krishnakant final thesis

EFFECT OF BRISK WALKING ON HEALTH RELATED
PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
VARIABLES OF SEDENTARY COLLEGE
STUDENTS
A
T
H
E
S
I
S
SUBMITTED TO THE
UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
FOR THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
By
KRISHNAKANT
Under the Supervision of :
DR. K.M. VALSARAJ
M.P.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Physical Education
Lucknow Christian College,
Lucknow
UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
LUCKNOW
2013
DEDICATED
TO MY
MOTHER AND FATHER
ii
Dr.K.M.VALSARAJ,M.P.Ed.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Physical Education,
Lucknow Christian College,
Lucknow
Certificate
This is to certify that the work entitled “Effect of brisk walking on
health related physical fitness and physiological variables of sedentary
college students” is a piece of research work done by Shri KrishnaKant who
has worked under the guidance of the undersign during 2010-2013 for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physical Education from University of
Lucknow, Lucknow. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree to any
other University.
This thesis is an original accomplishment
Lucknow
(Dr.K.M.Valsaraj)
Date: -
Supervisor
iii
DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis entitled “Effect of brisk walking on health
related physical fitness and physiological variables of sedentary college
students” is my own work conducted under the supervision of Dr.
K.M.Valsaraj, Reader, Lucknow Christian Degree College, Lucknow (U.P.)
India, approved by the Research Degree Committee.
I further declare that to the best of my knowledge, the thesis does not contain
any part of any work which has been submitted for the award of any degree
either in this University or in other University, Deemed University without
proper citation.
(Dr.K.M.Valsaraj)
(Krishnakant)
Supervisor
Research Scholar
iv
VITA
NAME OF AUTHOR
:
KRISHNAKANT
PLACE OF BIRTH
:
Sakaldiaha, Chandauli,(U.P) India
DATE OF BIRTH
:
April 21, 1983
PRIMARY, SECONDDARY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY AND INSTITUTE
ATTENDED:
 Kendriya Vidyalaya, Mughal Sarai, Uttar Pradesh, India.
 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (U.P.), India.
DEGREE AWARDED:

Bachelor of Physical Education from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi (U.P.), India in the year 2004.

Master of Physical Education from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
(U.P.), India in the year 2006.

Master of Philosophy in Physical Education from Tamil Nadu Physical
Education and Sports University, Chennai (T.N.) India in the year 2007.
AWARDS & HONOURS

Qualified NET conducted by UGC in the year December 2007.
v
V I T A (Contd....)
AREA OF SPECIAL INTEREST:

Teaching physical education classes.

Officiating & coaching in cricket and other games.

Administration of physical education programme.

Organization of competitions, seminars, conferences and attending
seminars and conferences in physical education and allied subjects.

Research in physical education.
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

Lecturer, Department of physical education CSJM University, Kanpur
(U.P.) India since 6th February, 2010.

Lecturer, Department of physical education Lucknow Christian Degree
College, Lucknow (U.P.) India since 1st November, 2008.

Lecturer, Department of physical education Major SD Singh PG
College, Farukhabad (U.P.) India since 2nd July, 2007.
SPORTS ACHIEVEMENTS

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for East
zone Intervarsity tournament held at T.M.Bhagalpur University in the
year 2001.
vi
V I T A (Contd....)

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for East
zone Intervarsity tournament held at KolKotta University in the year
2002.

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for East
zone Intervarsity tournament held at Pandit Ravi Sankar University
Raipur in the year 2003.

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for East
zone Intervarsity tournament held at Kalyani University Kolkotta in the
year 2004.

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for East
zone Intervarsity tournament held at Banaras Hindu University in the
year 2005.

Represented Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in cricket for
Rohington Bariya Trophy tournament held at Jiwaji University Gwalior
University in the year 2006.

Represented East Zone Vizzy Trophy Cricket team as a Captain and
Secured Runner-up in the tournament held at University of Bombay in
the year 2006.

Attended NCA Camp (National Cricket Academy) from 6th march to
21st march 2006.
vii
V I T A (Contd....)

Represented Combined Indian University Cricket team for Colonel
Hemu Adhikari Trophy in the year 2006.
PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS

Paper published in the journal of movement education and sports, July,
2010, volume-II, Punjabi University, Patiala.

Paper published in the PERSIST. vol. - 02, No.-01 August, 2010 –
January, 2011, BHU, Varanasi.

Paper published in the PERSIST: 1, No. 1, Aug- 2009 Jan 2010, BHU,
Varanasi.

Paper published in the VSRD-TNTJ Journal, Vol;1(2)2010

Paper Published in the Journal of Human Kinetics vol. 2, No. 1, January
–April 2011.

Paper published in the "WELLNESS" journal vol.-I No. 01, JanuaryJune, 2009, JNV University, Jodhpur.

Paper published in the “Shodh Prerak” journal Vol.-II, Issue-3, July
2012.

Presented paper in national seminar on Yoga for Holistic Health on 10th
March, 2007 at Tamil Nadu Physical Education and Sports University,
Chennai.
viii
V I T A (Contd....)

Presented paper in national seminar on awareness towards wellness
through educational physical activities on 20-21st march, 2009 at
Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur.

Presented paper in national conference Physical education sports and
yogic science in present millennium on March, 2009 at Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi.

