent of the leaders of the kingdom and its people. Why would Josiah want
to do this? Because the “people of the land” had made him king (2 Kgs 21:24) The phrase,
“people of the land,” probably refers to the leaders and not the masses.
Thus, whatever dicussions took place, it is likely that they were held mostly in the palace and
among Jerusalem’s elite. In this game, Josiah’s meeting includes a much wider group of
participants. This is counterfactual, but necessary: Josiah’s officers and advisors would have been
aware of the feelings and ideas of the masses and would have taken them into consideration (to
some degree, anyway). Josiah did not enjoy absolute power and if he did not tread carefully, he
might suffer his father’s fate: to be assassinated in a palace coup! So while there is no evidence for
a meeting like the one portrayed in this game, there certainly was consulting and planning. And
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while some of the people in this game would not have attended these consulting and planning
sessions, their ideas and arguments would have been acknowledged.
- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o To prepare for these debates, you need to read the following items:

The whole student manual. Pay particular attention to the essays on Judah’s history and
Israelite religion.

Deuteronomy, esp. chapters 5, 12-26, and 32

2 Kgs 22-23, 2 Chr 34-35

Your character sheet

The additional readings from the Bible listed on your character sheet.
All materials should be read carefully. Papers are more persuasive if they offer specific
examples than if they make vague generalizations. You can only offer specific examples if you
have read the material and mastered it. Take notes and write outlines of the different documents,
so you understand them better!
You will write 10-12 pages for this game.

The first paper of 4-5 pages is your opening argument. Your position will be described on
your character sheet. The initial round of discussion will focus on whether to implement Josiah’s
reforms or not and students will make arguments based on tradition, economics, or other issues.
Indeterminate characters will address issues to be discussed during the second round
(international politics). Your paper MUST cite primary sources (the Bible) to support your
position. But remember:
The paper can take a creative format or genre appropriate to your character. That is, if you
are a prophet, you can use typical prophetic form (“This is the word of Yahweh, which came to
me. . .”) or structure it like prophetic utterances (which are usually parallelistic couplets or
triplets).
Always remember: the goal of the paper isn’t to make a scholarly argument, but to persuade
others of your position.

The second paper will be of 5-6 pages. It, too, will be described on your character sheet. It
might ask you to further develop the ideas of your first paper more deeply (by offering additional
primary sources or by refuting the arguments your opponents raised in their first papers). Or you
might be asked to write a paper relevant to the events in Round 2 of the game, which relate to the
effects of decisions made in Round 1.
Please read the “How to Write Persuasive Papers” and “How to make Colherent and Precise
Arguments” handouts before writing your paper.
You must “publish” your papers by making them public within 24 hours of your speech in
class. Your instructor will tell you how to do this (usually by email, electronic bulletin
board, or the like.)
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You will speak at least two times.

Some roles will have specific speaking assignments, such as the priests who will open
sessions with a prayer or sermonette.

In general, your speaking will probably develop out of your papers. You may NOT bring the
paper to the podium to read, but you may jot down points on 3 x 5 or 4 x 6 cards to help
you remember. Speaking time will be limited to about five minutes, so plan well. You
should also pace the talks so you speak at least once for each round. When you are ready
to speak, come to the podium and sign-in with Asaiah and wait in line. He is obligated to
take let you speak when your turn comes if there is time. Your goal is to speak
persuasively so that undecided and indeterminate game players agree to your
position.

Prophets, however, may interrupt and speak from the floor. But they must be chary of doing
this, lest they be arrested and tried. Such interruptions should be saved for important
moments or points.
- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o- o - o -
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Schedule of Classes
Preparatory Session A:
Reading: All of the student packet.
Class: Discussion of Judah’s history and especially religious practices
Preparatory Session B:
Reading: Deuteronomy, chapters 5, 12-26, and 32; 2 Kgs 22-23; 2 Chr 34-35
Class: Discussion of how why Deut is thought to be the “Book of the Law”
How would Deut change Judah’s religious practices?
Roles assigned to class members
Preparatory Session C:
Reading: Character sheets, additional materials on character sheets
Class: Faction meetings
Royals need to prepare draft decree
Priests need to figure out rota of priests to offer opening prayers/sermons
Game Sessions: Possible Agenda
The Agenda is set by Asaiah, so he can order something different, if he so desires after consulting
with the Angel of the Game (that is, the instructor or GM - game master).
The daily order of business.
Asaiah will call the meeting to order.
Sessions begin with a priest (determined by lot before the game) coming to the podium. The
priest will offer an appropriate sacrifice and make a short biblical prayer or sermonette.
After the prayer, Asaiah will announce the topic of discussion, recognize speakers, etc.
Round One
Day 1: Hilkiah the High Priest will begin the session at the Asaiah’s behest, praying and possibly
sermonizing.

Following this opening, Asaiah will ask Huldah, the leader of the prophets, to publically
authenticate the Book of the Law.