Presented paper in conference on current status and challenges in
Pharmacy and health care march 28, 2010 at Chhatrapati Shahu Ji
Maharaj University, Kanpur.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research scholar extends his sincere gratitude to the Vice Chancellor
of Lucknow University, Lucknow for giving the opportunity to work on this
study and providing the facilities.
A deep sense of gratitude is expressed to Dr. Kunnath Mathai
Valsaraj, Associate Professor, Lucknow Christian Degree College,Lucknow
for his encouragement, valuable guidance, and precious suggestions in the
formulation and completion of this study.
Sincere thanks are offered to Professor Dileep Dureha, Ex HOD,
Department of Physical Education, BHU, Varanasi (U.P.), who generously
offered assistance in finalizing this research at different phases and time. His
excellence and commitment helped me throughout the process.
The research scholar conveys his sincere thanks to Dr. Binayak Dubey,
Assistant Professor, Physical Education, Sakaldiha P.G College, SakaldihaChandauli for his helpful suggestions from time to time.
The research scholar is especially indebted to Dr. Gopal Krishna, Ex
HOD Department of Physical Education,Lucknow Christian College,Lucknow,
Dr.Joseph Singh and Dr Baiju Abraham Assistant Professor in Physical
Education, Lucknow Christian College for their timely assistance and helpful
suggestions throughout the study.
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (continued)
Sincere thanks are also extended to Mr.Ramesh Chand Yadav, Ms.
Ruchi Sah, Lecturers, Department of Physical Education, CSJM University,
Sincere appreciation and thanks are also offered to the library officers
and staff of Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur. Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi and Lakhashamibai National University of Physical
Education, Gwalior for their cooperation and help.
The research scholar also express his sincere thanks to Mr. Fakharul
Hassan, Rakesh Yadav and Radhey Raman Singh all Ex M.P.Ed. Students
of Lucknow Christian College,Lucknow for giving their all possible help and
cooperation for this study.
The research scholar thankful to Mrs. Jessie Valsaraj Mathai and
Mrs.Vandana Singh for their moral support during the research work.
The scholar acknowledges the contribution made by the friends Mr.
Brijesh Kumar, Mr.Rajkumar, Mr.Akash Diwedi, Mr.Amrendra Pandey
and Mr. Asif Kaleem for their help and cooperation
The Scholar extended his thanks to the staff of the Department of
Physical Education Lucknow Christian College, Lucknow for the assistance
rendered.
xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (continued)
It is the proud privilege of a research scholar to express his sentiments of
everlasting gratitude, respect and indebtedness to his brother and sister
Mr.Pawan Kumar and Mrs Manisha Yadav .
The research scholar would wish to extent heartfelt thanks to all the
Subjects who performed so willingly and effectively.
Extremely sincere thanks from the inner soul of the heart is also
extended to Smt. Niranjana Yadav (wife) for her loving and tireless support
and cooperation during the research work.
K.K.
xii
TABLES OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter:
I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem
Delimitations
Limitations
Hypotheses
Definition and explanation of terms
Significance of the study
XXXVII
X
1-17
II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
18-59
III
PROCEDURE
Selection of subjects
Selection of variables
Reliability of data
Administration of the test and collection of data
Analysis of data
60-76
IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS OF THE
STUDY
Findings
Discussion of findings
Discussion on Hypotheses
77-134
V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS.
Summary
Conclusion
Recommendation
135-138
BIBLIOGRAPHY
139-148
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
APPENDICES
ABCDEFGHI
J
K
149-159
Age and Weight of the subjects.
Scores of subjects on pulse rate Variable.
Scores of subjects on Respiratory Rate Variable.
Scores of subjects on Systolic Blood Pressure.
Score of subjects on Diastolic Blood Pressure.
Scores of subjects on Vital Capacity variable.
Score of subjects on Flexibility Variable.
Score of subjects on Fat Percentage Variable.
Score of subjects on Cardiovascular Variable.
Score of Subjects on Abdominal Muscular strength and
Endurance Variable
Score of subjects on Pull-ups Variable
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Particulars
Table
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Page
No.
Criterion Measures for the Study.
61
Reliability coefficient of test, retest scores.
63
Periodisation of training protocol and collection of data.
65
The order of Collection of data on particular day.
66
Training Protocol.
68
Classification of Body Fat Chart.
70
Mean and Standard deviation of Health Related Physical Fitness 78
variables and selected Physiological variables.
8
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Flexibility.
9
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of 86
Flexibility.
10
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Flexibility.
87
11
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Body Fat percentage.
89
12
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Body 90
Fat percentage.
13
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Body Fat 91
percentage.
14
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Aerobic/cardiovascular 93
function.
15
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of 94
Aerobic/cardiovascular function.
16
Pair wise Comparison of Observation
Aerobic/cardiovascular function..
17
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Abdominal Muscular strength 97
and Endurance.
xv
85
in
relation
to 95
18
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of 98
Abdominal Muscular strength and Endurance.
19
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Abdominal 99
Muscular strength and Endurance.
20
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Pull-ups.
21
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Pull- 102
ups.
22
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Pull-ups.
103
23
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Pulse Rate.
105
24
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Pulse 106
Rate.
25
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Pulse Rate
107
26
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Respiratory rate.
109
27
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of 110
Respiratory rate.
28
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Respiratory 111
rate.
29
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Systolic Blood Pressure.
30
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Systolic 114
Blood Pressure
31
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Systolic 115
Blood Pressure.
32
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Diastolic Blood Pressure.
33
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of 118
Diastolic Blood Pressure.
34
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Diastolic 119
Blood Pressure.
35
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Vital Capacity.
36
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Vital 122
capacity.
37
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Vital 123
Capacity.
xvi
101
113
117
121
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.No
1.
Particulars
Graphical
representation
of
means
Page No
on
repeated
88
on
repeated
92
on
repeated
96
observation in relation to Flexibility.
2.
Graphical
representation
of
means
observation in relation to Fat Percentage.
3.
Graphical
observation
representation
of
means
relation
to
Aerobic/cardiovascular
representation
of
means
in
function.
4.
Graphical
on
repeated
100
observation in relation to Abdominal muscular strength
and endurance.
5.
Graphical
representation
of
means
on
repeated
104
on
repeated
108
on
repeated
112
observation in relation to Pull-Ups.
6.
Graphical
representation
of
means
observation in relation to Pulse rate.
7.
Graphical
representation
of
means
observation in relation to Respiratory rate.
xvii
8.
Graphical
representation
of
means
on
repeated
116
observation in relation to Systolic blood pressure.
9.
Graphical
representation
of
means
on
repeated
120
observation in relation to Diastolic blood pressure.
10.
Graphical
representation
of
means
observation in relation to Vital capacity.
xviii
on
repeated
124
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
In today's times, people are leading a very unhealthy lifestyle.
Inadequate sleep, eating disorder, lack of proper regular exercise, increasing
rate of obesity and other health diseases, shooting stress levels are some of the
facts that define the contemporary world's lifestyle. It can be said that in the
present era, human beings have got so engrossed in earning money, that they
have virtually stopped paying attention to their physical and mental fitness.
People do not realize the fact that money cannot buy them happiness.
There is a saying that "if wealth is lost, something is lost, but if health is lost,
everything is lost." So, it is high time, we start giving importance to our health
and make a constant effort to work towards maintaining our all round fitness.
There are distinctive types of workout that one can perform in order to keep fit,
but one exercise that is suitable for all age groups is brisk walking.
Exercise is like a generic medicine, and all exercise has some benefit
According to Ayushveda (2008) walking is one of the most relaxing,
refreshing and enlivening form of exercise which reaps numerous physical,
emotional arnd psychological benefits. To stay fit and healthy one does not
need to spend a bounty on gym facilities as the natural way of remaining
healthy can be achieved by indulging in the healthy practice of brisk walking.
Brisk walking can reap numerous health benefits which range from keeping
one’s heart in a healthy shape, to helping in the process of weight management.
Further, walking helps in refreshing and rejuvenating the mind along with
reducing stress and fatigue. Brisk walking implies picking up a pace which is
faster than normal leisure speed but something which is not exhausting. Thus,
if somebody wants to reap the numerous benefits of brisk walking one should
pick up a pace which is fast, involving the work out of the entire body but that
pace should be within comfortable range and should not exhaust you in a
couple of steps.
Walking is one of the best things you can do for your health. It's good
for your heart, blood pressure and weight management. When you're walking
to get or stay fit, your form, pace, and breathing is especially important.
Mastering a good walking technique takes some time. But with practice, it will
become second nature and will help you increase and maintain your pace
comfortably.
“Long-term walking is your best prospect for a lifetime exercise”
According to Mayer (2007) the anthropologist who made the discovery
officially labeled the skeleton A.L.288-1 but affectionately called her Lucy, a
name taken from the Beatles song “Lucy in the sky with Diamonds,” which
was popular in the expedition’s camp at that time. Lucy was a small adult
female, 3 feet 8 inches tall and weighing about 65 pounds. Lucy’s skeleton
reveals that she was as adept at upright walking as we are, and it proved
2
conclusively that bipedality was fully in place three million years ago. Bipedal
walking became the primary gait of locomotion for all of the species that
followed Lucy and ultimately for us humans. “Lucy could walk, but she could
not talk” She did not have the ability to form words, since there was as yet no
language. She had to forage for her food every day; there was no agriculture.
According to Mayer (2007) the walking gait is fundamental to the
survivability of all terrestrial animals. We humans are biomechanically
designed to walk and walk and walk. “A quadruped has a greater amount of
horizontal forward thrust than a biped; that’s why we lose speed and agility
when we became upright. In the quadrupedal posture, the centre of mass lies
well forward of the hind limbs. Our upright posture, in contrast, places our
centre of mass almost directly over the foot. We lose horizontal thrust and thus
lose speed,” explained Dr.Lovejoy the Center of mass is like a point on the
body where, if you strike a rod through it, the body would be evenly balanced
in all directions, just as a wheel is around its axle.
Brisk walking essentially means walking at a fast pace. It is believed
that walking briskly burns almost as many calories as running or jogging for
the same distance, and poses less risk for injury. Brisk walking is also
considered aerobic activity. No unpleasant side effects either. One might be
wondering if there are any disadvantages.
3
According to Mason (2010) “If everyone were to walk briskly, 30
minutes a day, we could cut the incidence of many chronic diseases by 3040%.”
Brisk walking exercise has been proposed as a less expensive
alternative, with a good clinical outcome when patients are frequently
counseled by motivated, supportive physicians. However, brisk walking
programmes mainly consist of endurance type exercise activities. As combined
endurance and resistance type exercise training has been reported to be of
greater clinical benefit.
According to Mayer (2007) Stroll is a term familiar to everyone.
Strolling constitutes most of our normal daily walking. It starts as slow as 30
minutes per mile and increases to about 18 minutes per mile at the top end of
its range. Part of the definition, “as inclination directs,” accurately describes
how people arrive at their normal walking pace in the course of their daily
activities.
Strolling is the pace recommended for most people who are starting an
exercise-walking program from a sedentary state. It is particularly
recommended for the obese, cardiac rehabilitation patients, and the elderly.
Brisk is also a term familiar to most people, and it is used frequently to
designate an accelerated walking pace. In the direction it is defined as “quickly
4
and active; lively: a brisk walk.” The brisk pace starts at about 17 minutes per
mile at the slow end of the range and stops out at 14 minutes per mile.
The brisk walk-18 to 14-minutes miles is the pace that most long term
exercise-walkers use. It delivers enough cardiovascular improvement and
caloric expenditure for the time spent to be the best all-around exercise on a
risk- reward basis for all people who do not have physical impairment in their
walking gait, it cannot be beaten.
The brisk pace is related as a moderate-intensity exercise and because of
this it has great sustainability for people of all ages even some in their eighties.
Equally important, it delivers an adequate amount of perceived exertion for
most people. By that I mean that brisk walker’s feel physically and mentally
challenged enough that they do not become bored. Each walk is a rewarding
exercise for mind and body.
There are innumerable benefits of brisk walking, especially for obese
people, as it helps them a great deal in increasing their weight loss program.
Talking about the fact, as to how fast should the pace of your aerobic exercise
brisk walking be; the answer to it is that the right pace is the one, which is fast
but not exhausting. The ideal brisk walking speed is one in which you are
capable of talking with your walking companion, while carrying on with your
walking session.
5
Brisk walking helps to fight against stress, by providing complete
relaxation to mind. It protects from the clutches of diseases like
osteoporosis, colon cancer, constipation etc. It increases the longevity of
life, by maintaining fitness. It helps in reducing the problem of depression,
thus enabling to derive mental peace. It relieves from backache trouble and
also acts as a great remedy for arthritis problem. It helps in increasing
flexibility, by strengthening your muscles, bones and joints, thereby toning
the body. It ensures that you have a proper sleep at night.
One of the important, remarkable, beautiful, valuable and priceless
things that God has created particularly on the earth is human life. Therefore, it
is necessary to protect and maintain human life in order to achieve higher goals
and objective and also to live a happy and meaningful life. To develop health
and fitness and to lengthen life, the scientists and researchers have devoted
their lives to invent medicine that protect life from various diseases; and health
related equipment that measure the physical, physiological and psychological
parameters of individuals. Their dedication, determination and will to discover
new things in these fields are highly remarkable and admirable in the history of
man and civilization.
According to an Arabic proverb, “Health is a crown on the well person’s
head but only the sick seem to see it”. Nieman (1968) rightly said, “Health
promotion is defined as the science and art of helping people change their
lifestyle to move towards a state of optimal health”. This modes emphasis on
6
the health promotion was inspired in the past by World Health Organisation’s
definition of Health: “Health is a physical, mental and social well being, not
merely an absence of disease and infirmity”. These four aspects of health may
be achieved through physical education because the main objective of physical
education is to make an individual physically fit, mentally alert, emotionally
balanced and socially adjusted within the society.
Anderson said, “Health promotion is a recognised component of present
day in school education which is designed to prepare each youngster to deal
with life’s academic, cultural and practical needs. He further mentioned that as
an achievement in living, health is integrated with all aspects of school life,
which contribute to the effectiveness and enjoyment of life for each youngster.
Health in the school is an outgrowth of man’s constant for more effective and
more enjoyable living.
According to Hastad & Lacy (1994), “The health related physical
fitness domain is characterized by those aspects of physical fitness that affect
on individual’s functional health & physical well being. It is becoming an
accepted practice for physical fitness testing to emphasize health related
components, including body composition (ratio of leanness to fatness),
cardiovascular efficiency, muscular strength and endurance and flexibility of
lower back and posterior thigh area”.
To measure health related physical fitness components at the school
level children is the right step because children are said to be the citizens of
7
tomorrow and builders of the nation. They must be given right guidance and
training to promote health and fitness at the right time. Today everyone is
concerned with school health and health related fitness of school going
children.
Health related physical fitness is not only significant in general aspect
but also from the sports point of view. A large number of national and
international level players are coming out from school level. Research has
proved that the potential of a child can be gauged when the child reaches early
teenage. World class athletes and their performance can be picked up at the age
of 12 to 15 years in some of the sports like Gymnastics, Swimming, Diving,
Badminton, Table-Tennis, Lawn-Tennis etc. Moreover, potentialities and
anthropometric characteristics of children at different stage of their growth and
development, physical appearance and mental caliber help to guess or
channelize them in different games and sports.
Thus, the research scholar is interested to verify and justify the findings
of medical research which states that brisk walking programme
are equally
effective in improving body fat and Cardio vascular disease as expensive
medical fitness programs, one can adopt simple and effective way of walking
to remain fit and healthy. In today's times, people are leading a very unhealthy
lifestyle. Inadequate sleep, eating disorder, lack of proper regular exercise,
increasing rate of obesity and other health diseases, shooting stress levels are
some of the facts that define the contemporary world's lifestyle. It can be said
8
that in the present era, human beings have got so engrossed in earning money,
that they have virtually stopped paying attention to their physical and mental
fitness. People don't realize the fact that money cannot buy them happiness.
There is a saying that "if wealth is lost, something is lost, but if health is lost,
everything is lost." So, it’s high time, we start giving importance to our health
and make a constant effort to work towards maintaining our all round fitness.
There are distinctive types of workout that one can perform in order to keep fit,
but one exercise that is suitable for all age groups is brisk walking.
The present study was therefore undertaken for better understanding of
the effect of brisk walking on health related physical fitness and physiological
variables of sedentary college student.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of brisk walking on
health related physical fitness and physiological variables of sedentary college
students.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. The first objective of the study was to determine the Health Related
Physical Fitness and Physiological variables in sedentary college students.
2. The second objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk Walking on Flexibility of sedentary college students.
9
3. The third objective of the present study was to determine the trend and effect
of Brisk Walking on Body fat percentage of sedentary college students.
4. The fourth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk Walking on Aerobic/cardiovascular function of sedentary
college students.
5. The fifth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and effect
of Brisk Walking on abdominal muscular strength and endurance of
sedentary college students.
6. The sixth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and effect
of Brisk Walking on upper-body muscular strength (pull-ups) of sedentary
college students.
7. The seventh objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk Walking on pulse rate of sedentary college students
8. The eighth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk walking on respiratory rate of sedentary college students.
9. The ninth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk Walking on Blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) of
sedentary college students.
10. The tenth objective of the present study was to determine the trend and
effect of Brisk Walking on Vital capacity of sedentary college students.
10
DELIMITATIONS
1.
The study was confined to the thirty male college students of Lucknow
Christian College and their age ranged between 18 to 25 years.
2.
The study was further restricted to health related physical fitness and
physiological variables.
HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS VARIABLES
i)
Lower-back flexibility.
ii)
Body fat percentage.
iii)
Aerobic/cardiovascular function.
iv)
Abdominal muscular strength and endurance.
iv)
Upper-body muscular strength.
PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES
i)
Pulse rate.
ii)
Blood pressure (systolic and diastolic).
iii) Vital capacity.
iv) Respiratory rate.
11
LIMITATIONS
1.
The subjects were urged to put up their best performance and no other
motivational technique was employed by the investigator in particular
and that could be considered as a limitation of this study.
2.
The subjects were from different socioeconomic status, different dietary
habits and their differences in terms of practice, which could not be
controlled by the researcher might have affected the performance was
also considered as one of the limitation.
HYPOTHESES
1.
The first hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
flexibility of sedentary college students.
2.
The second hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend
in total body fat percentage of sedentary college students.
3.
The third hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
aerobic/cardiovascular function of sedentary college students.
4.
The fourth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
abdominal muscular strength and endurance of sedentary college
students.
12
5.
The fifth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
upper-body muscular strength (pull-ups) of sedentary college students.
6.
The sixth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
pulse rate of sedentary college students.
7.
The seventh hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend
in respiratory rate of sedentary college students.
8.
The eighth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
blood pressure (Systolic and diastolic) of sedentary college students.
9.
The ninth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
vital capacity of sedentary college students.
DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS
Brisk Walking
(1) Walking is the most popular forms of exercises for all age groups.
However, as age reduces endurance and strength, making an effort to
take a brisk walk will help to regain the lost strength (in small
proportions).
Health Related Physical Fitness
(1) Sharon A Plowman, Denise L Smith (2008).That portion of physical
fitness directed toward the prevention of or rehabilitation from disease
13
as well as the development of a high level of functional capacity for the
necessary and discretionary life tasks.
Cardiovascular fitness
(1) The definition of cardiovascular fitness is the capacity of the
cardiovascular system (heart, lungs and vessels) to efficiently supply
oxygenated blood to working muscles, as well as the muscles to use the
oxygen delivered by the blood supply as a source of energy for
movement. In other words, the definition of cardiovascular fitness is
how well and efficiently your blood circulates through your body.
(2) Cardiovascular fitness refers to the ability of your heart, lungs and
organs to consume, transport and utilize oxygen. The maximum volume
of oxygen your body can consume and use is your VO2 Max. When you
exercise regularly, you can increase your cardiovascular fitness as your
heart becomes more efficient at pumping blood and oxygen to the body,
and the body becomes more efficient at using that oxygen.
Body fat percentage
(1) A person’s total body fat percentage is the total weight of the person’s
fat divided by the person’s weight. The resulting number reflects both
essential fat and storage fat.
14
Essential fat is that amount of fat necessary for maintenance of life and
reproductive functions. The percentage for women is greater than that
for men, due to the demands of childbearing and other hormonal
functions. Essential fat is 2-5% in men, and 10-13% in women.
Storage fat consists of fat accumulation in adipose tissue part of which
protects internal organs in the chest and abdomen. The minimum
recommended total body fat percentage exceeds the essential fat
percentage value reported above.
(2) According to Paul Roger (2009) Body fat is a lipid (fat) produced in the
body, and this may be influenced by diet, exercise and genetics. Body
fat percentage is that percentage of body mass that is not made up of
bone, muscle, connective tissue and fluids; that is, everything else. (This
is referred to as 'fat-free mass'.)
Blood pressure
(1) According to Gandolfi (2012) Measurement of the force exerted by the
blood against the walls of the arteries.
(2) According to the free dictionary (2012) the pressure of blood against
the walls of any blood vessel.
15
Pulse rate
(1) According to Medical Dictionary (2012) the number of pulsations
noted in a peripheral artery per unit of time.
(2) The rate of the pulse as observed in an artery, expressed as beats per
minute.
Vital capacity
(1) The greatest amount of air that can be exhaled following a maximal
inhalation.
(2) According to Arstand and Rodhal (1970) the maximum volume of air
that can be expelled from the lungs following a maximum inspiration is
called vital capacity.
Respiratory rate
(1) Respiratory rate is the inspiration and expiration in one minute.
(2) The rate at which a person inhales and exhales; usually measured
to obtain a quick evaluation of a person's health.
Sedentary Male
(1) Sedentary lifestyle is a medical term used to denote a type of
lifestyle
with a lack of physical exercise.
16
(2)
According to Wikipedia (2010) Sedentary lifestyle is a type
of lifestyle with no or irregular physical activity.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results of this study may be useful in the following ways:
1. It may act as a guideline for the, teachers, coaches and regular walkers
to make their own walking schedule.
2. Present study may help the fitness expert professional to prescribe
appropriate brisk walking programme.
3. It will contribute to the existing knowledge of Exercise and Fitness.
4. Score of Health related physical fitness may act as a yardstick.
5. It will show the pattern of improvement due to walking schedule.
6. It will give the overall health profile of the boys of Lucknow Christian
Colleges.
17
Chapter II
REVIEW OF
RELATED
LITERATURE
Chapter-II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter deals with literature related to the present study. The
research scholar has gone through all the available literature from library of
Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education, Gwalior, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi and Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University,
Kanpur and the materials available from the web sites thereafter; the literature
found relevant to the present study from the references of the library has been
presented in this chapter.
Hardman Adrianne E et al. (1994) were conducted a study to examine
the effectiveness of brisk walking as a means of improving endurance fitness
and influencing serum lipid and lipoprotein variables in previously sedentary
women. Walkers (n = 10, mean (s.e.m.) age 47.3(2.0) years) followed a
programme of brisk walking (mean (s.e.m.) speed 1.76(0.03) m s-1) for 12
weeks, after which the training stimulus was withdrawn. Controls (n = 10,
mean (s.e.m.) age 41.6(1.2) years) maintained their habitual sedentary lifestyle
throughout. Endurance fitness was determined using laboratory measures of
responses to treadmill walking. Serum lipid and lipoprotein variables were
determined in venous blood (12-h fasted). Body fatness was assessed by
anthropometry and dietary practice using the 7-day weighed food intake
technique. Measurements were repeated after 12 and 24 weeks. Brisk walking
resulted in a decrease in heart rate and blood lactate concentration during
exercise, while detraining was accompanied by a reversal of these changes.
Changes in body mass and the ratio of circumferences at the waist and hip did
not differ between groups but the sum of four skinfolds decreased with brisk
walking and increased with detraining. High density lipoprotein (HDL) and
HDL2 cholesterol increased with walking and decreased with detraining but no
between group changes (analysis of variance, P < 0.05) were found in other
lipid and lipoprotein variables. These findings suggest that regular brisk
walking can improve endurance fitness and increase HDL cholesterol
concentration in sedentary women.
Ghosh Arnab (2006), in his longitudinal study was undertaken to study
the effect of brisk walking on blood pressure, plasma glucose, and obesity
measures in 55–64-year-old obese Asian Indian men. A total of 45 obese (body
mass index ≥25 kg/m2) men took part in the study. They were monitored for 20
weeks. Obesity measures, blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and
30 min of brisk walking were recorded for each participant. Brisk walking was
defined as 2 km of walking by 30 min with moderate sweating. A general
linear model (GLM) repeated-measures analysis procedure with Scheffé's post
hoc test revealed that group I (up to 5 weeks of exercise) had significantly
greater means compared to groups II (6–10 weeks), III (11–15 weeks), and IV
(16–20 weeks) for body mass index (P < 0.01), waist-hip ratio (P < 0.001),
19
percent body fat (P < 0.05), systolic blood pressure (P < 0.001), diastolic blood
pressure (P < 0.001), and FPG (P < 0.001), whereas group I had a significantly
lower mean than groups II, III, and IV for frequency of brisk walking (P <
0.01). It was also observed that change in Δ blood pressure and Δ FPG had a
significant positive association with Δ obesity measures, independent of age
effect. Therefore, brisk walking is recommended to lower blood pressure,
blood glucose, and obesity (particularly central obesity) in middle-aged obese
individuals.
Chiriac S et al. (2002) in his study noted that Hypertension is present in
epidemic proportion and is associated with a markedly increased risk of
developing numerous cardiovascular disorders. All current treatment guidelines
emphasis the role of non pharmacological interventions, physical activity
included, in the treatment of mild to moderate hypertension. A large number of
studies have demonstrated that regular exercise reduces the incidence of
hypertension. In addition to preventing hypertension, regular exercise has been
found to lower blood pressure (10 mmHg average reduction in both systolic
and diastolic pressure), improve lipoprotein-lipid profiles and insulin
sensitivity. As part of the initial treatment, exercise is recommended for 12