The Royal council will offer a draft decree about implementing the new religious laws and
procedures outlined in the Book of the Law.
First paper offered to GM.
Day 2: Comment period on the draft decree. Revisions and changes made to the decree?
Certainly, the economic consequences of the decree will be at issue.
Day 3: Final comments or changes to the decree. Vote on the decree. Asaiah publishes his
decrees.
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Round Two: This round is more free-form. Foreign policy will certainly be discussed, but other
issues, arising out of the decisions made during Round 1, will also be examined.
Day 4: Draft decree offered about foreign policy: should Judah join with Egypt, throw off the
Assyrian yoke, and invade Assyrian territory? Or should we remain Assyrian vassels and
oppose Egyptian advances into Palestine? Should we follow the visionary thinking of
Jeremiah and send emissaries to Babylon? Or, should Judah stand alone, trusting God to
restore the Kingdom of David and Solomon at its fullest extent as a counterweight to the
decaying superpower neighbors?
Second paper due to the GM.
Day 5: Discussion of foreign policy? Vote?
Trials, based on new religious laws?
Draft decree about celebration of Passover offered?
Day 6: Final votes on foreign policy (if not done already).
Trials completed
Passover celebrated?
Day 7: Post mortem -- what transpired in the game versus history
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Other Information:
Communication:
You may send message to the GM at any time by way of alphabetic writing on potsherds-known as ostraca (sing: ostracon) --i.e., by e-mail. The GM may clarify, give hints, or even
change the rules at whim.
You are free to use creative means of communication (song, poem, decree in the street) as
acts of persuasion. However you may not use ploys that exist in the world outside of the game
(“You are my roommate/sorority sister, and you’d better vote my way or ...”).
You are free to speak more often than twice, write extra screeds, caucus outside of class, or
seek to persuade one another inside of your character outside of class.
You should address your classmates by character names or sister/brother Judahite when
discussing game issues, whether in class or outside (in the cafeteria, dorms, library, whereever). It
is important to separate game activities from “real world” duties so that any ill-will that might be
generated in the game won’t spill over into the real world. When the game is over, it’s over.
Legal actions:
It is also possible that different characters may be accused of a variety of crimes, such as
dereliction of duty (e.g., drunkenness in the Temple), false prophecy, non-standard worship of
Yahweh (idoltry, divination), or worship of other gods (Asherah, Baal, Qom, Molech, etc.).
1) Should one or more character bring such charges, they need to write a letter to Asaiah with
a: the name(s) of the accuser(s)
b: the name(s) of the defendant(s)
c: a description of the charge(s)
This document must be publicly posted immedately after the game session.
2) Asaiah will read the charges at the end of the class session.
3) After the opening prayer of the next session, the high priest (or another priest if he is on
trial) will select a jury of five elders by lot. The accuser(s) will explain their charges and argue for
the guilt of the defendants. The defendants will offer their defense. Elders will listen carefully to
both sides of the argument, question witnesses if they desire, and make a judgment.
If the defendant is found guilty:
they can be silenced but allowed to vote (for one or more sessions of the game);
they can be banished (prohibited from active participation) for one or more sessions.
If the jury determines the accusations to be frivolous, they can also mete out punishment for the
accuser(s):
they may request a judgment by lot for possible exoneration by God (the high priest will cast
the lot at least twice for confirmation of the divine verdict--that is, the same lot must come up
twice in a row);
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they may receive the death penalty if the crime biblically warrants it (and so their character is
no longer in play unless conjured by a necromancer. The Angel of the Game may give them a new
character brief).
An appeal for mercy may be made to the king who may grant it or not.
Asaiah has the charge of briefing any who would bring forward a legal matter in the proper
procedure.
Factions and Schools:
Remember that visible schools (Royals, Priests, Prophets, Judahites) do not necessarily
coincide with invisible factions (Deuteronomists, Baal-worshipers or non-fundamentalist
Yahwists). You might earn points under both rubrics. The “winning faction” or players, as judged
by the GM, will receive a half grade boost to their game participation grade.
Factions may also conference with the GM. Some of you will receive secret instructions by
electronic potsherds (ostraca).
** Your instructor may adjust this. The various game components add up to slightly more than
one third of your course grade: 10% each written assignment; 8% oral speeches and the like; 8%
other participation (caucuses, costume, props, extra written work, creative contribution, strategy
and tactics); 2% consultation with GM as group or singly.
Classroom Behavior:
Since you are in a meeting in the king’s court, you need to conduct yourself accordingly. How
did people behave in ancient Judah’s court? You should read description of the Egyptian court
included as part of the Joseph story (Gen 37, 39-50). Especially noteworthy are the interactions
between Joseph and his brothers: Gen 42:6-28, 43:15-34, 44:14-34.
Egyptian wisdom literature often discussed how officials should relate to their superiors and
how they should govern. Proverbs is the book in the Bible that does similarly. But while many of
the sayings in Proverbs offer general about good behavior, it mentions the king and his power
specifically on several occasions (Prov 16:10-15, 19:12, 20:2, 8, 26, 28, 22:11, 24:21, 25:5-6)
and other passages discuss behavior in the court (Prov 23:1-3).
Behaving like the wise is always appropriate in court.
Sacrifices:
As discussed in the “Religion of Israel and Judah” section below, sacrifices were a major part
of Judah’s worship practice. According to Leviticus 1, a bull, ram, or male-goat was slaughtered
before the altar and it blood collected in a bowl, to be dashed on the four sides of the altar. The
animal's body was skinned and cut up into sections before being entirely burnt atop the altar.
It is recommonded that classes simulate this, as part of the ceremony to mark the beginning of
the game session. Students (and instructors) are encouraged to use their imagination to create an
appropriate simulation of sacred rite.
Since it is an important religious service, proper decorum and gravitas should be maintained
throughout the ceremony.
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Passover:
If the resolution to celebrate Passover passes, the last class session will include a short
celebration of Passover. Passover is also known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread. In the Bible,
it seems that these were originally two separate holidays: in the older cultic calendar of Exodus
23, Passover isn’t mentioned (Exod 23:14-17) but the Festival of Unleavened Bread is. In the
later cultic calendar of Leviticus, Passover is mentioned and the Festival of Unleavened Bread
follows it immedately (Lev 23:5-6).
As part of the Passover celebration, students might bring in some snacks. Most importantly,
people should eat some matzoh, the unleavened bread that contemporary Jews eat for eight days
of the festival. This is available in grocery stores or, if people are feeling ambitous, you can try to
bake your own.
Here’s a recipe for matzoh:
Preheat your oven to its highest temperature (but not set to broil).
1 C water
3 C flour
Flour your work surface and rolling pin, so the dough won’t stick when you roll it out.
Mix the flour and water until it forms a firm ball.
Turn the dough out on the work surface and knead it, adding flour if it is sticky.
When it is firm, roll it out to a thickness of 1/4 to 1/8 inch thick (very think).
Prick the thin dough with a fork to make holes all over it.
Move the dough to a cookie sheet. (If you have a pizza stone and a peel, you can cook it
directly on the stone, too.)
Bake the bread for two to three minutes, until crisp.
Remove from the oven and let cool.
Note: this recipe isn’t kosher for Passover. To be kosher, you need to get kosher flour and
carefully clean your kitchen, utensils, to make sure they are free of any trace of leaven. You also
need to take no more than 18 minutes from mixing the dough to having it bake, lest natural
leavening occur. But you will have fun and the end product will be tasty.
Recipe and directions adapted from: http://www.ehow.com/how_2030731_koshermatzoh.html.
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Background Materials
Dates and Sources of Biblical Books
The Bible is a collection of documents, written at different times by different people. Which of
these texts can students use during the Josiah game? In other words, which documents found in
the Bible today would have existed at the time of Josiah, around 625 BCE? This question is
difficult to answer and requires a brief history of biblical scholarship.
Until the 18th century, many people thought Moses was the author of the Pentateuch, the first
five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). They thought other
biblical personages were responsible for other books: Samuel, Gad, and Nathan produced 1 and 2
Samuel; Jeremiah wrote 1 & 2 Kings; each prophet wrote his own book and so forth.
Modern scholarship notes that most of the books in the Hebrew Bible are anonymous and do
not specify who wrote them. Some books claim to be the words of an individual, such as Amos
(and other the prophetic books) or the book of Proverbs. But these words were collected, edited,
and transmitted by anonymous scribes, so even if they were spoken by a particular prophet or
wise-person, that individual never wrote their words down nor produced a document that we have
in our Bibles today. Thus, the book of Amos collects the sayings attributed to the prophet, but
they are not necessarily arranged in chronological sequence and the book was probably not
written by him.
Ancient scribes provide dates for some of the books in the Bible. For example, most prophetic
books begin with a date formula: “The words of so-and-so to whom the word of Yahweh came
during the reign of king so-and-so.” Because scholars have figured out when different kings
reigned, this sort of formula allows us to know when a prophet spoke, even if we do not know
when their words were collected, edited, and promulgated. For game purposes, we will assume
that the ancient scribes were correct in their dating and will also assume (counter-factually) that as
soon as they spoke, prophets’ words would have been widely known.
This means that students can use materials from the eighth century prophets (Amos, Micah,
Hosea, and first Isaiah (Isa 1-39). Nahum was probably active during Josiah’s reign, as were
Zephaniah and the young Jeremiah (at work in cps. 2-6 and 30-31). Hence, all these materials may
be used in the game.
Materials from Proverbs and Psalms are impossible to date confidently. But since similar
materials (wisdom literature and hymns) are known from older societies in Egypt, Canaan, and
Mesopotamia, the Judahites undoubtedly had documents akin to Proverbs and Psalms. Thus,
students can use these materials if they desire.
But ancient scribes did not assign authors to most of the books in the Hebrew Bible. The
books of the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) are all
anonymous, as are the books that succeed them: Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings.
Who wrote these books and when? As mentioned above, many pre-Enlightenment biblical
scholars thought Moses wrote the Pentateuch, but during the 18th century, this attribution was
called into question. Scholars began to notice oddities in the text that led them to doubt that one
author could have written these five books. A couple of examples of these oddities:
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In Genesis 1, God speaks to create the world in six days, in three sets of pairs. This table
illustrates this:
Day 1
Light and dark
Day 4
Day 2
Division of primordial
waters into sea and
sky (by a dome or
firmament)
Dry land, plants
Day 5
Day 3
Day 6
Heavenly lights: Sun,
moon, stars
Creatures of sea and
sky (fish & birds)
Land animals,
culminating with
humans
But Genesis 2 presents a different sequence of events in creation. This story focuses on the
humans. Yahweh2 formed the ‘adam (human) from dust, and breathed into his nostrils, and the
‘adam came to life. After creating the ‘adam, Yahweh created plants and then animals, trying to
find a partner for the man. Eventually, Yahweh puts the man to sleep and, removing a rib from the
‘adam, formed it into a woman.
These stories are quite different: they describe a different sequence for creation, use different
name for the deity, and present the deity’s creative activities very differently. The deity in Genesis
2 has human-like characteristics (that is, he is anthropomorphic).
Other oddities in Genesis include:

God told Noah to take two of every living creature into the ark in Genesis 6:19, but
Yahweh told him to bring seven pairs of clean animals and one pair of unclean animals in
Genesis 7:2.

Joseph was sold to Ishmaelites, who took him to Egypt (Gen 37:28), but six verses later
the (apparently) same group is called Midianites (Gen 37:36).

Abram told the Egyptians that Sarai was his sister (Gen 12:13) and played the same trick
on king Abimelech of Gerar (Gen 20:2). But in Genesis 26, it was Isaac who settled in
Gerar and told king Abimelech that his wife (Rebekah) was his sister (Gen 26:6).