months in patients with stage 1 hypertension, with no other coronary risk
factors and no evidence of cardiovascular disease, and for as long as 6 months
in those with other risk factor, but not diabetes. In patients with diabetes,
cardiovascular disease or with stage 2 or 3 hypertension, drug therapy should
be initiated first. Dynamic exercise of moderate intensity, 50-75% VO2max,
20
(e.g. brisk walking, cycling) for 50-60 minutes, 3-5 times per week, is
preferable to vigorous exercise because it appears to be more effective in
lowering blood pressure. In addition to reducing hypertension, physical activity
improves other cardiovascular risk factors.
Chanudet X et al. (2006) had conducted a study to determine Regular
physical activity is especially appropriate for hypertensive patients. Although
its effect on individual blood pressure may be modest, its benefits at a
population level are substantial. It is a method of choice for preventing
hypertension. The levels of activity to be recommended remain uncertain, but
intensive workouts are not required. Thirty minutes of brisk walking daily is
beneficial. Benefits are not limited to blood pressure. Physical activity provides
cardiovascular protection by reducing risk factors such as overweight and
metabolic abnormalities. It also improves endothelial function, platelet
activation and inflammatory response. More than simple physical exercise, we
must promote the inclusion of healthy behavior into daily routines.
R Mendes, N Sousa and J L Barat (2011) had conducted a study
during the last half century scientific data have been accumulated, through
epidemiological and clinical studies that clearly document the significant health
benefits associated with regular physical activity. This paper will analyse the
latest recommendations for prescribing exercise in all age groups in healthy
subjects and to individuals with chronic non-communicable diseases such as
overweight, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerotic cardiovascular
21
disease and cancer that contribute to the leading causes of global mortality. A
search in the Pub med database was performed and were also searched the
recommendations
of
the
World
Health
Organization
and
scientific
organizations in Portugal. Most health benefits occur with at least 150 minutes
of aerobic exercise of moderate intensity, accumulated over the week, which
can be split into periods of at least 10 minutes. Brisk walking seems to be the
preferred aerobic exercise. Vigorous intensity aerobic exercise and resistance
exercises for muscle strengthening, at least two days a week are also
recommended. Children, youth, older adults and people with overweight have
particular needs for physical activity. Additional benefits occur with increasing
quantity and quality of physical activity through the proper manipulation of the
exercise density (intensity, frequency and duration). However, some physical
activity is better than none. The role of health professionals in prescribing
appropriate exercise to their patients is fundamental to their involvement in
increasing their physical activity levels and thus contributing to their health
promotion and prevention and treatment of major non-communicable chronic
diseases.
Byron's (2008) studies of many example: Thomas spring, ASCM etc .A
comments on the Brisk walking studies by Byron’s If walking seems too
simple to be an effective fitness method, think again: taking a stroll is an easy
way to lower pressure and for the obese to increase aerobic fitness, according
to three researchers who presented findings at the 55th Annual Meeting of the
22
American College of Sports Medicine. A study of 14 morbidly obese patients
was designed to determine if brisk walking alone was sufficient to serve as an
aerobic training stimulus, increasing heart rate to at least 70 percent of
maximum. Patients were asked to determine their own brisk walking pace, and
walked for one mile. All 14 achieved at least 70 percent of maximum heart
rate.“Obese patients have more body mass to move, causing the heart and
cardiovascular system to have to work harder than a normal-weight person’s
would,” Thomas Spring, M.S., said. “Walking is a great way for the overweight
and obese to begin an exercise program, because it can be done with little
instruction or equipment and is low in cost.”Benefits of brisk walking also
extend to people at-risk for high blood pressure. A British study looked at
borderline hypertensive middle-aged men after they walked at various
intensities and durations, to determine which type of walking reduced blood
pressure the most. Andrew Scott found that walking 30 minutes at 50 percent
effort was most effective, reducing blood pressure for at least four hours.“Our
study found that walking for longer than 30 minutes or at a higher intensity had
no additional effects on lowering blood pressure,” Andrew Scott, M.S., said.
“Those needing to lose weight may want to exercise for a longer period of
time, but our findings show that ACSM’s recommendations have significant
health benefits.”ACSM recommends at least 30 minutes of moderate physical
activity five days per week for healthy adults. The guidelines also state that
physical activity can be broken up into 10-minute bouts and be as effective as
one longer session, a recommendation confirmed by another study on the
23
effects of brisk walking on hypertension. The Korean study measured
decreases in blood pressure in 23 hypertensive men following 40-minute brisk
walking sessions and four, 10-minute brisk walking bouts. Blood pressure was
lowered by similar amounts after each type of exercise session.“Accumulating
brisk, 10-minute walks appear to be very effective for lowering blood
pressure,” said Saejong Park, Ph.D., lead author. “Those with time crunches
and busy schedules can fit bits of exercise in throughout the day to reap health
benefits.”
Kaukab Azeem (2011) had conducted a study to examine Obesity is a
major health risk issue in the present day of life for one and all globally.
Obesity is one of the major concerns for public health according to recent
increasing trends in obesity-related diseases such as Type 2 diabetes. (Kazuya,
1994)and hyperlipidemia, (Sakata, 1990) which are more prevalent in Japanese
adults with body mass index (BMI) values Z25 kg/m2. (Japanese Ministry of
Health and Welfare, 1997). The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of
twelve weeks of brisk walking on blood pressure and body mass index,
anthropometric measurements of obese males. Method: Thirty obese (BMI=
above 30) males, aged 18 to 22 years, were selected from King Fahd University
of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia. The subject’s height (cm) was
measured using a stadiometer and body mass (kg) was measured with an
electronic weighing machine. BMI was subsequently calculated (kg/m2). The
blood pressure was measured with standardized sphygmomanometer in mm of
24
Hg. All the measurements were taken twice before and twice after the
experimental period. The pre and post anthropometric measurements of waist
and hip circumference were measured with the steel tape in cm. The subjects
underwent walking schedule two times in a week for 12 weeks. The 45 minute
sessions of brisk walking were undertaken at an average intensity of 65% to
85% of maximum HR (HR max; calculated as 220-age).Results & Discussion:
Statistical findings revealed significant changes from pre test to post test in
case of both systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure in the walking
group. Results also showed significant decrease in their body mass index and
anthropometric measurements i.e. (waist & hip circumference).Conclusion: It
was concluded that twelve weeks brisk walking is beneficial for lowering of
blood pressure, body mass index, and anthropometric circumference of obese
males.
Murphy M H et al. (2002) had examine Brisk walking has been
identified as an activity suited to meet American college of sport
medicine/centers for disease control and prevention recommendations for
moderate intensity exercise (55- 69%HR (max) , 40-59% VO(2)R) and
concluded that the speed and intensity selected by this group of walkers meets
current recommendations for moderate intensity exercise.
Murphy conducted a Meta analysis to test the hypothesis that regular
brisk walking improves cardiovascular risk factors in healthy sedentary adults.
The mean length of the walking programmes was 35 weeks (range 8–104 wk).
25
On average, walking was done 4.4 days/week for 38 minutes per session. The
mean intensity of the walking interventions was 70% of predicted maximum
heart rate or 56% of VO2 max. Quality of individual studies was assessed based
on allocation concealment.
Anderson Ailsa G et al. (2006) conducted a study on An 8-week
randomized controlled trial on the effects of brisk walking, and brisk walking
with abdominal electrical muscle stimulation on anthropometric, body
composition, and self-perception measures in sedentary adult women In
comparison with the control group, both walking groups had significant
reductions in a number of anthropometric measures and improvements in selfperception measures. The improvements on both anthropometric measures and
self-perceptions were greater for the walking+EMS condition, which indicated
that changes in self-perception might be mediated by body changes. However,
an assessment of the mediation effect between changes in anthropometric
measures and self-perception changes did not support this finding.
Paul A. Ford, Gill Perkins & Ian Swaine, et al (2012) has conducted
study to establish whether an accumulated brisk walking programme,
performed during the school day, is effective in changing body composition in
primary school children aged 5–11 years. Altogether, 152 participants (79 boys
and 73 girls) took part in this repeated-measures intervention study, divided
into groups of walkers and controls. The walkers took part in the intervention
during school time, which involved brisk walking around the school grounds
26
for 15 min in the morning and afternoon, at least three times a week for 15
weeks. This represented an additional 90 min of moderate physical activity per
week. The controls undertook their usual school day activities. Pre- and postintervention anthropometric and body composition measures were taken. Body
fat (−1.95 ± 2.6%) and fat mass (−0.49 ± 1.0 kg) were significantly reduced in
the walkers after the intervention, whereas the controls showed no significant
changes in these measures. Our results show that regular accumulated bouts of
brisk walking during the school day can positively affect body composition in
primary school children.
Suenaga T (2002) has examine in his study, the relationship of physical
activity with aerobic capacity and health checkup results were examined among
288 men aged 45.7 (mean) +/- 8.13 (SD) years. Physical activity was evaluated
from a 3-day activity record and expressed as metabolic-equivalent (MET)
(/day). Total caloric intake was evaluated from a 3-day dietary record. VO2
max was measured as the index of aerobic capacity, and body mass index
(BMI), waist-hip ratio (WHR), % fat, and increase in body weight from 20
years old were used as indices of body composition. In multiple regression
analysis, MET value, % fat, WHR and increase in body weight from 20 years
old were independently and significantly associated with VO2 max. As MET
value was a significant predictor, it may be important to evaluate physical
activity not only during leisure time, but also throughout the whole day. In
addition, preventing total body fat and abdominal fat increase seemed
27
important to maintain and to increase aerobic capacity. To grasp the pattern of
physical activity more precisely, subjects were classified into 6 groups (A:
sedentary, B: sedentary + walking, C: sedentary + brisk walking, D: sedentary
+ exercise, E: active, F: active + exercise), and each variable was compared
using one-way analysis of variance and post-hock test analysis (Tukey
method). MET value increased in the order of groups A, D, E and F. Groups D
and E showed no significant difference in the VO2 max and MET value, while
both groups showed significantly higher values than those of group A.
Therefore, aerobic capacity differed not only according to the presence of
habitual exercise, but also according to whether the subjects had an active daily
life. When sedentary, it seemed important to be active for about 1-hour/day.
Regarding body fat, group F showed the lowest value in each variable. Systolic
and diastolic blood pressures, and blood triglyceride levels were highest in
group A and lowest in group F, suggesting the effects of an active daily life and
habitual exercise. In group A, the total caloric intake was also highest.
Therefore, improving the total lifestyle, including diet, was also considered
necessary classification of subjects according to their pattern of physical
activity may be useful in health education settings to increase physical activity
and to prevent life-style-related diseases.
Titze S, Marti B (1997) has examined in his study the risk to health
posed by a sedentary lifestyle is a problem of our times. In contrast to the
previous assumption that only fairly high-intensity sporting exercise
undertaken over a minimum period of 20 min produces health-related benefits,
28
recent studies have shown that even everyday activities (climbing
stairs, brisk walking and cycling) can have a beneficial effects on health,
particularly in those who take little exercise. So now the recommendation is:
exercise of moderate intensity lasting 30 min at least 5 times a week,
corresponding to an energy consumption of about 150 kacl/day or 1000
kcal/week. The results of experimental studies on sport and arthritis and sport
and osteoporosis point to the advisability of taking up or maintaining an active
sporting lifestyle. For one thing, it can be assumed that a moderate amount of
movement does not increase the risk of developing arthritis: for another,
sporting activity during early and late childhood produces a high maximum
bone mass, thereby delaying the development of osteoporosis in later life. The
new guidelines on the extent and intensity of health-giving exercise make it
easier to advocate exercise and sport for disease prevention and health
promotion because they appear to implement. More difficult, however, is
deciding on a suitable method for motivating inactive individuals to increase
their level of physical activity. A model that has proved effective in smoking
cessation programmes, and one that can also be applied to exercise counseling
(transtheoretical model), can help in the selection of an appropriate counseling
strategy. Depending on whether an individual is inactive, or sporadically or
regularly active, each one employs his or her own strategies primarily to
maintain this lifestyle. Assuming that the counseling is adapted to the level of
activity, the patient's attitude and behaviour can be influenced both more
effectively and more economically.
29
Murphy M H et al. (2000) compared the effects of different patterns of
brisk walking on day-long plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in sedentary
adults. A three-trial, repeated measures design in which subjects were studied
in the fasted state and throughout a day during which they consumed three
standardized, mixed meals. On different occasions, subjects undertook no
exercise (control), walked briskly for 10 min before each meal (short walks) or
walked briskly for 30 min before breakfast (long walk).Seven postmenopausal
sedentary women and three sedentary men aged between 34 and 66 y, with
body mass index between 24 and 35 kg/m2. Plasma concentrations of
triacylglycerol, non-esterified fatty acids, glucose and insulin, metabolic rate
and whole-body substrate oxidation in the fasted state and at hourly intervals
for 3 h after each meal. Postprandial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations
were lower (P=0.009) during the walking trials than during the control trial
(average values: control 2.080.28 mmol/l; short walks 1.830.22 mmol/l;
long walk 1.84±0.22 mmol/l (means.e.) but did not differ between the two
patterns of walking. The difference between control and walking trials
increased
as
successive
meals
were
consumed
(interaction
of
trialmeal P=0.03). Plasma triacylglycerol concentration increased during the
3 h after breakfast, changed little after lunch and decreased after the evening
meal (interaction of mealtime P=0.001). When both walking trials were treated
as one condition, walking increased postprandial fat oxidation (average values:
control, 0.0660.009 g/min; walking 0.074 0.008 g/min;P<0.01).Thirty
minutes of brisk walking, undertaken in one session or accumulated throughout
30
a day, reduces postprandial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations and increases
fat oxidation.
Kukkonen-Harjula K. et al. (1998) had conducted a study to examine
the effects of walking training on VO2max, serum lipoproteins and plasma
fibrinogen were studied in 119 healthy middle-aged persons. Training
prescription was 65–75% of VO2max, 50 min/session, four times a week for 15
weeks. The net difference (between pre-posttraining changes in the walking
and control group) was statistically significant for VO2max (0.14 1 · min−1,
95% CI 0.04, 0.23), total cholesterol (−0.20 mmol · 1−1, CI −0.34, −0.06), LDL
cholesterol (−0.17 mmol · 1−1, CI −0.29, −0.05), ratio of HDL cholesterol to
total cholesterol (0.014, CI 0.005, 0.023), and triglycerides (−0.15 mmol · 1−1,
CI −0.26, −0.04). No statistically significant changes occurred in fibrinogen.
The findings indicate that walking training of moderate intensity resulted in a
modest increase in VO2max and minor but consistently favorable changes in
serum lipoproteins.
Lengfelder W (2001) had conducted a study on physical inactivity is an
important
risk factor
for cardiovascular
disease
and for increased
cardiovascular mortality. The aim of this review article was to demonstrate
whether increased physical activity can safely reduce the increased
cardiovascular mortality due to physical inactivity. A further aim was to derive
recommendations for physical activity. The effect of physical activity on
indirect and direct cardiovascular parameters and clinical endpoints was
31
analyzed by means of an inquiry of the literature. Physical inactivity is an
important risk factor for cardiovascular and overall mortality. Many
epidemiologic studies could demonstrate with high consistency that regular
physical activity is associated with a lower cardiovascular mortality and overall
mortality. There is an inverse relationship between physical activity and
mortality. Even moderate physical activity (30 min brisk walking or 15 min
jogging) on most days of the week can increase the wellness and reduce the
cardiovascular and overall mortality. Regular physical activity can contribute to
an enormous health benefit in the general population. Therefore the promotion
of adequate physical activity should be a major aim of the policy of health.
Leppaluto J, Ahola R et al. (2012) had studied the Physical inactivity
and overweight are important risk factors for several diseases. Brisk walking or
jogging recommended currently for physical exercise may be too demanding
for
subjects
having
overweight
or
poor
physical
condition.
The
recommendations do not take daily physical activity into account either.
Recording of the total amount and intensity of ambulatory physical activity by
the accelerometers allows objective assessment of dose-response relations
between physical activity and health. By using threshold values of the intensity
of
physical
activity
or
step
counts,
more
accurate
and
effective
recommendations for physical exercise can be suggested.
Woolf-May K, Kearney E M and Owen A. et al. (1999) had
conducted a study on Fifty-six subjects (19 men and 37 women) aged between
32
40 and 66 completed the study. They were allocated into three walking groups
and a control group (C). The three walking groups performed the same total
amount of walking for 18 weeks, but completed it in bouts of differing
durations and frequencies. These were Long Walkers (LW; 20–40 min/bout),
Intermediate Walkers (IW; 10–15 min/bout) and Short Walkers (SW; 5–10
min/bout); with the IW and SW performing more than one bout of walking a
day. Following the 18 week walking programme, compared to the C group all
walking groups showed similar improvements in fitness as determined by a
reduction in blood lactate during a graded treadmill walking test (LW 1.0
mmol/l; IW 0.8 mmol/l; SW 1.2 mmol/l; C 0.2 mmol/l;P = 0.003) and
reduction in final heart rate (LW 8 beats/min; IW 6 beats/min; SW 10
beats/min; C 0 beats/min; P = 0.056). Also compared to the C group, the LW
and IW groups recorded statistically significant decreases in low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LW 0.29 mmol/l; IW 0.41 mmol/l; P = 0.024), whereas
the control group showed a mean increase of 0.22 mmol/l. The LW and IW
groups also showed significant reductions in apolipoprotein (apo) A-II (LW
0.05 g/l; IW 0.02 g/l; SW 0.01 g/l; C 0.00 g/l;P = 0.012) with the LW recording
a statistically significant increase in the ratio of apo A-I/A-II (LW, 0.19, P =
0.044). In conclusion, some health benefits were achieved from all walking
programmes. However, whilst the changes in aerobic fitness were similar, the
effects upon blood lipid profiles were not. The findings from this study suggest
that the LW regimen was most effective in benefiting blood lipid profile,
followed by the IW regimen, with the SW being least potent. Nevertheless, for
33
the sedentary/low-active members of society, any improvement in health may
be considered as important. Therefore accumulated bouts of moderate intensity
exercise, which according to theories of exercise behaviour may be more easily
incorporated into an individual's lifestyle than single prolonged bouts, may be
advocated for health promotion but may not be as effective as the traditionally
prescribed 20–40 min bouts.
Singer R B (2009) has conducted the source study to determine if a
brisk corridor walks of 400 meters could be used to classify the performance of
active older adults and relate this performance to mortality and other outcomes
over a 6-year follow-up. The cohort consisted of 3075 adults resident in
designated ZIP codes in Pittsburgh, Pa, and Memphis, Tenn, participating in
the Health Aging and Body Composition Study. Out of this cohort, 395
subjects were excluded after evaluation revealed abnormal vital signs or ECG
findings, recent cardiac symptoms, recent surgery, recent chest pain, shortness
of breath or fainting. Another 356 subjects were unable to complete the 400meter walk. The 2324 subjects who completed the walk were divided into
quartiles according to the time in seconds required for completion (the overall
time required ranged widely from 201 to 942 seconds). These 3 groups were
designated as "excluded," "stopped," and "completed." Outcomes reported for
the 3075 subjects in the total cohort included mortality, new cardiovascular
disease events, mobility limitation, and mobility disability. Cardiovascular
events were reported for the 2234 subjects (73% of the total) who were free of
cardiovascular disease at entry. Results in the article were given in tables and
34
figures and included numbers of entrants, exposures, and events, annual event
rates and hazard ratios with SDs. Out of the 3075 entrant subjects, 430 died in
the 6 years of follow-up (FU). Excess mortality measured as excess death rate
(EDR) was much higher in the excluded and stopped groups (about 22 per
1000 per year) compared with an EDR of 6.4 per 1000 in the completed group.
The corresponding mortality ratios (MR), designated as a hazard ratio in the
article were about 220% and 135%. Results for comparative morbidity are also
given in this abstract.
Parise C, Sternfeld B, Samuels S, et al. (2004) in his study found that
the older adults who report that they walk briskly for exercise do so at a pace
considered moderate or greater in absolute intensity as indicated by their
walking speed (4.83km/h). Ninety eight percent of men (93/95) and 97% of
women (113/117) had an observed walking speed equivalent to 3 or more
METs based on their calculated walking speed.
Kim C et al. (2012) has conducted a study to evaluate the effects of
power walking (PW) training on a treadmill in patients with coronary heart
disease (CHD) and to compare the cardiovascular effects of PW with
usual walking (UW).Patients were recruited as participants in phase 2 cardiac
rehabilitation program after receiving percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)
due to acute coronary syndrome from our hospital. The participants were
divided into the PW group (n=16) and UW group (n=18). All participants
received graded exercise test (GXT) and significant difference in maximal
35
oxygen consumption (VO(2Max)) was not observed between the groups.
Aerobic exercise training on treadmill was given for 50 minutes per session,
three times a week, for six weeks. Physiological and hematological parameters
were tested before and 6 weeks after the cardiac rehabilitation program.
Exercise duration, VO(2Max), heart rate, blood pressure, and rate pressure
product were evaluated through graded exercise test. Hematological
measurements included serum lipid profile, and high-sensitivity C reactive
protein (hs-CRP).There were no significant differences in resting heart rate,
maximal heart rate, resting systolic and diastolic blood pressures, lipid profile,
hs-CRP, VO(2Max), and RPP between the PW group and UW group.
However, after 6 weeks of the intervention, VO(2Max) in the PW group
(36.03±5.69 ml/kg/min) was significantly higher than that in the UW group
(29.73±5.63 ml/kg/min) (p<0.05).After six weeks of phase 2 cardiac
rehabilitation program, the PW group showed significant improvement in
VO(2Max) than the UW group. Thus, it will beneficial to recommend
power walking in cardiac rehabilitation program.
Morris J N et al. (1997) had conducted a study on Walking is a
rhythmic, dynamic, aerobic activity of large skeletal muscles that confers the
multifarious benefits of this with minimal adverse effects. Walking, faster than
customary, and regularly in sufficient quantity into the 'training zone' of over
70% of maximal heart rate, develops and sustains physical fitness: the
cardiovascular capacity and endurance (stamina) for bodily work and
36
movement in everyday life that also provides reserves for meeting exceptional
demands. Muscles of the legs, limb girdle and lower trunk are strengthened and
the flexibility of their cardinal joints preserved; posture and carriage may
improve. Any amount of walking, and at any pace, expends energy. Hence the
potential, long term, of walking for weight control. Dynamic aerobic exercise,
as in walking, enhances a multitude of bodily processes that are inherent in
skeletal muscle activity, including the metabolism of high density lipoproteins
and insulin/glucose dynamics. Walking is also the most common weightbearing activity, and there are indications at all ages of an increase in related
bone strength. The pleasurable and therapeutic, psychological and social
dimensions of walking, whilst evident, have been surprisingly little studied.
Nor has an economic assessment of the benefits and costs of walking been
attempted. Walking is beneficial through engendering improved fitness and/or
greater physiological activity and energy turnover. Two main modes of such
action are distinguished as: (i) acute, short term effects of the exercise; and (ii)
chronic, cumulative adaptations depending on habitual activity over weeks and
months. Walking is often included in studies of exercise in relation to disease
but it has seldom been specifically tested. There is, nevertheless, growing
evidence of gains in the prevention of heart attack and reduction of total death
rates, in the treatment of hypertension, intermittent claudication and
musculoskeletal disorders, and in rehabilitation after heart attack and in chronic
respiratory disease. Walking is the most natural activity and the only sustained
dynamic aerobic exercise that is common to everyone except for the seriously
37
disabled or very frail. No special skills or equipment are required. Walking is
convenient and may be accommodated in occupational and domestic routines.
It is self-regulated in intensity, duration and frequency, and, having a low
ground impact, is inherently safe. Unlike so much physical activity, there is
little, if any, decline in middle age. It is a year-round, readily repeatable, selfreinforcing, habit-forming activity and the main option for increasing physical
activity in sedentary populations. Present levels of walking are often low.
Familiar social inequalities may be evident. There are indications of a serious
decline of walking in children, though further surveys of their activity, fitness
and health are required. The downside relates to the incidence of fatal and nonfatal road casualties, especially among children and old people, and the
deteriorating air quality due to traffic fumes which mounting evidence
implicates in the several stages of respiratory disease. Walking is ideal as a
gentle start-up for the sedentary, including the inactive, immobile elderly,
bringing a bonus of independence and social well-being. As general policy, a
gradual progression is indicated from slow, to regular pace and on to 30
minutes or more of brisk (i.e. 6.4 km/h) walking on most days. These levels
should achieve the major gains of activity and health-related fitness without
adverse effects. Alternatively, such targets as this can be suggested for personal
motivation, clinical practice, and public health. The average middle-aged
person should be able to walk 1.6 km comfortably on the level at 6.4 km/h and
on a slope of 1 in 20 at 4.8 km/h, however, many cannot do so because of
38
inactivity-induced unfitness. The physiological threshold of 'comfort'
represents 70% of maximum heart rate.
Shah Ebrahim et al. (1997) has conducted a study to evaluate the
effects of brisk walking on bone mineral density in women who had suffered
an upper limb fracture. Randomized placebo-controlled trial. Assessments of
bone mineral density were made before and at 1 and 2 years after intervention.
Standardized and validated measures of physical capacity, self-rated health
status and falls were used. District general hospital outpatient department 165
women drawn from local accident and emergency departments with a history
of fracture of an upper limb in the previous 2 years. Women were randomly
allocated to intervention (self-paced brisk walking) or placebo (upper limb
exercises) groups. Both groups were seen at 3-monthIy intervals to assess
progress, measure physical capacity and maintain enthusiasm. The briskwalking groups were instructed to progressively increase the amount and speed
of walking in a manner that suited them. The upper limb exercise placebo
group were asked to carry out a series of exercises designed to improve
flexibility and fine hand movements, appropriate for a past history of upper
limb fracture. drop-outs from both intervention and placebo groups were
substantial (41%), although there were no significant differences in bone
mineral density, physical capacity or health status between drop-outs and
participants. At 2 years, among those completing the trial, bone mineral density
at the femoral neck had fallen in the placebo group to a greater extent than in
39
the brisk-walking group [mean net difference between intervention and placebo
groups 0.019 g/cm2, 95% confidence interval (CI) −0.0026 to +0.041
g/cm2, P= 0.056]. Lumbar spine bone mineral density had increased to a
similar extent (+0.017 g/cm2) in both groups. The cumulative risk of falls was
higher in the brisk-walking group (excess risk of 15 per 100 person-years, 95%
CI 1.4–29 per 100 person-years, P < 0.05). There were no significant
differences in clinical or spinal x-ray fracture risk or self-rated health status
between intervention and placebo groups. the promotion of exercise through
brisk-walking advice given by nursing staff may have a small, but clinically
important, impact on bone mineral density but is associated with an increased
risk of falls. Self-paced brisk walking is difficult to evaluate in randomized
controlled trials because of drop-outs, placebo group exercise, limited
compliance and lack of standardization of the duration and intensity of
walking. Further work is needed to evaluate the best means of safely achieving
increased activity levels in different groups, such as older women and those at
high risk of fractures.
Masashi Miyashita (2008) has conducted a study to determine Physical
activity recommendations promote the accumulation of aerobic activity in
bouts of ≥10 min. It is important to determine whether shorter bouts of activity
can influence health. We compared the effects of accumulating ten 3-min bouts
of brisk walking with those of one 30-min bout of brisk walking on
postprandial
plasma
triacylglycerol
concentrations
and
resting
blood
40
pressure. Fifteen healthy young men completed three 2-d trials ≥1 wk apart in a
randomized, repeated-measures design. On day 1, subjects rested (no exercise)
or walked briskly in either ten 3-min bouts (30 min rest between each) or one
30-min bout (gross energy expenditure: 1.10 MJ/30 min). On day 2, subjects
rested and consumed high-fat test meals for breakfast and lunch. On day 2 area
under the plasma triacylglycerol concentration over time curve was 16% lower