“Moses” described his own death and wrote that “no one knows [Moses’] burial place to
this day” (Deut 34:6).
-----------------------------------2
The biblical authors referred to their deity in several different ways.
One way, used in Genesis 1, is by the word el or its plural elohim. el, like the English
word “god,” can be either a generic term for any male deity (as in, “Dagon was a Canaanite
god.”) or it can be a proper noun (as in, “God bless America”).
The other way, used in Genesis 2, is by writing the consonantes of the proper name of
Israel’s deity: YHWH. This refers to a specific deity like Apollo, Zeus, or Jupiter. In the case of
the god of Israel and Judah, the deity’s name may have been pronounced Yahweh.
English translations differentiate between these two ways of referring to Israel’s deity.
When translators find the word el or elohim in the text, they translate it as “God” (with a capital
“G”) if it refers to Israel’s deity. If referring to another deity, they translate it as “god” or “gods.”
When they find the word YHWH in the text, they translate it as “the LORD.” This is printed
in small capital letters, to differentiate it from the honorific “lord,” which might be applied to a
king or other high ranking person (as in, “my lord David”).
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We need not catalogue all such puzzling examples (it would be a long list). It is enough to
note that these sorts of puzzles have been noticed by careful readers of the Bible from a very early
date. However, the ways of explaining them have changed over time.
Traditionally, the Bible was regarded as “scripture” and thus could not be read like other
texts. Since “scripture” is “true,” oddities or contradictions were attributed to the human reader’s
inability to understand the divine. Scholars worked hard to explain apparent contradictions. For
example, many interpreted the texts allegorically. In allegorical readings, the meaning of the text is
not its surface or plain reading but some deeper, symbolic interpretation. Perhaps Genesis 1
described how God created things in heaven and Genesis 2 describes how creation in the material
realm happened (this was how a first-century C.E. Jewish historian named Josephus explained it).
Other puzzles, such as Moses’ ability to predict future events, such as his own death, could be
explained by noting that he was a prophet.
Starting in the 17th century Enlightenment, some scholars began reading the Bible like other
documents, rather than as scripture. This meant they started looking for explanations for the sorts
of puzzles described above that derived from human, rather than divine causes. Rather than
assuming that there was some sort of hidden message from God in the number of animals (either
one pair or seven pairs) that Noah took on the ark, they began to try to understand the text as
produced by humans and explained puzzles in the text as produced by human foibles.
Eventually, biblical scholars developed the documentary hypothesis. This model suggested
that the Pentateuch had four main sources. They identified these sources by common traits (such
as how they referred to the deity) or interests. Additionally, the scholars tried to figure out when
and where these sources could have been produced. The most familiar form of the model is
associated with J. Wellhausen:
Source
Date
(BCE)
Geographic origin
Traits
J
1000
Judah
Refers to deity as Yahweh
Anthropomorphic deity
History from creation through the Exodus with a
focus on events in Judah. For example, stories
of patriarchs & matriarchs doing things in
Judah.
E
950
Israel
Refers to deity as el or elohim
Deity more remote, uses messengers or dreams to
communicate with humans
Alternate history, with stories about events
occurring in Israel.
D
625
Judah (with
influence from
Israel?)
Book of Deuteronomy
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P
700
or
post5863
Judah or Exile
Page 17
Priestly materials. Mostly Exod 25:1-Num 10:10
including Leviticus. But other materials
scattered throughout Genesis (such as the
creation story in Gensis 1 and genealogical
materials).
Most biblical scholars accepted the documentary hypothesis for much of the 20th century. It
explains why there are two creation stories, two different sets of animals going onto Noah’s ark,
and many other puzzles: they come from different sources. Evidently, there were two versions of
the flood narrative that were woven together by a careful editor. Similarly, there was an older
creation story from J (in Gen 2) and a newer creation story from P (in Gen 1) that were arranged
sequentially at the beginning of Genesis. When these various sources were edited together is
debated. For an easy-to-read, popular description of the documentary hypothesis, students may
want to consult R. E. Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? (New York: Harper and Row, 1987).
Starting in the 1960s, the documentary hypothesis came under attack and alternative models
have been suggested. But none of these have attracted widespread consensus and many biblical
scholars continue to use the documentary hypothesis in writing histories of ancient Israel.
For the purposes of the Josiah game, students may freely draw on materials from the
Pentateuch. It is unlikely that the texts known to Josiah’s scribes were exactly like what we read
in a Bible today, but most of the stories would have been similar.
What about the other large group of anonymous texts -- Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, and 1
& 2 Kings? According to many biblical scholars, these books contain material from a variety of
sources. Some scholars have suggested that this whole series of books -- which they call the
Deuteronomic history -- was produced by Josiah’s scribes, as a way of encouraging the adoption
of his religious reform program. These books are not history as modern historians would write;
rather, they are theological documents that reflect upon God’s relationship with Israel and Judah.
They explore the history of Israel and Judah to argue that the history is cyclical.4
1) God’s people repeatedly disobeyed God
2) God punished them, often by sending a foreign power to dominate them
3) They repented and begged for help
4) God eventually forgave them
After some period of time, they began to disobey again. (Go back to step 1.)
This argument would have been attractive to Josiah and his scribes since he was trying to
change Judah’s religious behavior to agree with what was described in the newly found “book of
-----------------------------------3
Wellhausen thought P was post-Exilic -- that is, after 538 BCE. But more recently, Milgrom,
Knohl, and others suggested that P was preceeded or was partially contemporary with
Deuteronomy. Today, scholars who uphold the documentary hypothesis fall into two camps:
those who date P early and others who date P late. For our game, we will assume that something
akin to P materials would have been known, at least orally, to the Priests.
4
Although this cyclical pattern is most clearly laid out in the book of Judges (see, especially,
chapter 2:11-23), it can be seen throughout 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings as well.
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the law.” How could he motivate people to accept these new and, in some ways, radically
different religious practices? Some scholars suggest that Josiah’s scribes created a history to argue
that the religious practices of both Judah and Israel had been incorrect for a long time and,
although God was patient and merciful, he was willing to punish even his chosen people if they
ignored his statutes, ordinances, and commandments. This argument is very clearly made in 2
Kings 17, which explains the destruction of Israel in 722 BCE as God’s just punishment of the
continually errant Israel. If God was willing to destroy and exile Israel for incorrect religious
practices, why would God treat Judah differently? Judah better change its worship practices to
conform with this new revelation!
Josiah’s scribes didn’t just make up this material, but rather drew on older traditions.
Sometimes they make it clear what their sources were. For example, they mention court histories
for Solomon (1 Kgs 11:41), the kings of Israel (1 Kgs 14:19, 15:31, et al.), and the kings of Judah
(1 Kgs 14:29, 15:7, 23, et al.). There were other narrative units they drew upon, although the
boundaries of these are unclear. For example, if you read Judges carefully, you will notice that
most of the early stories are set in the northern Kingdom of Israel; the middle story deals with a
judge from east of the Jordan; and the last stories all focus on a judge from the southern kingdom
of Judah. It is possible that some Israelite scribes assembled the stories of the Israelite judges and
Judahite scribes assembled the stories of the Judahite judge. When this collecting took place is
unclear, but these cycles of stories probably existed before Josiah and so were available for his
scribes to edit and turn into the book of Judges (or something similar to it) found in our Bibles.
For the purposes of the Josiah game, students can draw on any of the materials from Joshua
through 2 Kings, apart from the final chapters of 2 Kings (that is, chapters 23:28-25:30), which
were written after Josiah’s reign. While we don’t know when Josiah’s scribes released their
history, students can assume that these stories would have been known and so can be used in the
game.
To summarize: because it is likely that they were in existence (in part or perhaps orally) by
the time of Josiah, students can draw on the following books during the Josiah game:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings (down through 23:28)
Proverbs, Psalms
Amos, Micah, Hosea, first Isaiah (Isa 1-39), Nahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah cps 2-6 and 30-31
(which refer, at least partially, to Josiah’s time).
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A Brief History of Israel and Judah
Sources for writing a history of Israel and Judah are numerous, but can be difficult to use. As
noted above, there are many unresolved questions about date and authorship for the obvious
source, the Bible. Without knowing when a document was written and having some idea of the
author’s bias, it is hard to evaluate the document’s testimony. Note that to say the author has a