on the accumulated and continuous brisk walking trials than on the control trial
(
± SEM: 9.98 ± 0.67 compared with 9.99 ± 0.76 compared with 11.90 ±
1.02 mmol·7h/L, respectively; P = 0.005, one-factor ANOVA). Resting systolic
blood pressure was 6–7% lower throughout day 2 on the accumulated and
continuous trials than on the control trial (109 ± 1 compared with 110 ± 1
compared with 117 ± 2 mm Hg, respectively; P < 0.0005). Accumulating 30
min of brisk walking in short (3-min) bouts is equally effective in reducing
postprandial lipemia and systolic blood pressure as is one continuous 30-min
bout.
Rowe David A. et al (2012) has examine in his study to determine selfselected brisk walking pace in currently inactive adults and investigate the
efficacy of rhythmic auditory stimuli to regulate moderate intensity walking. A
single-sample controlled laboratory design. Currently inactive adults (N = 25;
76% female; age = 34 ± 13 yr) completed a moderate intensity treadmill
walking trial, during which cadence and steady-state O2 were measured.
Participants then completed a 10-min self-paced “brisk” walk followed by a
10-min moderate-paced walk, prompted by a clip-on metronome matched to
41
the treadmill cadence. Data were analyzed using RM t-test, Cohen's d, Bland–
Altman plot, and one-way RM ANOVA.Mean energy expenditure and cadence
during the treadmill trial were 3.88 ± 0.53 METs and 114 ± 8 steps min−1.
During self-paced brisk walking cadence was 124 ± 8 steps min−1. Cadence
during
metronome-paced
walking
was
slower
for
all
participants
(114 ± 8 steps min−1; p < 0.05, d = 1.23). From the Bland–Altman plots, 23
participants walked within ±3 steps min−1 of the metronome cadence, and the
other 2 participants were within ±10 steps min−1. There were no significant
differences (p > 0.05) among the minute-by-minute cadences across the 10 min
of either condition.Energy expenditure during 2.7 mph treadmill walking was
higher than 3 METs. Inactive adults walk at a higher cadence during “brisk”
walking, compared to walking at a metronome-guided moderate pace. While
the natural walking pace of inactive adults was at an intensity known to
produce health benefits, and was maintained for 10 min, the use of rhythmic
auditory feedback is an effective method for regulating walking at a prescribed
intensity in inactive adults.
Kawaguchi Akito et al (2007) had conducted a study to investigate
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) shows cardioprotective function.
Japanese have relatively high HDL-C levels and more intake of fish oil, which
may explain the low incidence of coronary artery disease in Japan among
industrialized countries. We estimated whether therapeutic lifestyle change
(TLC) for Japanese induces more increased HDL-C level. Sapporo lifestyle
42
study is a community-based, prospective, randomized controlled study to
improve coronary risk profile by TLC consisting of exercise and dietary
modification for 12 months. Three hundred nineteen residents aged 40 to 69
years without symptom were recruited with informed consent. After 3 persons
were excluded by inclusion criteria, 316 eligible residents (male 111, female
205) were allocated into 3 groups such as 105 control (A), 106 exercise
intervention (B), and 105 exercise with dietary intervention group. Brisk
walking (near 3 METs) for 150 minutes a week was introduced for B and C
groups, and a nutritional intervention consisting of appropriate energy intake
for ideal body weight, increased n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) up to
2.9gram a day and additional 2.0 gram increase of fiber intake a day, was
instructed for C group in training sessions. All participants were estimated
body composition, lipid profile, physical fitness, and nutritional status (by diet
history questionnaire made in Japan NIH) at the begining and end of the study,
and monitored on daily physical activity by pedometer during the
study. Computerized randomization by minimization method was successful,
resulting in no significant differences of major risk factors. Total of 249
residents (A: 87, B: 78, C: 84) were followed up for 12 months (follow-up rate
79%). B and C group had significant increased brisk walking than that of A
group. Lipid profile was improved in all groups. Above all, HDL-C level
increased by 0.31, 2.47 and 3.62 mg/dl in A, B and C groups (P<.05). Although
intake of total energy and cholesterol per 1,000 kcal a day were reduced in all
groups, n-3 PUFA per 1,000 kcal is significantly increased in only C groups
43
(P<.05). Brisk walking improved lipid profile, especially increase HDL-C
level, which was augmented by increased intake of n-3 PUFA.
Cremers Julien et al. (2012) had examine in his study Brisk walking, a
sensitive test to evaluate gait capacity in normal and pathological aging such as
Parkinsonism is used as an alternative to classical fitness program for motor
rehabilitation and may help to decrease the risk of cognitive deterioration
observed with aging. In this study, we aimed to identify brain areas normally
involved in its control.We conducted a block-design blood oxygen level
dependent function magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD fMRI) experiment in
18 young healthy individuals trained to imagine themselves in three main
situations: brisk walking in a 25-m-long corridor, standing or lying. Imagined
walking time (IWT) was measured as a control of behavioral performance
during fMRI.The group mean IWT was not significantly different from the
actual walking time measured during a training session prior to the fMRI study.
Compared with other experimental conditions, mental imagery (MI) of brisk
walking was associated with stronger activity in frontal and parietal regions
mainly on the right, and cerebellar hemispheres, mainly on the left. Presumed
imagined walking speed (2.3 ± 0.4 m/s) was positively correlated with activity
levels in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal lobule
along with the vermis and the left cerebellar hemisphere.A new finding in this
study is that MI of brisk walking in young healthy individuals strongly involves
processes lateralized in right fronto-parietal regions along with left cerebellum.
44
These results show that brisk walking might be a non automatic locomotor
activity requiring a high-level supraspinal control.
Nakaya N (1999) had conducted a study to investigate the Dietary
therapy and physical activities are cornerstones for lipid lowering and
prevention of cardiovascular disease. The efficacy of dietary therapy has been
established in several primary and secondary prevention studies. Exercise is
believed to be useful to prevent atherosclerosis, but there has been no mega
trial performed. The beneficial effect of physical activity may be mediated in
several ways, such as reduction in VLDL, increase in HDL, reduction in body
weight and reduction in blood pressure. According to the guideline of Japan
Atherosclerosis Society, dietary modification is recommended to perform in
three steps and practical use of the guideline was described. For exercise,
aerobic activity, such as brisk walking, jogging, swimming and bicycling are
recommended. Intensity, amount and frequency of exercise were described.
Oppert J M, Balarac N (2001) had conducted a study on
Physical activity is recognized as an integral part of obesity treatment, in
association with other therapeutic means. A major benefit of physical activity is
the association with better long-term maintenance of weight loss. Physical
activity has also positive psychological effects and increases quality of life. An
evaluation of the usual level of physical activity and inactivity is needed for
each patient. Physical activity counselling should be individualized and graded,
in a perspective of individual progression. In subjects with massive obesity,
45
remobilization based on physiotherapy techniques is the first step. All patients
should be given simple advice to decrease sedentary behavior: use the stairs
instead of the escalators, limit the time spent seated, etc. In general, current
physical activity recommendations for the general population fit well with a
majority of obese patients, i.e. a minimum of 30 minutes/day of moderate
intensity physical activity (brisk walking or equivalent) on most, and preferably
all, days of the week. Physical activities of higher intensities (endurance
training programme) can be proposed on an individual basis. The type of
physical activity required for long-term weight maintenance, and the question
of adherence to physical activity recommendations in obese patients should be
further investigated.
Paterson D H , Jones G R , Rice C L. (2007) has examined in
his study an abundance of epidemiological research confirms the benefits of
physical activity in reducing risk of various age-related morbidities and allcause mortality. Analysis of the literature focusing on key exercise variables
(e.g., intensity, type, and volume) suggests that the requisite beneficial amount
of activity is that which engenders improved cardiorespiratory fitness, strength,
power, and, indirectly, balance. Age-related declines in these components are
such that physical limitations impinge on functional activities of daily living.
However, an exercise programme can minimize declines, thus preventing older
adults (age 65+ years) from crossing functional thresholds of inability. Crosssectional and longitudinal data demonstrate that cardiorespiratory fitness is
associated with functional capacity and independence; strength and,
46
importantly, power are related to performance and activities of daily living; and
balance-mobility in combination with power are important factors in
preventing falls. Exercise interventions have documented that older adults can
adapt physiologically to exercise training, with gains in functional capacities.
The few studies that have explored minimal or optimal activity requirements
suggest that a threshold (intensity) within the moderately vigorous domain is
needed to achieve and preserve related health benefits. Thus, physical activity
and (or) exercise prescriptions should emphasize activities of the specificity
and type to improve components related to the maintenance of functional
capacity and independence; these will also delay morbidity and mortality. An
appropriate recommendation for older adults includes moderately vigorous
cardiorespiratory activities (e.g., brisk walking), strength and (or) power
training for maintenance of muscle mass and specific muscle-group
performance, as well as "balance-mobility practice" and flexibility (stretching)
exercise as needed.
Michael Y L, Carlson N E (2009) had undergone a study to Using data
from the SHAPE trial, a randomized 6-month neighborhood-based intervention
designed to increase walking activity among older adults, this study identified
and analyzed social-ecological factors mediating and moderating changes in
walking activity .Three potential mediators (social cohesion, walking efficacy,
and perception of neighborhood problems) and minutes of brisk walking were
assessed at baseline, 3-months, and 6-months. One moderator, neighborhood
walkability, was assessed using an administrative GIS database. The mediating
47
effect of change in process variables on change in brisk walking was tested
using a product-of-coefficients test, and we evaluated the moderating effect of
neighborhood walkability on change in brisk walking by testing the
significance of the interaction between walkability and intervention status.Only
one of the hypothesized mediators, walking efficacy, explained the intervention
effect (product of the coefficients (95% CI) = 8.72 (2.53, 15.56). Contrary to
hypotheses, perceived neighborhood problems appeared to suppress the
intervention effects (product of the coefficients (95% CI = -2.48, -5.6, -0.22).
Neighborhood walkability did not moderate the intervention effect.Walking
efficacy may be an important mediator of lay-lead walking interventions for
sedentary older adults. Social-ecologic theory-based analyses can support
clinical interventions to elucidate the mediators and moderators responsible for
producing intervention effects.
Brooke Wavell K et al. (2001) had conducted a study to find out that
the regular walking is associated with reduced risk of fracture and, in our recent
randomized trial, reduced calcaneal bone loss relative to controls. The present
follow-up study compared the effects on dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry,
ultrasound and biochemical indices of bone density and metabolism of (i)
taking up (ii) continuing with and (iii) ceasing brisk walking for exercise.
Subjects were 68 postmenopausal women aged 60-70 years. Twenty previously
sedentary women remained sedentary (Sed/Sed) whilst 17 took up brisk
walking (Sed/Walk). Fifteen women who had been walking regularly for 1 year
returned to their former sedentary lifestyle (Walk/Sed), whilst 16 continued
48
brisk walking over a second year (Walk/Walk). Bone mineral density (BMD),
broadband ultrasonic attenuation (BUA), and biochemical markers of bone
formation (serum osteocalcin, C-terminal propeptide of type I collagen and
bone alkaline phosphatase) and resorption (urinary deoxypyridinoline) were
assessed at baseline and 12 months. Women in the Sed/Walk and Walk/Walk
groups completed a mean (SEM) of 16.9 (0.7) and 20.8 (1.2) min of brisk
walking per day, respectively. Changes in BMD did not differ significantly
between groups. Calcaneal BMD decreased significantly in Walk/Sed women
[by 2.7 (1.4)%; p = 0.01] whilst changes in other groups were not significant.
Calcaneal BUA increased significantly (p = 0.02) in Sed/Walk women [by 7.4
(3.3)%] relative to other groups. Urinary deoxypyridinoline increased over the
year in the Sed/Sed group but there were no significant changes in biochemical
markers in other groups. Women taking up brisk walking for exercise showed
no change in BMD but a significant increase in calcaneal BUA. There was no
significant effect on BMD or BUA of continuing brisk walking but calcaneal
BMD declined on ceasing brisk walking. Bone resorption increased in
sedentary women but not exercisers, suggesting the effect on exercise on bone
in postmenopausal women could be through amelioration of this increased
turnover.
Wang C, Yang Z, Chen Y (2009) had investigated the effects of
different exercises on middle-aged and old women's bone mineral density
(BMD), on the metabolic indexes of bone, on the levels of serum elements, and
on the correlation between body components and the indexes. On the basis of
49
informed consent, 90 cantonal women pursued three types of exercises
(Taijiquan, Swimming and brisk walking) in Chengdu City. BMD indexes of
calcaneus were tested by Osteospace quantitative ultrasound instruments; The
serum levels of Mg, Ca, P elements and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were
determined by full-automatic biochemical analysis instrument; The serum level
of osteocalcin (BGP) was determined by radioimmunoassay. There were no
obvious differences of anthropometric indexes between Taijiquan, Swimming,
Brisk walking and Control groups. In comparison with control, the serum
levels of Mg element increased significantly in the three exercise groups, and
the serum levels of Ca and P element increased significantly in swimming
group and brisk walking group. The serum levels of BGP and ALP were lower
than those of control group, but no statistically significant differences were
observed. Speed of sound (SOS) and stiffness index (STI) of BMD indexes in
Brisk walking group were significantly higher than in Taijiquan group,
Swimming group and Control group, and the prevalences of osteopenia and
osteoporosis were the lowest in the Brisk walking group, but no obvious
decreases of osteopenia and osteoporosis were observed in Taijiquan group and
Swimming group. Broadband ultrasound attenuation (BLIA), SOS, STI of
BMD indexes were positively correlated to serum levels of Mg, Ca, P, and
were negatively correlated to the serum levels of BGP and ALP, and were
positively correlated to body weight, BMI, lean body mass and body fat
percentage. In conclusion, brisk walking is a fitting type of exercise for middleaged and old cantonal women; it maintaines normal levels of bone metabolism.
50
Yu D, Zeng G et al. (2010) had studied to investigate the energy
expenditure at physical activities of young and middle-aged adults in southern
China.64 healthy young and middle-aged adults living on light physical activity
intensity were recruited by questionnaire and physical examination. A Cosmed
k4b2 portable metabolic unit was used to measure the oxygen consumption
(Vo2) and carbon dioxide production (Vco2) at a status of basic metabolism
and during seven physical activities, including slow walking, brisk walking,