bias isn’t as negative as it sounds! It simply recognizes that everyone has their own viewpoint and
that different people look at the world differently. The stories told about the American Revolution
are different from the American and British perspectives. Since Judah suffered attacks from Israel,
Egypt, Assyria, and others, it would be surprising if a Judean author described these other nations
in a completely dispassionate manner.
Fortunately, there are some other sources available. Some of these are documents from other
kingdoms. These documents are biased as well: according to Assyrian sources, the Assyrians were
always successful in battle! Still, the Assyrian king chronicles allow us to know when the
Assyrians were campaigning in Syria-Palestine; since (some of) these campaigns can be correlated
with biblical descriptions, it allows us to date the biblical texts more precisely. We have similar
documents from Egypt, Babylon, and Moab.
Perhaps the most important source outside the Bible are the results gathered by
archaeologists. Archaeologists have worked in Palestine from the mid-19th century. Initially,
many archaeologists were motivated by a desire to prove the authenticity of the Bible. This has
proved difficult, since many of the most interesting stories in the Bible leave no archaeological
traces: what evidence would have survived of Abraham’s aborted attempt to sacrifice his son
Isaac (Genesis 22)? And in other cases, the archaeological record seems to disprove the biblical
account. For example, Jericho seems to have been uninhabited at the time when the book of
Joshua says it was captured by Israelites (Joshua 6). Finally, archaeological finds can be difficult
to interpret: do small clay figurines represent deities or are they children’s play-things, like clay
Barbie dolls? Even with these difficulties, most recent histories of ancient Israel tend to lean
heavily on archaeological materials and we will do so as well.
The earliest period for which there is archaeological evidence of Israelites is the beginning of
the Iron Age, around 1200 BCE. Before discussing this evidence, a brief review of the eastern
Mediterranean world during the end of the Bronze Age is necessary.
For most of the late Bronze Age (1500-1150 BCE), Egypt controlled southern SyriaPalestine, either directly or through client-kings, who paid tribute. Northern Syria-Palestine was
controlled by the Hittites, who ruled an empire from central Asia Minor (modern Turkey). The
region of modern Syria and Iraq was controlled by Assyria, although southern Iraq was often
independent and governed by Babylon.
Starting around 1200, all these empires were destroyed or seriously disrupted by large-scale
migrations of invaders. In Syria-Palestine, the invaders seem to have come from northern Asia
Minor and the Aegean Sea. They were not just raiding armies, but whole families, clans, and tribes
moving into new areas. Scholars refer to them as the “Sea-Peoples,” a term coined by the
Egyptians. The Hittite empire collapsed about 1180, although who destroyed it is unclear. By
about 1150, Egypt had lost control of Syria-Palestine and managed, barely, to prevent the SeaPeoples from invading Egypt itself. In Mesopotamia, invaders came from the Arabian desert,
significantly weakening the Assyrian empire and allowing Babylon to regain its independence.
Assyria remained weak until around 950, when it began to rebuild its empire. Egypt never was
able to re-establish itself as an empire, so costly had been its defense against the Sea Peoples. In
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short, from around 1150 until about 950, the ancient “super-powers,” based in the river-valleys of
Mesopotamia and the Nile were weak. This power vacuum allowed smaller, local states to
flourish. Two of these were Israel and Judah.
According to most archaeologists, the Israelites descended from Canaanites. During the late
Bronze Age (1500-1200 BCE), the Canaanites lived in large city-states, mostly along the
Mediterranean coast, but with a few inland cities. These cities were destroyed during the invasions
of the Sea Peoples, some of whom settled in the coastal areas and became known as “Philistines.”
Around this time, new settlements appeared in the hill country of Judah and Israel. These
highland settlements used Canaanite-style pottery, technology (such as water-proof plaster), and
spoke a similar West Semitic language. Because of the similarities in the archaeological remains
found in the Canaanite city-states and highland settlements, historians think that some Canaanites
fled the coastal plain and moved inland, to higher, more mountainous territory. They may have
been commoners fleeing the hierarchical Canaanite social structure, which demanded they pay
high taxes to the king; or they may have been refugees fleeing the destruction of their cities. In
any case, the Canaanites settled in small, largely self-sufficient villages.
At some point, this community came to see itself as different from the Canaanites and claimed
a common ancestor who was named Jacob or Israel. So they called themselves “Israelites.” It is
interesting to note that the culture of these highland settlements -- egalitarian and self-sufficient -described by archaeologists is similar to the culture of the Israelites described in the biblical book
of Judges.
What about the materials in the Bible that precede Judges? Most historians think that since
Genesis and other biblical materials were written much later than the events they describe, they
are not reliable historical witnesses. However, the Bible may preserve some traditions. For
example, the Israelites came to worship Yahweh, a non-Canaanite deity. How did they acquire
this new deity? There are hints in the biblical texts that Yahweh came from the south (unlike the
Canaanite El, whose mountain was in the north), from Sinai or Horeb. Thus, although
archaeologists have found no evidence (such as Egyptian pottery) that the Israelites came from
Egypt, it is possible that a small group of migrants from Sinai or Midian, where Yahweh was
worshipped, might have joined the Canaanites in the highlands of Palestine, bringing stories of
their deity. There, they mingled with the Canaanites settling in the highlands. This mixed multitude
came to identify themselves as Israelites, rather than Canaanites, and worshipped Yahweh, the
god of the Israelites.
The idea that the Israelites descended from Canaanites flies in the face of the biblical text. The
book of Joshua says that the invading Israelites destroyed the native Canaanites. But there are
reasons to doubt the account in Joshua. First, there is little archaeological evidence of any
conquest, even though large-scale destructions (from conquests, fires, or earthquakes) usually
leave significant evidence in the archaeological record. Second, there are many similarities
between Yahweh, the Israelites’ deity, and Ba’al, El, and other Canaanite deities. Third, the
religious practices of the Israelite cult resemble those of the Canaanite cult. (See below, for more
on Israelite religion.)
As mentioned above, from around 1200 to 950 BCE, the regional super-powers were weak.
This allowed small, local nations to emerge and among these were the Philistines and Phoenicians,
who lived along the coast, the Israelites and Judahites, and, further inland, the Ammonites,
Moabites, and Edomites.
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The Bible suggests that during the period of Judges (1200 to 1000 BCE), the Israelites were
organized by tribe. Occasionally groups of tribes worked together to battle external enemies, but
these alliances were local, relatively weak, and short-lived. After fighting a specific enemy, the
Israelite militia disbanded. And according to Judges, the Israelite tribes also fought each other.
The tribal system defended Israel well enough when its enemies were relatively weak. But around
1000, the Philistines began to encroach on the territory of Israel and Judah.
The Philistines had access to better resources and were better organized. The Philistine cities
were lead by kings, who oversaw a standing army. Because the Philistine army was staffed by
professionals, they were able to defeat the tribal militias of Israel and Judah. Thus, according to
the Bible, the Israelites demanded that their last judge, Samuel, appoint a king to lead them (1
Sam 8). The man Samuel anointed as king was Saul (1 Sam 10:1).
Saul was a member of the smallest tribe, Benjamin. It was also the southern-most tribe of
Israel. From a political perspective, it made sense to have the first king be from the tribe that
would be least able to use the king’s power to overwhelm the other tribes.
Whatever the reason for Saul’s selection as king, he created a professional army, led by
himself and his son, Jonathan. They were able to defeat the Philistines in several encounters. Saul
was a successful general (1 Sam 14:47-48), until the Philistines defeated and killed him and his
older sons. How long Saul reigned is unknown.5
Saul was succeeded by David. He was a southerner from Judah, who started his rise to power
as one of Saul’s military leaders. David was enormously successful in battle. This made him
popular, both with members of his tribe (Judah) and also with members of the various northern
tribes (the Israelites). Although the biblical authors present David as completely loyal to Saul,
they hinted that he may have attempted to usurp the throne. In any case, after Saul’s death,
Ishbaal, one of Saul’s sons, ruled Israel for two years, while David ruled Judah. After Ishbaal was
assassinated by some of his soldiers, David ruled both Israel and Judah, creating the so-called
United Kingdom.
During his 40-year reign, David enjoyed great military success. He conquered most of the
neighboring states, including Moab, Edom, Ammon, and Syria (2 Samuel 8, 10), and dominated
the Philistine coastal cities. David’s most significant conquest was the capture of the city of Jebus,
which he renamed Jerusalem and made into his capital. David brought the Ark of the Covenant
(imaginatively depicted in Raiders of the Lost Ark) into Jerusalem, making the city both the
political and the religious capital of his kingdom.
When David was old, Solomon’s mother, Bathsheba, schemed with palace power-players to
have David select Solomon as his successor. Solomon’s major accomplishment, according to the
biblical authors, was to build the Temple in Jerusalem. This became the site of the official cult and
enjoyed royal patronage. Solomon also built a major palace in Jerusalem. To pay for these
construction projects, Solomon raised taxes sharply.
At some point during Solomon’s reign (the Bible is unclear about when), Syria and Edom, the
remote parts of David’s empire rebelled and broke away. But Solomon was able to maintain
control over Judah and Israel and there were no revolts during his reign. His son, Rehoboam did
not inherit his father’s wisdom in governing.
-----------------------------------5
Typically, when the biblical author introduced a king, they used a formula: “PN (personal name)
was X years old when he began to reign and he reigned Y years over Israel” (1 Kg 14:21).
Sometimes the age at accession (X) is omitted, but the length of reign is always provided. But
Saul’s introduction (1 Sam 13:1) omits both X and Y.
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After Solomon’s death in 922 BCE, the Israelites came to negotiate lower taxes with
Rehoboam. When Rehoboam refused, the northern tribes seceded and selected a new king,
Jeroboam. From this point onward, Israel and Judah were separate states.
Of the two states, Israel was larger and wealthier, with better natural resources and access to
trade routes. It was more cosmopolitan and, at times, enjoyed close connections to Phoenicia. But
it also had more powerful enemies (like Damascus) and was closer to the reviving superpower,
Assyria. Israel’s central government was weak: no dynasty lasted for more than a few generations
before an enterprising general rose up to assassinate the king and claim the throne for himself.
Judah was poorer and more remote, but had a very stable government. Except for the reign of
Queen Athaliah (843-837), David’s descendants ruled in unbroken succession from Rehoboam
(922) until the destruction of Jerusalem (586 BCE).
When the kingdoms divided, each successor state was weaker. This allowed some of their
conquered territories, like Moab and Ammon, to break away. It also made them easier prey for
Egypt (which pillaged the Temple during Rehoboam’s reign), Damascus (which captured much of
eastern Israel), and other states.
However, like David’s empire, the various other independent states in Syria-Palestine also
emerged during a period of super-power weakness. Starting around 900, both Egypt and Assyria
began to regain their strength. Although Egypt was strong enough to invade Palestine and pillage
the Jerusalem Temple around 917, it was never as powerful as Assyria.
From around 1150 until 900, the Assyria kingdom contracted to its heartland, around the
upper Tigris river. Starting around 900 BCE, the Assyrians drove their enemies out of the Tigris
valley and gained control of northern Mesopotamia. They signed a peace treaty with Babylon,
which consolidated their southern flank. Ashurnasirpal (883-859) suppressed a rebellion of vassal
kings and brutally punished the kings, princes, and nobles who led the revolt. These punishments
included impaling, flaying, dismembering, or burying them alive. While vicious, the violence was
calculated: when Ashurnasirpal marched west to the Mediterranean, his reputation preceded him.
Thus, no one opposed him and the rulers of the neo-Hittite and Aramaean city-states and
territories voluntarily submitted to him and paid him tribute. With the enormous amount of booty
he collected on this western campaign, Ashurnasirpal built a new capital with an elaborate palace.
The prospect of gathering similar amounts of booty prompted his successors to continue to
campaign and conquer.
The states in Syria-Palestine banded together to resist Assyrian expansion. Thus, in 853, a
coalition that included forces from Damascus (1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalry, and 20,000 infantry)
and Israel (2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry) defeated the Assyrians at the battle of Qarqar. 6
About 10 years later, Jehu, an Israelite general, rebelled against the king and took the crown
of Israel for himself. The anti-Assyrian alliance, which may have ended earlier, completely fell
apart as Jehu became an Assyrian vassal and paid tribute. Damascus, however, resisted and
remained independent. When the Assyrians withdrew, Damascus attacked Israel and captured
much of its territory east of the Jordan river (2 Kgs 10:32-33) and forced Judah to pay tribute (2
Kgs 12:17-18).
Damascus was able to become so strong because Assyria’s power declined sharply. From 825
until 744 BCE, Assyria was wracked by civil wars, famines, and epidemics. But in 745/4 BCE,
-----------------------------------6
The Bible does not report this victory, probably because it took place under the leadership of
King Ahab. Ahab was a villian in the eyes of the biblical writers, so it is not surprising that they
would omit a story of his important victory.
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Tiglath-pileser III became king. He expanded Assyria’s boundaries dramatically, subduing
Damascus and exacting tribute from Israel (2 Kgs 15:19) during the reign of Menahem (745-737
BCE). Later, Tiglath-pileser returned and captured much of Israel’s northern territory (2 Kgs
15:29).
Damascus and Israel tried to create a new anti-Assyrian alliance, but Ahaz, the king of Judah,
refused to join. In response, the kings of Damascus and Israel attacked Judah (2 Kgs 15:37),
hoping to replace Ahaz with an ally. Ahaz responded by becoming an Assyrian vassal. He paid the
Assyrians to attack Damascus and Israel with gold and silver from the Temple. The Assyrians
captured Damascus, killed its king, and took its people into exile (2 Kgs 16:9). They also attacked
Israel, forcing it to become a vassal and pay tribute (2 Kgs 17:3). After a few years, with promises
of support from Egypt, the king of Israel rebelled against Assyria. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser
marched against Israel. The Assyrians besieged Samaria, Israel’s capital, for three years. They
captured it, destroyed it and deported its people in 722 BCE. Archaeologists have found evidence
that Jerusalem increased in size dramatically at about this time, probably from Israelite refugees.
The Egyptians encouraged the Palestinian states (Judah, Moab, Edom, etc.) to rebel against
Assyria, promising to come to their assistance. Egypt was also allied with Babylon, since both
countries feared the growing strength of Assyria. Babylon, too, sent envoys to Palestine (2 Kgs
20:12-14), presumably to encourage its states to revolt. Late in the 8th century, Hezekiah, the
king of Judah, along with Tyre, Sidon, and other local states followed the Egyptians’ advice (2
Kgs 18:7).7 This prompted the Assyrian king Sennacherib to invade to subdue the rebellious
vassal states. He arrived at Jerusalem around 702 and besieged it. Hezekiah had the foresight to
improve Jerusalem’s defenses and its water supply, so the siege failed. Hezekiah sued for peace
and stripped the Temple of silver and gold (2 Kgs 18:15-16). After his revolt, Hezekiah appears
to have been a loyal vassal for the final 13 years of his reign.
Hezekiah was succeeded by his son Manasseh, who enjoyed the longest reign of any Judean
king: 55 years (2 Kgs 21:1, 687-642 BCE). The biblical authors criticized Manasseh bitterly
because of his traditional religious practices, but say little of his foreign policy. Since his reign was
long and peaceful, he was probably a dutiful Assyrian vassal.
But Egypt still fomented rebellion among Judah’s neighbors. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon
responded by invading and sacking the coastal city-state of Sidon in 677 BCE. Neighboring Tyre
revolted in 676 BCE, perhaps hoping that Esarhaddon, busy suppressing a Babylonian revolt,
would not be able to respond. But Esarhaddon decided to attack Egypt to end its meddling in
Syria and Palestine. In 673, he invaded and captured much of the Nile delta. In 671, he captured
Memphis, the capital of Egypt and appointed a governor. But capturing the capital did not
guarantee that the rest of Egypt was quiet. The Assyrians had difficulty in pacifying Egypt,
especially since at roughly the same time, the Babylonians and other kingdoms on Assyria’s
eastern borders rebelled. Esarhaddon’s successor, Ashurbanipal, seems to have spent most of his
long reign (668-627) trying to suppress various rebellions in his empire. Towards the end of his
life, these attempts may have been less and less successful..
Manasseh was succeeded by his son, Amon, who reigned for only two years. He was
assassinated by “his servants” but the biblical author does not specify what prompted his
assassination. The Bible says that the “people of the land” killed Amon’s assassins and placed his
-----------------------------------7
Note that the biblical description of Hezekiah’s reign presents events in a sequence that seems
out of proper order. Biblical scholars usually rearrange the reports in a sequence they feel more
logical.
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son, Josiah, on the throne. Who the “people of the land” were is unclear, but they seem to have
been powerful political figures and thus were probably wealthy landowners.
Josiah began to reign in 640 and, according to the Bible, about 18 years later, in 622, the socalled “Book of the Law” was found during Temple repairs. Shortly before this, scholars think
that Ashurbanipal died (627/626). Since Ashurbanipal’s two sons both claimed the Assyrian
throne for themselves, a civil war broke out. At the same time, there was also a civil war in
Babylon, as different pretenders sought that throne.
For game purposes, it is important to remember that the international situation was fluid for
most of Josiah’s reign. When he came to power, the Assyrian empire was weakening. When
Josiah was implementing his cultic reform, the Assyrians were in a civil war and thus unable to
exert control over vassal states. But a strong leader could emerge and lead the Assyrians back to
glory and strength. Babylon, too, fell into civil conflict. And while Egypt was stronger than Judah,
was it strong enough to re-establish itself in Palestine as it had 1,000 years earlier? Or would the
demise of these major powers create the sort of power vacuum that had existed from 1150 to