walking upstairs, walking downstairs, watching TV, jogging and bicycling. The
urinary nitrogen excreted in 24 hours was detected by a standard Kjeldahl
method. Energy expenditure at physical activities was calculated by Weir
equation.The energy expenditure (kJ x h(-1) x kg(-1)) at physical activities
were 14.77 +/- 2.47 for slow walking, 22.18 +/- 3.68 for brisk walking, 41.34
+/- 7.32 for jogging, 18.41 +/- 3.89 for bicycling, 26.11 +/- 4.18 for walking
upstairs, 13.68 +/- 2.89 for walking downstairs and 5.06 +/- 1.09 for watching
TV. The energy expenditure of males at physical activities was higher than
those of females (P < 0.05).There is a significant difference among energy
expenditures at different physical activities; watching TV is a physical activity
in light intensity; slow walking, brisk walking, walking upstairs, walking
downstairs and bicycling are physical activities in moderate intensity, and
jogging is a vigorous physical activity.
51
Jovancevic, Rosano C et al. (2012) had Conducted a study on Physical
exercise has the potential to affect cognitive function, but most evidence to date
focuses on cognitive effects of fitness training. Cognitive exercise also may
influence cognitive function, but many cognitive training paradigms have failed
to provide carry-over to daily cognitive function. Video games provide a
broader, more contextual approach to cognitive training that may induce
cognitive gains and have carry over to daily function. Most video games do not
involve physical exercise, but some novel forms of interactive video games
combine physical activity and cognitive challenge. This paper describes a
randomized clinical trial in 168 postmenopausal sedentary overweight women
that compares an interactive video dance game with brisk walking and delayed
entry controls. The primary endpoint is adherence to activity at six months.
Additional endpoints include aspects of physical and mental health. We focus
this report primarily on the rationale and plans for assessment of multiple
cognitive functions.This randomized clinical trial may provide new information
about the cognitive effects of interactive videodance. It is also the first trial to
examine physical and cognitive effects in older women. Interactive video
games may offer novel strategies to promote physical activity and health across
the life span.
Martin Kopp, Maria Steinlechner and Gerhard Ruedl et al. (2012)
had conducted a study to investigate the effects of an acute exercise bout on
affect and psychological well-being in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Sixteen
patients (mean BMI 28.6 kg/m2) took part, on separate days, in two randomly
52
ordered conditions, in a within-subject design: a 20 min semi-self-paced brisk
walk or passive control (sitting with the opportunity of reading). Ten minutes
before, during (5, 10, 15, 20 min) and following (5, 10, 15, 20, 180 min) each,
participants completed the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) for affective activation
and the Feeling Scale (FS) for affective pleasure/valence. The Activation
Deactivation Adjective Check List (Tense Arousal and Energetic Arousal) was
also completed before and after each condition. Heart rate and Ratings of
Perceived Exertion (RPE) were assessed during exercise. Glucose levels were
obtained from participants before and after exercise and control.Repeated
measures ANOVAs revealed significant condition by time interaction effects
for FS, FAS, Energetic Arousal (EA) and Tense Arousal (TA). Brisk walking
increased FS (15 min after exercise p = 0.020; 20 min after exercise p = 0.034)
and FAS (all time points after baseline). EA was significantly higher 5 min
after the exercise session (p = 0.029) in comparison to the control situationThis
study demonstrated that an acute exercise bout has positive influences on affect
and psychological well-being. The usefulness of exercise to elevate affective
responses (activation and pleasure) should be highlighted when promoting
exercise interventions in subjects with type 2 diabetes.
Praet S. F. E. et al. (2008) had examine in his study a Structured
exercise is considered a cornerstone in type 2 diabetes treatment. However,
adherence to combined resistance and endurance type exercise or medical
fitness intervention programmes is generally poor. Group-based brisk walking
may represent an attractive alternative, but its long-term efficacy as compared
53
with an individualized approach such as medical fitness intervention
programmes is unknown. We compared the clinical benefits of a 12-month
exercise intervention programme consisting of either brisk walking or a
medical fitness programme in type 2 diabetes patients. We randomised 92 type
2 diabetes patients (60 ± 9 years old) to either three times a week of 60 min
brisk walking (n = 49) or medical fitness programme (n = 43). Primary outcome
was the difference in changes in HbA1c values at 12 months. Secondary
outcomes were differences in changes in blood pressure; plasma lipid
concentrations, insulin sensitivity, body composition, physical fitness,
programme adherence rate and health-related quality of life. After 12 months,
18 brisk walking and 19 medical fitness participants were still actively
participating. In both programmes, 50 and 25% of the dropout was attributed to
overuse injuries and lack of motivation, respectively. Intention-to-treat analyses
showed no important differences between brisk walking and medical fitness
programme in primary or secondary outcome variables. The prescription of
group-based brisk walking represents an equally effective intervention to
modulate glycaemic control and cardiovascular risk profile in type 2 diabetes
patients when compared with more individualised medical fitness programmes.
Future exercise intervention programmes should anticipate the high attrition
rate due to overuse injuries and motivation problems.
Taylor A, Katomeri M. A review and meta-analysis by Hamer et al.
(2006) showed that a single session of exercise can attenuate post-exercise
54
blood pressure (BP) responses to stress, but no studies examined the effects
among smokers or with brisk walking. Healthy volunteers (n=60), averaging 28
years of age and smoking 15 cigarettes daily, abstained from smoking for 2 h
before being randomly assigned to a 15-min brisk semi-self-paced walk or
passive control condition. Subject characteristics, typical smoking cue-elicited
cravings and BP were assessed at baseline. After each condition, BP was
assessed before and after three psycho-social stressors were carried out: (1)
computerised Stroop word-colour interference task, (2) speech task and (3)
only handling a lit cigarette. A two-way mixed ANCOVA (controlling for
baseline) revealed a significant overall interaction effect for time by condition
for both systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP).
Univariate ANCOVAs (to compare between-groups post-stressor BP,
controlling for pre-stressor BP) revealed that exercise attenuated systolic BP
and diastolic BP responses to the Stroop and speech tasks and SBP to the lit
cigarette equivalent to an attenuated SBP and DBP of up to 3.8 mmHg. Postexercise attenuation effects were moderated by resting blood pressure and selfreported smoking cue-elicited craving. Effects were strongest among those with
higher blood pressure and smokers who reported typically stronger cravings
when faced with smoking cues. Blood pressure responses to the lit cigarette
were not associated with responses to the Stroop and speech task. A self-paced
15-min walk can reduce smokers' SBP and DBP responses to stress, of a
magnitude similar on average to non-smokers
55
Morabia Alfredo and C. Costanza Michael. (2004) had conducted
study small physical activity increases may prevent weight gain in most
populations. Geneva residents completed validated quantitative physical
activity frequency questionnaires from 1997 to 2001. Fifteen minutes per day
of moderate or brisk walking, or 30 minutes per day of slow walking, could
increase physical activity at the population level; however, if the specific goal
is to approach expending 420 kJ/d (100 kcal/d) through walking, the duration
should be closer to 60 minutes for slow walking and 30 minutes for moderate
or brisk walking. We used a unique monitoring system for measuring the total
energy expenditure of the adult resident population of Geneva, Switzerland, to
simulate the potential effect of campaigns promoting different combinations of
duration and intensity of daily walking on the population’s total energy
expenditure. As recently described in detail, the Bus Santé is an ongoing,
community-based surveillance project designed to monitor chronic disease risk
factors among Geneva’s approximately 100 000 male and 100 000 female,
primarily French-speaking, non institutionalized residents aged 35 to 74 years
continuously since 1993. Since 1997, the Bus Santé survey has included a
validated,
self-administered
quantitative
physical
activity
frequency
questionnaire to measure total and activity-specific energy expenditures, with
special attention to light- and moderate-intensity activities. We used the 1997
to 2001 physical activity frequency questionnaire data first to estimate the
existing population distribution of total energy expenditure (kJ/d). We then
simulated the potential effects of a hypothetical public health campaign to
56
persuade all adults to walk at least 15 minutes per day at various recommended
intensity levels on the total energy expenditure. In the calculations, we assumed
that (1) adults who already walked 15 minutes or more per day at a given
recommended intensity level (prevalent compliers) would continue to do so
with no change; (2) adults who did not walk at least 15 minutes per day at a
given recommended intensity (nor at a higher intensity level) (eligible adults)
would be persuaded to walk at exactly the minimum campaign-recommended
level (unless noted otherwise); and (3) the individual basal metabolic rate
multiples were 3.1 for slow walking, 3.9 for moderate walking, 4.7 for brisk
walking, and 6.0 for athletic/brisk walking. Prevalence, Weekly Frequency
(Performers Only), and Daily Duration (Performers Only) of Slow, Moderate,
and Brisk Walking by 3014 Men and 2996 Women: Geneva, Switzerland,
1997–2001.Results of The estimated (mean) population energy expenditure
gain for slow walking would be only around +38 kJ/d, even if the campaign
were 100% successful, and only +19 kJ/d if the campaign were 50% successful.
Furthermore, a 100% (or 50%) successful campaign to promote slow walking
for 30 minutes per day would provide only a modest +105 (or +53) kJ/d gain.
Population Gains in Energy Expenditure and Reductions in Population
Prevalence of Sedentarism for Hypothetical Intervention Campaigns of
Varying Degrees of Recommended Walking Intensity and Duration and of
Population Compliance: General Adult (35–74) .Assuming 100% campaign
success, the gain achieved by walking moderately for 15 minutes per day is
+150 kJ/d or for 30 minutes per day is +356 kJ/d. However, if only 50% of the
57
eligible men and women walked moderately for 15 minutes per day, the
population energy expenditure would increase by only +76 kJ/d. If only 50% of
the eligible adults walked moderately for 30 minutes per day, the population
energy expenditure gain would be +178 kJ/d Population distributions of (a)
daily total energy expenditure (1 kJ/d = 4.2 kcal/d) for 30 minutes of daily
moderate walking, (b) gains in energy expenditure for 30 minutes of daily
moderate walking, (c) daily total energy expenditure for 30 minutes .For brisk
walking at 100% compliance, the gains would be +255 kJ/d for 15 minutes per
day and +541 kJ/d for 30 minutes per day. If the brisk walking
recommendations were adhered to by only 50% of the eligible adults, the
population energy expenditure gains would be +127 kJ/d for 15 minutes per
day and +264 kJ/d for 30 minutes per day. For athletic-brisk walking at 6.0
basal metabolic rate and 100% compliance, the energy expenditure gains would
be +326 kJ/d for 15 minutes per day and +690 kJ/d for 30 minutes per day.
With only 50% compliance by eligible adults, these gains would be reduced to
+165 kJ/d and +336 kJ/d, respectively. Fifteen minutes per day of moderate or
brisk walking, or 30 minutes per day of slow walking, could increase physical
activity at the population level. However, if the specific goal is to approach
expending 420 kJ/d through walking, the duration should be closer to 60
minutes for slow walking and 30 minutes for moderate or brisk walking.
Moreover, to actually meet the goal of a +420 kJ/d gain in the population, total
energy expenditure would require that at least 50% of the eligible adults
perform athletic/brisk (6.0 basal metabolic rate) walking, which is clearly an
58
unrealistic goal. We have used these data to promote brisk walking and to
compute the statistical power to monitor its effect in collaboration with the
Geneva Public Health Department. Brisk walking is a high energy expending
activity, and it can be almost universally performed in populations. In addition,
changes in urban environments can be conceived to promote walking rather
than other means of transportation in the population. This campaign will allow
us to assess the validity of our simulation because changes in physical activity
and other health-related behaviors will be monitored. It may well be that the
effect of the intervention is greater than expected under our linear model. The
walking habit may grow more rapidly once it has been adopted by a minority
(i.e., a snowball effect), and it may stimulate weight-reducing dietary changes.
The population-based simulation approach proposed here can be extended to
other candidate activities that can be integrated easily into everyday life by the
whole population (e.g., bicycling instead of driving, climbing stairs instead of
taking elevators) or by subgroups (e.g., sports).
59
Chapter III
PROCEDURE
Chapter-III
PROCEDURE
In this chapter the selection of subjects, criterion measures, reliability of
data, administration of test, collection of data and statistical techniques
employed for the analysis of the data have been presented.
SELECTION OF THE SUBJECTS
For the purpose of the study thirty (N=30) male sedentary college
students of Lucknow Christian College, Lucknow between 18 to 25 years of
age were selected as subjects for the present study and the subjects were
briefed in details about the study.
CRITERION MEASURES
For the purpose of the present study following variables and their criterion
measures were selected and given in Table-1
Physical Fitness
Table-1
List of selected variables and criterion measures for the study
Variable
Name of test
Tests(unit)
Lower-back flexibility
Sit and Reach test
In c.m
Body fat
Three site of the body
In %
i.e. chest, thigh &
abdomen
Health Related
Aerobic/Cardiovascular
1 Miles walk/run test
In min/sec
Sit-ups Test
In maximum
function
Abdominal muscular
Strength and endurance
Upper-body muscular
numbers.
Pull-ups
Physiological Variable
Strength
In maximum
numbers
Pulse rate
Manual method
Pulse/min.
Respiratory rate
Manual method
No. of
inspiration &
expiration per
min.
Blood pressure (Systolic
Sphygmomanometer
mmHg
Dry spirometer
In liters
& diastolic)
Vital capacity
61
RELIABILITY OF DATA
The reliability of data was ensured by establishing the instrument
reliability and the tester‟s reliability.
INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
The instruments used for the study were calibrated and tested prior to
the collection of the data. Thus, these were considered accurate enough for the
purpose of this study.
TESTER’S RELIABILITY
The tester‟s reliability was established with the help of test retest method, the
performances of thirty subjects were recorded several times under identical
conditions by the research scholar. Intra-class coefficient of correlation was
used to find out the reliability of the data taken by the tester as suggested by
Johnson and Nelson (1982) and the results are presented in Table 2.
62
TABLE 2
Physiological variable
Health Related Physical Fitness
Intra class co-efficient of correlation on selected dependent variables
Variable
„r‟
Lower-back flexibility
0.99
Body fat
0.96
Aerobic/Cardiovascular function
0.88
Abdominal muscular Strength and
0.89
endurance
Upper-body muscular Strength
0.93
Pulse rate
0.99
Respiratory rate
0.94
Blood pressure (Systolic & diastolic)
0.98
Vital capacity
0.94
For all the variables co-efficient value was between o.88 to 0.99, which shows
that the tests were reliable enough for further work
.
63
ORIENTATION TO THE SUBJECTS
The investigator explained the purpose of the training programme and their part in the
study to the subjects. For the collection of data, the investigator explained the
procedure of testing on selected dependent variables and gave instruction about the