900?
This is the foreign policy question facing the Judahites during Josiah’s reign:
Should Judah try to re-establish itself as a major local power, like David did?
Or should it ally itself to one of the rising superpowers? And if so, which one?
Egypt?
Babylon?
a restored Assyria?
Because it wasn’t clear who would become the next superpower, different factions of
Judahites advocated making alliances with each. Being correct would ensure favor from the
winner, while being incorrect might be punished with death.
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The Religion of Israel & Judah
In this description of Israelite8 religion, we assume the historical model of Israel’s origins
outlined above: refugees from Canaanite city-states at the end of the Bronze Age fled into the hillcountry of Israel and Judah, and eventually became Israelites.
One reason this model is plausible is that Israel’s descriptions of its deity, preserved in the
Bible, are similar to those of Canaanite deities; Israel’s cultic sites resemble Canaanite sites; and
Israel’s worship practices are akin to those of the Canaanites. Over time, Israel’s religion evolved
into something new, but religious change is always slow and meets resistance from conservative
members of the community. Reformers -- like the Deuteronomists -- arose after long periods, but
had difficulty trying to get people to alter practices they had been doing for 500 years or longer.
Interestingly, the Deuteronomists and their allies may have planted the seeds that sprouted during
the Babylonian exile (586-538 BCE) to create a truly new religion: early Judaism.
We will briefly examine each of the features outlined above (deities, cultic sites, and practices)
to learn about “old-time” religion in Israel. We start with a brief discussion of Canaanite religion
before turning to discuss Israelite religion. One important fact for game players to keep in mind is
that Josiah was trying to change many aspects of traditional religion, hallowed by antiquity. While
the reforms claimed to be a return to an ancient, “pure” worship of Yahweh, but there is no
evidence that such worship ever existed. Rather, the reforms are an attempt to create a new form
of worship, one purified of activities disapproved by the Deuteronomistic school. The book of the
law (Deuteronomy) was not descriptive (telling how things were) but prescriptive (telling how
things should be or should have been.
Canaanite Religion
Much is known about Bronze Age Canaanite religion from archaeological discoveries,
including a trove of texts from the city Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra), near the coast of modern
Syria. Canaanite religion continued to be practiced by the Phoenicians, the descendants of the
Canaanites, during the Iron Age, who lived along the coast of Palestine, in the area of modern
Lebanon.
The Canaanite pantheon included many deities. The major gods included:
Name
English
translation
Iconography
Function
El
God
Old, bearded,
patriarch,
seated on
throne
Ruler of pantheon, father of other deities,
creator of earth and humans. Old, kind,
wise. In some stories, El is a warrior, but
usually Baal takes this role.
-----------------------------------8
“Israelite” religion includes both the religious practices of people in the northern kingdom of
Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. While customs varied from region to region, they were
broadly similar.
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Athirat /
Asherah
Goddess /
Shrine (?)
Standing on
lion’s back,
holding
serpents.
Associated
with trees or
wooden poles.
Mother of other gods => fertility goddess
and goddess of motherhood
Goddess of sea => patron of fishermen
Baal
Lord
Depicted
marching and
with weapons.
Storm god, responsible for rain and thus
crops. Battles the Sea, depicted as
dragon. Battles Death and dies, causing
infertility on earth. Anat rescues him from
Death. After his resurrection, he restores
fertility to world.
Anat
Anath in
Judg 3:31
Depicted with
helmet and
weapons
Warrior goddess. Very bloodthirsty and
violent. Wife/sister of Baal.
These deities were worshipped primarily via sacrifice. Sacrifices were done for a variety of
reasons (for example, in gratitude for a good harvest and to ensure future fertility or in “payment”
for a vow) but most involved the slaughter of an animal and burning part or all of the sacrificial
victim.
The Canaanites celebrated several agricultural holidays, including at least one in the fall,
celebrating the autumnal harvest and one in the spring, celebrating the harvest of winter wheat
and the dropping of lambs and calves.
The Canaanite concept of afterlife is unclear, but there is evidence that people had banquets to
“feed” the dead.
Israelite Religion
We know about Israelite religion from the Bible and from archaeology. The biblical evidence
needs to be considered carefully, because it represents the ideas of a very small group: the
educated elite, mostly from Jerusalem. They found many practices objectionable and harshly
criticize them in the Bible:
You must destroy all the sites at which the nations you are to dispossess worshiped their
gods, whether on lofty mountains and on hills or under any luxuriant tree. 3 Tear down
their altars, smash their pillars, put their sacred posts to the fire, and cut down the images
of their gods, obliterating their name from that site. 4 Do not worship the LORD your
God in like manner. (Deuteronomy 12:2-4)
However, the fact that these practices are described in independently produced biblical books
(including Deuteronomy and several prophetic books) indicates that they were commonly
practiced and widely known. They were a normal part of Israelite religion. Thus, the Bible
provides important evidence, but we need to look beyond the biblical author’s (generally
negative) assessment of those practices when trying to discuss what constituted Israelite religion.
Archaeology is a useful supplement to the Bible, as it provides evidence of Israelite practice
that is not filtered by through the lens of biblical prescriptions and judgments.
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One thing that has become increasingly clear to biblical scholars is that Israelite religion
continued many of the practices of Canaanites.
Israel’s God
Perhaps the biggest difference between Israelite and Canaanite religion is the fact that the
Israelites worshipped a deity known as Yahweh. Scholars do not know the origin of this deity,
although some speculate that worship of Yahweh may have been introduced by people from
Midian or other regions south of Judah, since this is where, according to the Bible, Yahweh first
introduced himself to Moses (Exod 3:13-16). Whatever Yahweh’s origin, the Bible shows that
Yahweh absorbed attributes of older Canaanite deities, most importantly the gods El and Baal.
Yahweh, like El, ruled over a divine council (Ps. 82:1, 89:5, 8; Job 1:6). He was old and
bearded (Ps 93, Dan 7:9) and lived in a tent (2 Sam 7:6) on a mountain far to the north (Ps 48:3,
Isa 14:13). Many of El’s titles are assigned to Israel’s God, especially in Genesis: El-Shaddai
(“God almighty;” Gen 17:1, 28:3, 35:11, 43:14, 48:3), El-Elyon (“Most high God;” Gen 14:18,
19, 20, 22), El-Olam (“God everlasting;” Gen 21:33), El-Bethel (“God of the house of god;” Gen
31:13), El-elohe-Israel (“God of the gods of Israel;” Gen 33:20), and El-roi (“God who sees;”
Gen 16:13). The biblical authors, perhaps to correct the impression that the Patriarchs were
worshipping the Canaanite El, report that Yahweh said to Moses: “I appeared to Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob as El Shaddai, but I did not make Myself known to them by My name YHWH” (Exod
6:4, JPS translation). In other words, Yahweh never properly introduced himself to the patriarchs!
Interestingly, even reformers, like the Deuteronomists, could praise Yahweh using terms drawn
from Canaanite descriptions of El (Deut 32:6-7).
Yahweh also absorbed attributes of Baal. Yahweh, like Baal, fought the Sea, depicted as a
dragon (Pss 74:12-17, 89:5-12; 104:5-9). Both were war-gods, fighting on behalf of their people.
When they came forth from their holy mountains, their presence caused the earth to writhe and
nature to shudder (Exod 15, Pss 18, 24, 46, 68, 77, 97, 98, Amos 1, etc.).
Some authors have argued that Yahweh also absorbed attributes of Asherah and/or Anat.
They note that the Bible assigns female attributes to Yahweh. Thus, God “gave birth” to Israel
(Deut 32:18), God upheld Israel since its conception and carried it since its birth (Isa 46:3), and
comforted Israel “as a mother comforts her son” (Isa 66:13). Thus, “Israelite society perceived
Yahweh primarily as a god, although Yahweh was viewed also as embodying traits or values
expressed by various gendered metaphors. . .”9
Other scholars believe that Yahweh did not absorb attributes of Asherah, but that the worship
of Asherah continued throughout the monarchical period. They note that the biblical authors
repeatedly referred to “Asherah(s)” (which could mean either the deity, Asherah, or a sacred pole,
which was her symbol) and advocate their destruction (Exod 34:13, Deut 7:5, 12:3, 1 Kgs 14:15,
etc.). In addition to the biblical text, these scholars note that archaeologists have found many
figurines (between 850 and 3,000) that they identify as Asherah. These figures were made
throughout the monarchical period (tenth to sixth centuries) and found in a variety of locations,
mostly domestic. Thus, they argue that worshipping Asherah was probably part of the private,
domestic cult. Additionally, inscriptions have been found that mention Yahweh and Asherah at
public sanctuary sites of El-Qôm and Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, suggesting that Asherah was Yahweh’s
consort, just as she was El’s consort in the Canaanite pantheon. In short, there seems to be
-----------------------------------9
M. S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities in Ancient Israel (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002) 147.
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accumulating evidence to support the idea that Judahites worshipped Asherah along with
Yahweh.
Israel’s Cult
The basic form of worship in ancient Israel and Judah was sacrificing animals, as it was in
Canaan and throughout the ancient world. Leviticus provides a detailed description of the types of
sacrifices, what animals were to be killed, and step-by-step directions for what to do with each
part of the animal (some get burned entirely, some get burned partially, some get eaten by the
priests, some get split between the priests and the worshiper, and so forth). In addition to animals,
worshipers offered other gifts, including incense, grain, fruit, libations, and other goods.
Exodus and Leviticus also describe the cultic calendar, which was probably based on the older
Canaanite calendar. Israel’s three pilgrimage festivals -- Sukkoth in the fall, Passover in the
spring, and Weeks in the early summer -- were originally agricultural festivals. Over time they
became associated with events in Israel’s national history, during the Exodus and 40 years in the
wilderness: Sukkoth with living in huts during the wilderness years, Passover with the escape
from Egypt, and Weeks with the events at Mt. Sinai.10 The observation of a day of rest (the
Sabbath or Shabbat) seems to have been an Israelite innovation. By the end of the monarchy, the
Sabbath seems to have been celebrated every seven days, but when this custom started is
unknown. The first day of the month, which was also the day of the new moon, was a festival day,
as well (Isa 1:14, Ezk 45:17).
Canaanite practices formed the original basis for Israelite customs and seem to have continued
for much of the monarchical period. King Solomon hired workers from king Hiram of Tyre. Since
Tyre was a Phoenician (Canaanite) city, Hiram’s workers built a typical Canaanite temple for
Solomon. The temple was Yahweh’s house and its innermost chamber contained the Ark of the
Covenant, watched over by statues of cherubim (winged lions with human heads). Outside this
chamber was an incense altar, lamp-stands, and a table for bread offerings. In front of the temple
was a large bronze basin, called the “sea,” supported by 12 oxen. (Notice the echoes of Canaanite
mythology, with its stories of deities subduing the “Sea” and being associated with bulls.) Also in
front of the Temple was a large altar for burning offerings. The biblical authors do not criticize
Solomon’s Temple, even with its Canaanite overtones. However, they did criticize the many
elements added by the Judean kings who succeeded Solomon. But it is important to remember
that at the time, the kings and (presumably) the priests officiating at the Temple thought these
additions acceptable parts of Israelite religion.
The Bible describes how the Israelites should worship Yahweh in great detail. But the biblical
authors -- strongly influenced by the ideas of Deuteronomy -- also makes it clear that the Israelites
-----------------------------------10
One might argue that if the Israelites mostly descended from the Canaanites, their ancestors did
not participate in the Exodus, so this history did not apply to them. This would be true but
irrelevant.
Most Americans have no connection to the Pilgrims or to agriculture (apart from visiting
the grocery store) but everyone celebrates the agrarian festival of Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving
was sporadically celebrated until 1863, when Lincoln declared it a national holiday. Building on a
common American history and tradition, he hoped that Thanksgiving would be celebrated by all
Americans and heal some of the wounds of the Civil War.
In short, stories and celebrations that bind groups together do not need to be historically
verifiable to function.
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did not worship in this manner for most of their history. Israel and Judah are condemned for this
and their improper worship is used to explain their eventual exile from Israel (2 Kgs 17) and later
from Judah (2 Kgs 21:11-15, 24:2-4). These historians described and condemned common
religious practices in Deuteronomy and in 2 Kg 17. They also described Josiah’s attempt to
implement the Deuteronomic reforms (2 Kg 23). Israelite and Judahite worship seems to have
included:
Cultic sites on mountains or hilltops (high places = bemah / bemoth (pl.), Deut 12:2, 2 Kgs
23:5,8).
Cultic sites had:
Altars (Deut 12:3, 2 Kgs 23:12)
Standing stones (masseboth) (Deut 12:3, 2 Kgs 23:14)
Sacred poles (Asherim, sing: Asherah) (Deut 12:3, 2 Kgs 23:14)
“Idols” (Deut 12:3)
People made offerings to Baal, Asherah, and “the host of heaven” (2 Kgs 23: 4, 5) and made
“vessels” for them.
People occasionally sacrificed children (Deut 18:10, 2 Kgs 23:10)
Some people practiced magic, divination, sorcery, etc. (Deut 18:10-11, 2 Kgs 23:24)
The biblical authors condemned all these practices, but make it clear that, from the period of
Judges throughout the monarchy, people did them, not only in the hinterland, but also in the
Temple in Jerusalem. Hence, they were part of the official religion and normal, at least until
Hezekiah and Josiah.
Interestingly, at least some of these practices were acceptable to the Biblical authors. For
example, they speak approvingly of offering incense to Yahweh in the Temple in Jerusalem; they
never condemn the “statues” (or idols?) of the cherubim in the Temple; and divining Yahweh’s
desires by casting lots (throwing magic dice?) was recommended (Lev 16:8-9; Num 26:55-56;
Josh 14:2; 1 Sam 10:20-21, etc.). Evidently, they thought images, divination, and burning incense
acceptable under certain circumstances (perhaps when they were doing it?).
Archaeology has confirmed almost all these practices took place. Archaeologists have found a
number of bemoth on hilltops. They can be identified as cultic sites by the presence of an
sacrificial altar, clay offering stands (used to hold plates of goods offered to the deities), small
incense altars, standing stones (massebot, sing: massebah), and figurines (commonly clay but
occasionally bronze).
In a few places, archaeologists have found temples, notably in Shechem and Arad. Both of
these had altars and standing stones. The Arad temple had two standing stones, one large and one
small, perhaps representing Yahweh and Asherah. At some point, the Judahites took down the
standing stones and buried them under the altar floor, perhaps in conjunction with the reforms of
Hezekiah or Josiah.
In many places, archaeologists have found inscriptions that mention Baal, Asherah and other
deities (who may comprise the “host of heaven”). Clearly, many deities other than Yahweh were
worshipped by some Judahites some of the time.
We mentioned above the large number of small figures that have been found; these could be
described (negatively) as “idols.” Archaeologists have found amulets to ward off evil, which could
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be described as “magic.” They have also found dice and knucklebones (astragali) that could have
been used for fortune telling.11
Finally, archaeologists have found no evidence for child sacrifice in Israel, but it was practiced
in surrounding areas, such as Ashkelon. So it is likely that child sacrifice was practiced, but rarely
(as the Bible, too, suggests).
In short, archaeology has confirmed the biblical description of the wide diversity of religious
practices in ancient Judah and Israel. It was common for people to offer sacrifices at local cultic
high places, although who officiated there is unknown. Many people probably had household
shrines, which included figures of deities. Many people worshipped Yahweh in conjunction with
other gods or goddesses. Both the Bible and archaeology suggests strong connections between
the older Canaanite culture and that of Israel and Judah. This means that Josiah and the
Deuteronomists were trying to change old traditions, sometimes dating back 500 years or more.
So where did the Deuteronomistic school come from? At some point, perhaps starting in the
ninth century BCE, some Israelites began to argue that Israel was being disloyal to Yahweh by
worshipping other deities. According to 1 Kgs 16:29-34, king Ahab built a Temple for Baal in his
capital, Samaria. He may have been influenced by his strong-willed Phoenician (Canaanite) wife,
Jezebel, who worshipped her ancestral deities and supported prophets of Baal and Asherah (1 Kgs
18:19). Prophets of Yahweh, notably Elijah and Elisha, condemned Ahab and this may have been
the origin of the idea that Israel should worship only Yahweh. This idea was articulated and
expanded by later prophets, especially Hosea, who introduced the powerful metaphor of Israel
being “married” to Yahweh. When the Israelites worshipped other deities, they were like an
unfaithful wife, so Hosea accused Israel of “playing the whore.” Other prophets utilized this
metaphor as well, creating intentionally offensive, gross, or distasteful language (consider Ezekiel
16 or 23!) to get their audiences to change their behavior.
Hosea condemned worshipping deities other than Yahweh, but other prophets criticized the
elite, the king and his officials, including priests and cultic prophets. All these people exploited the
poor and powerless. The prophets argued that Yahweh wanted ethical behavior and social justice,
not sacrifices:
And I said: Listen, you heads of Jacob
and rulers of the house of Israel!
Should you not know justice?-You who hate the good and love the evil,
who tear the skin off my people,
and the flesh off their bones;
Who eat the flesh of my people, flay their skin off them,
-----------------------------------11
It is important to note that “idoltry” and “magic” are both value-laden terms. What is important
in each is the intention of the practitioner. Venerating the statue of a saint or an icon could be
described by an outsider as “idolatry” but the worshipper knows they are not addressing the statue
or image, but recognizes them as a symbol of the saint that aids their worship by providing a
focus.
Similarly, burning incense, reciting ancient words, and gesticulating could be practicing
magic or it could be worshipping, depending on the intention of the practitioner. An outsider
could easily (or intentionally) misunderstand the rite.
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break their bones in pieces, and chop them up like meat in a kettle,
like flesh in a cauldron.
Thus says the LORD concerning the prophets who lead my people astray,
who cry "Peace" when they have something to eat,
but declare war against those who put nothing into their mouths. (Micah 3:1-3, 5)
[The word of Yahweh, according to Amos]
I hate, I despise your festivals
and I take no delight in your solemn assemblies
Even though you offer me your burnt offerings and grain offerings
I will not accept them
And the offerings of well-being of your fatted animals
I will not look upon.
Take away from me the noise of your songs;
I will not listen to the melody of your harps.
But let justice roll down like waters,
and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream. (Amos 5:21-24)
Thus, prophets criticized both worshipping deities other than Yahweh and also criticized the
religious practices they discerned in Jerusalem, Bethel, and other cultic sites. But prophets were
not just loud, obnoxious cranks: because they revealed Yahweh’s instructions, they were
important advisers to the king (1 Sam 15:2-3, 2 Sam 7:4-17, 1 Kgs 22, 2 Kgs 19-20). Isaiah may
have taken advantage of this role (2 Kgs 19-20) to encourage Hezekiah to undertake his religious
reform program, just as Huldah advised Josiah (2 Kgs 22:15-20). The long list of non-Yahwistic
religious items that Josiah’s cleaning removed from the Temple (2 Kgs 23) demonstrates that the
complaints of the prophets were well founded. That the Temple in Jerusalem (the site of royal
patronage and “official” religion) could be so “polluted” might explain why the Deuteronomists
wanted to close down all the other cult sites. They wanted to monitor the worship of the Judahites
to make sure it was “correct,” but could not oversee all the remote high places and other religious
sites. If they closed them and centralized worship in Jerusalem, they could monitor its practice
closely to make sure it was in accord with their understanding of how Yahweh should be
worshipped.
Ironically, given the concern for the poor and powerless voiced by prophets such as Amos and
Micah, centralization probably hurt the poor. Centralized worship meant that the only way to
worship was to travel to Jerusalem, a time-consuming and expensive chore, rather than visiting a
closer site. It shifted resources away from local leaders, who might have officiated at the highplaces and other local cultic sites. Thus, centralization probably impoverished villages and local
sites and enriched the priests, elites, and urban residents of Jerusalem. But since the
Deuteronomists were among the latter groups, this irony was probably not noticed.
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Appendix: Hebrew Letters and Inscriptions
Archaeology is important because it sheds light on lives of common people, often ignored by
the elite authors who wrote and edited the Bible. Archaeologists are interested in artifacts, like
pots and statues, but some of the most exciting finds are documents. In this appendix, we have
reproduced some letters written around the time of Josiah. Students can use them to supplement
the Biblical descriptions of the period.
When translating ancient documents, words in parenthesis (like this) represent words not
present in the original, but which the translators have added to smooth the English translation.
Words in brackets [like this] represent places where the text is missing or illegible. Pottery
fragments get broken, papyri and parchment can be eaten by worms or mold. When this happens,
the translator guesses what words would fit, both in terms of length of word and context, into the
lacuna (blank space), but signals to the reader that the translation is uncertain by bracketing the
reconstructed text.
Most of the documents below were written on broken pieces of pots. A pottery sherd is
known as an ostracon (plural: ostraca). Others were inscribed on other surfaces.
All of these documents come from the time of Josiah or a couple of decades later.
The Mes.ad H.ashavyahu Ostracon:
May the official, my lord, hear the plea of his servant.
Your servant is working in the harvest; your servant was at H.as.ar-Asam (when the following
incident occurred).
Your servant did his reaping, finished, and stored (the grain) a few days ago before stopping
(work). When your servant had finished (his) reaping and had stored it a few days ago,
Hoshayahu ben Shabay came and took your servant’s garment. When I had finished by reaping, at
that time, a few days ago, he took your servant’s garment.
All my companions will vouch for me, all who were reaping with me in the heat of the sun: my
companions will vouch for me (that) truly I am guiltless of an in[fraction].
[(So) please return] my garment. If the official does not consider it an obligation to return
[your servant’s garment, then have] pity upon him [and return] your servant’s [garment] from that
motivation. You must not remain silent [when your servant is without his garment].
Pardee, in Hallo, William W. and K. Lawson Younger, Jr. Editors. The Context of Scripture,
v. 3: Archival Documents from the Biblical World (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2003): 77-78.
Another translation of the Mes.ad H.ashavyahu Ostracon:
Let my lord commander hear the case of his servant!
As for thy servant, thy servant was harvesting at Hazar-susim (?).
And thy servant was (still) harvesting as they finished the storage of grain, as usual before the
Sabbath. While thy servant was finishing the storage of grain with his harvesters, Hoshaiah son of
Shobai came and took thy servant’s mantle. (It was) while I was finishing with my harvesters
(that) this one for no reason took thy servant’s mantle.
And all my companions will testify on my behalf-those who were harvesting with me in the
heat (?) [. . .] all my companions will testify on my behalf!
If I am innocent of gui[lt, let him return] my mantle, and if not, it is (still) the commander’s
right to take [my case under advisement(?) and to send word] to him [(asking) that he return the]
mantle of they servant. And let not [the please of his servant] be displeasing to him!. . .
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Albright, in Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd. ed.
with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1955, 568.
Lachish 2:
To my lord Yaush. May Yahweh give you good news at this very time.
Who is your servant (but) a dog that my lord should remember his servant? May Yahewh give
my lord first knowledge of anything you do not already know.
Pardee, op. cit., 78-79.
Lachish 3:
Your servant Hoshayahu (hereby) reports to my lord Yaush. May Yahweh give you the very
best possible news.
And now please explain to your servant the meaning of the letter which you sent to your
servant yesterday evening. For your servant has been sick at heart ever since you sent (that letter)
to your servant. In it my lord said: “Don’t you know how to read a letter?” as Yahweh lives, no
one has ever tried to read me a letter! Moreover, whenever any letter comes to me and I have
read it, I can repeat it down to the smallest detail.
No your servant has received the following information: General Konyahu son of Elnatan has
moved south in order to enter Egypt. He has send (messengers) to fetch Hodavyahu son of
Ahiyahu and his men from here.
(Herewith) I am also sending to my lord the letter of Tobyahu, servant of the king, which
came to Shallum son of Yada from the prophet and which says “Beware.”
Pardee, op. cit., 79.
Lachish 4:
May Yahweh give you good news at this time.
And now, your servant has done everything my lord sent (me word to do). I have written
down everything you sent me (word to do).
As regards what my lord said about Bet-HRPD, there is no one there.
As for Semakyahu, Shemayahu has seized him and taken him up to the city. Your servant
cannot send the witness there [today]; rather, it is during the morning tour that [he will come (to
you)]. Then it will be known that we are watching the (fire)-signals of Lachish according to the
code which my lord gave us, for we cannot see Azeqah.
Pardee, op. cit., 80.
Lachish 5:
May [Yahweh] give my lord the best possible [news at this time].
Who is your servant (but) a dog that you should have sent to your servant these letters? Your
servant (herewith) returns the letters to my lord.
My Yahweh allow my lord to witness a good harvest today. Is Tobyahu going to send royal
grain to your servant?
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Pardee, op. cit., 80.
Lachish 6:
To my lord Yaush. May Yahweh make this time a good one for you.
Who is your servant (but) a dog that my lord should have sent (him) the king’s letter and
those of the officials asking me to read them? The [officials’] statements are not good -- (they are
of a kind) to slacken your courage and to weaken that of the men [. . .]. Won’t you write to
[them] as follows: “[Why] are you acting thus?”? [. . .] As Yahweh your God lives, ever since
your servant read the letters he has not had [a moment’s peace].
Pardee, op. cit., 81.
Lachish 9:
May Yahweh give my lord the [best] possible news.
[And] now, give ten (loaves of) bread and two (bat measures?) of wine (to bearer).
Return word [to] your servant by the intermediary of Shelemyahu regarding what we are to
do tomorrow.
Pardee, op. cit., 81.
Widow’s Plea:
May YHWH bless you in peace.
And now, may my lord the official listen to your maidservant.
My husband has died (leaving) no sons.
(I request politely that the following) happen: (let) your hand (be) with me and entrust to your
maidservant the inheritance about which you spoke to Amasyahu.
As for the wheat field that is in Naamah, you have (already) given (it) to his brother.
Pardee, op. cit., 86.
Kuntillet Ajrud: Inscribed Pithos 1:
Utterance of Ashyaw the king: “Say to Yehallel and to Yawasah and to [. . .]: ‘I bless you by
Yahweh of Samaria and his asherah!’”
Hallo, op. cit., p. 171.
Kuntillet Ajrud: Inscribed Pithos 2:
[. . .] to Yahweh of the Teman and his asherah. And may he grant (?) everything that he asks
from the compassionate god [. . .], and may he grant according to his needs all that he asks!
Utterance of Amaryah, “Say to my lord: ‘Is it well with you? I bless you by Yahweh of
Teman and his asherah. May he bless you and keep you, and may he be with my lord!”
Hallo, op. cit., 171-72.
Kuntillet Ajrud: the Two-Line Inscription:
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[. . . May] he prolong (their) days, and be satisfied [. . .] Yahweh of the Teman has dealt
favorably [with . . .]
Hallo, op. cit., 172.