procedure to be adopted by them for measuring. Five sessions were spent to familize
the subjects with the techniques involved in undergoing brisk walking programme. It
helps them to perform the brisk walking without any problem. The subjects were
sufficiently motivated to perform their assigned tasks during the training protocol.
PILOT STUDY
A pilot study was conducted to assess the initial capacity of the subjects to fix the load
and also to design the training programme. For that purpose, ten sedentary college
students were selected at random and they were given different frequency of brisk
walking under the watchful eyes of the investigator. The initial loads of the subjects
were fixed based on the results of the pilot study and the direction given by Dan
Wathen and William B. Allerheibigen (1994).while constructing the brisk walking
programme the basic principles of sports training (progression of overload and
specificity) were followed. During construction of the brisk walking programme,the
individual differences were also being considered.
64
Periodisation of training and collection of data presented in Table 3
Table- 3
Periodisation of training and collection of data
Note: - obs = observation;
65
The Total research period was of 84 days. obs A=day1, obs B=21st day, obs
C=42nd day, obs D=63rd day and obs E=84th day).
One group was formed which participated in Brisk walking programme (6days
in a week except national holidays in which subjects assured that they will
continue the training programme of their own). After obsB six week brisk
waking was prescribed to the subjects‟ upto ObsD. The whole programme of
brisk walking was carried out in the morning session approximately from 7am.
The Total research period was 84 days. Initial data of all the variables were
collected as obs A on day1. Again on the 21st day the second observation (obs B)
was collected. Similarly on 42nd, 63rd and 84th day obs C, obs D and obs E was
collected respectively.
The order of collection of data on a particular day was given in table 4.
TABLE 4
Collection of data on a particular day
Variables
Session
Lower-back flexibility
Morning
Body fat
Morning
Abdominal muscular Strength and endurance Morning
Upper-body muscular Strength
Morning
Pulse rate
Morning
Blood pressure (Systolic & diastolic)
Morning
Vital capacity
Morning
Respiratory rate
Morning
Aerobic/Cardiovascular function
Evening
66
TECHNIQUE OF BRISK WALKING
Good posture helps to walk faster and longer, increasing the fitness level more
quickly, and tire less easily, use more of core (stomach and back) muscles, and
improve the overall efficiency of workout. The following instructions were
given while administering the walk:
The subjects were asked to strike the ground with heel first with shorter
steps, arms bent at 90 degree angle with a swing towards the centre of
the body.
The subjects were asked to stretch their spine with their head resting
comfortably in line with their spine.
The Subjects were asked to contract their stomach to avoid straining
their lower back.
67
Training protocol used for the study was presented in table 5
Table-5
Training protocol
Week
Distance covered
Duration walk
Week-1
-
-
Week-2
-
-
Weeks-3
-
-
Weeks-4
1 mile
17 min
Week-5
1 mile
17 min
Week-6
1 mile
16 min 45 sec
Weeks-7
1 ½ mile
16 min 45 sec
Weeks-8
1 ½ mile
16 min 45 sec
Week-9
1 ½ mile
15 min
Week-10
-
-
Weeks-11
-
-
Weeks-12
-
-
68
ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEST
MEASUREMENT OF HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
VARIABLES
Lower-Back Flexibility
Test: - The Sit and Reach Test
Equipment: - Flexibility measuring Box and mat
Procedure:-The lower-back flexibility was measured by sit and reach test. The
subject sit on a mat with his legs extended. Your feet should rest against the
base of a box on which a yard stick is mounted with the 9 inch (23cm) mark on
the near side of the box. After a general warm-up that includes stretching of the
lower back and thighs slowly reach forward with both hands as far as possible
and hold the position momentarily. Record the distance reached on the yard
stick by your fingertips.
Scoring: - Use the best of four trials as flexibility score.
Body Fat Percentage
Test: - Measurement of Fat folds
Equipment required: - Skinfold caliper
Procedure: - The body fat percentage was measured by skinfold caliper of
fat folds: the fat folds measurements are: MEN: chest, abdomen, and thigh.
69
Chest: a diagonal fold taken one-half of the distance between the
anterior axillary line and the nipple.
Abdomen: vertical fold measured 1 inch to the right of the umbilicus.
Thigh: vertical fold measured at the anterior midline of the thigh,
midway between the knee cap and the hip.
The body fat percentage was calculated from particular web site via
feeding the data on the site www.linear-software.com/online.html.
Classification of body fat chart presented in table 6
Table-6
Body Fat Chart
Classification
Women
Men
Essential Fat
10-12%
2-4%
Athletes
14-20%
6-13%
Fitness
21-24%
14-17%
Acceptable
25-31%
18-25%
Obese
32% plus
25% plus
70
Aerobic/Cardiovascular function
Test: - The 1-Mile Run
Equipment required: - stop watch
Procedure:-The aerobic/cardiovascular function was measured by 1-mile run.
Aerobic-cardiovascular performance during exercise can be measured by a
running performance over a distance of 1 mile. Warm-up for several minutes,
then run/walk as rapidly as possible for 1 mile.
Scoring: - times recorded to the nearest of second.
Abdominal Muscular Strength and Endurance
Test: - The Modified Sit-Up Test.
Equipment required: - Mat and stop watch.
Procedure:-The abdominal muscular strength and endurance was measured by
modified sit-up test. The subject were lie on his back with his knees flexed, feet
flat on floor, and heels between 12 and 18 inches from the buttocks. Crossed
his hands over his chest with the hands on opposite shoulders. Partner holds his
feet to keep them in touch with the floor. Curl to the sitting position; arm
contact with the chest must be maintained, and the chin should remain tucked
to the chest. The sit-up is completed when his elbows touch thighs. Return to
the starting position until his mid-back contacts the floor. His partner gives the
71
signal “Ready, Go” The subject started on the word “Go” and ceases on the
word “Stop”.
Scoring: - score is number of correctly executed sit-ups performed in 60
seconds.
Upper-Body Muscular Strength.
Test:-Pull-up Test.
Equipments required: - A horizontal bar positioned at a height that allows the
student to hang without touching the ground.
Procedure:- The bar was be adjusted to a height that permitted the students to
hang free from the floor from the hanging position with an overhand grip (palm
forward), the body is pulled upward until the chin rests over the bar, and then
lowered until the arms are straight. This movement was repeated to exhaustion.
The student was not allowed to kick, jerk, or use a “kip” movement.
Scoring: The students score was the number of correctly executed chins.
72
MEASUREMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLE
Pulse rate
Objective: To measure Pulse Rate.
Equipment required: Stop watch.
Procedure: Pulse rate will be measured by Radial Pulse (wrist) – index and
middle fingers will be placed together on the opposite wrist, about ½ inch on
the inside of the joint, in line with the index finger. Once pulse is found,
number of beats is counted for a period of one minute.
Scoring: Score was recorded in numbers of pulse per minute.
Resting Respiratory Rate
Objective: To measure Respiratory Rate.
Equipment required: Stopwatch.
Procedure: The Resting Respiratory Rate of each subject was recorded in the
morning session. Before recording the Resting Respiratory Rate, the subject was
instructed to remain for five minutes in supine lying position. The tester then
recorded the rate of respiration in unit counts per minute by carefully watching
the movements of the subject‟s abdomen. Similarly, the respiration rate was
counted during the game and at the termination of the game (three minute
recovery).
Score: The total number of respiratory movements per minute was the final
score.
73
Blood pressure
Objective: To measure Blood Pressure (systolic and diastolic).
Equipment required: sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.
Procedure: A sphygmomanometer (dial type) and a stethoscope were used to
measure the blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) of the subjects. Each subject
was asked to sit relaxed on a chair. The cuff of the sphygmomanometer was
wrapped around the left upper arm of the subject just above the elbow. The cuff
was connected to the pressure pump and manometer. After closing the outlet
valve of the pressure pump, the pressure in the inflatable runner bag is rapidly
raised to 180 mmHg by pumping which was sufficient to sheet off the practical
artery, which is arrested, and radial pulse disappeared. Keeping the „chest piece‟
of the stethoscope over the brachial artery will monitor the sound of palpitation
and listening to the sound through the earpiece of the stethoscope as the pressure
over the artery is being manipulated. The pressure will gradually be lowered by
opening the valve. As soon as the pressure in the cuff fells just below the systolic
pressure, it allowed passing the small amount of blood through the compressed
artery into the distal segment. This produced a clear sharp sound and the pressure
shown on the dial is noted. This denotes the measure of systolic blood pressure.
As this cuff pressure is lowered still further more blood flowed through due to
rebound relaxation of the arterial vessel and this will be indicated by louder
sound. The pressure at which the sound is muffled by manipulation the pressure
74
pump is read on them manometer dial. This denotes the measure of the diastolic
blood pressure.
Scoring: Score was recorded in mmHg.
Vital Capacity
Objective: To measure Lung Capacity.
Equipment required: Dry Spirometer.
Procedure: Vital Capacity was measured in milliliters by using a Dry
Spirometer. The Spirometer was brought the zero position. The subject inhale to
his maximum capacity and after closing both the nostrils, the air inside the lungs
was blown out as intensely as possible into the mouthpiece of the Dry
Spirometer.
Score: The amount of expired air was read directly from the calibrated scale in
liters and that was the score for Vital Capacity.
Experimental Design
Time series design was used Nelson 2005.
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
DATA
1. To determine the level of Health related physical fitness and
physiological variables, descriptive statistics was applied.
75
2. To determine the effect brisk walking on health related physical fitness
and physiological variables in sedentary college students one factor
repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compute the data.
76
Chapter IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
AND RESULTS OF
THE STUDY
Chapter – IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY
The data collected on Health Related Physical fitness and Physiological
Variable have been analyzed and presented in this chapter. The purpose of the
present study is to determine the health related physical fitness and
physiological variable of sedentary college students. The data on thirty subjects
has been presented in this chapter. The data on selected criterion measures for
the group was collected under similar conditions.
The Total research period was of 84 days. Observation (obs) A=day1,
Observation (obs) B=21st day, Observation (obs) C=42nd day, Observation
(obs) D=63rd day and Observation (obs) E=84th day.
FINDINGS
The results are presented in this chapter in tabular form and discussion
of findings was made.
The findings and discussion of findings with regard to the present study
have been presented in two sections. Section one deals with the mean and
standard deviation of all the Variables. Section two deals with the one factor
repeated measures Analysis of variance of Health Related Physical Fitness and
Physiological Variable.
SECTION ONE
The findings pertaining to brisk walking group mean and standard
deviations were computed and data pertaining to that have been presented in
table -7
Table-7
Mean and Standard deviation of Health Related Physical Fitness
Variables and selected Physiological variables
Observation
Variables
obs A
obs B
obs C
obs D
obs E
Flexibility(cm)
9.91
(2.76)
9.90
(2.82)
10.74
(2.83)
11.60
(2.89)
10.70
(2.88)
Fat percentage (%)
14.32
(2.13)
14.37
(2.14)
13.07
(1.73)
12.48
(1.69)
12.79
(1.54)
Aerobic/cardiovascular
function (min/sec)
21.70
(1.83)
21.65
(1.95)
19.12
(1.75)
16.89
(1.25)
19.48
(1.37)
Abdominal muscular strength
26.86
(5.87)
26.20
(5.70)
30.23
(6.02)
32.10
(5.88)
30.33
(5.57)
Pull-ups(No)
4.63
(1.82)
4.80
(1.47)
5.50
(1.47)
5.93
(1.41)
4.86
(1.25)
Pulse rate(b/min)
72.93
(5.2)
71.1
(4.39)
65.8
(3.28)
63.57
(2.97)
68.63
(3.46)
Respiratory rate (r/min)
19.37
(1.9)
19.53
(1.81)
17.23
(1.87)
14.7
(2.23)
18.03
(1.56)
Systolic blood
pressure(mmHg)
126.20
(5.33)
125.10
(4.41)
123.13
(4.54)
124.73
(5.74)
126.20
(5.24)
Diastolic blood
pressure(mmHg)
81.03
(4.60)
82.03
(4.88)
81.40
(5.66)
80.93
(5.33)
83.23
(4.16)
Vital capacity(liter)
2.35
(0.18)
2.39
(0.18)
2.58
(0.17)
2.91
(0.22)
2.72
(0.26)
and endurance (No)
Note: Aerobic/cardiovascular endurance value is taken in min/sec but for
purpose of calculation of data, min/sec was converted in decimal form 0.00 to
0.99.
78
The Mean of Flexibility in Table-7 shows that there was slight decrease
in Flexibility from observation one to observation second (obs A 9.91(Cm),
obs B 9.90(Cm), whereas after second observation to fourth observation there
was sequential increase in Flexibility till the training phase obs C 10.74(Cm),
obs D 11.60(Cm). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there was slight
decrease in Flexibility 10.70 (Cm).
It was evident from the mean of Fat Percentage in Table-7 that there
was slight increase in Fat Percentage from observation one to observation
second (obs A 14.32, obs B 14.37, whereas after second observation to fourth
observation there was sequential decrease in Fat Percentage till the training
phase obs C 13.07, obs D 12.48). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there
was slight increase in Fat Percentage 12.79.
The Mean of Cardiovascular Endurance in Table-7 reveals that there
was sequential reduction in the mean of Cardiovascular Endurance from
observation one to four (obs A 21.70(m/sec), obs B 21.65(m/sec), obs C
19.12(m/sec), obs D 16.90(m/sec). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there
was slight increase in aerobic/cardiovascular function 19.48 (Cm).
The Mean of Abdominal muscular strength and endurance in Table-7
shows that there was slight decrease in Abdominal muscular strength and
endurance from observation one to observation second (obs A 26.86, obs B
79
26.20, whereas after second observation to fourth observation there was
sequential increase in Abdominal muscular strength and endurance till the
training phase obs C 30.23, obs D 32.10). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase
there was slight decrease in abdominal muscular strength and endurance 30.33.
It was observed from the mean of Upper body muscular strength and
endurance (Pull-ups) in Table-7 that there was sequential increase of Upper
body muscular strength and endurance (Pull-ups) from observation one to four
(obs A 4.63, obs B 4.80, obs C 5.50, obs D 5.93). Whereas at obs E 4.86 of
detraining phase there was slight decrease in the mean of upper body muscular
strength and endurance (Pull-ups).
The Mean of Pulse rate in table-7 reveals that there was sequential
reduction of pulse rate from observation one to four (obs A 72.93(b/min), obs
B 71.1(b/min), obs C 65.8(b/min), obs D 63.57(b/min)). Whereas at obs E of
detraining phase there was slight increase in the mean of pulse rate (68.63
b/min).
The Mean of Respiratory rate in Table-7 shows that there was minor
increase in respiratory rate from observation one to observation second (obs A
19.37(r/min), obs B 19.53(r/min), whereas after second observation to fourth
observation there was sequential decrease in respiratory rate till the training
phase obs C 17.23(r/min), obs D 14.7(r/min)). Whereas at obs E of detraining
phase there was slight increase in the mean of respiratory rate (18.03 r/min).
80
The Mean of Systolic Blood Pressure in Table-7 shows that there was
sequential reduction of B.P from observation one to three (obs A 126.20
(mmHg), obs B 125.10 (mmHg), obs C 123.13 (mmHg), whereas from obs D
124.73 (mmHg) to obs E 126.20(mmHg), there was slight increase in Systolic
blood pressure.
It was evident from the Mean of Diastolic Blood Pressure in Table-7
that there was fluctuation of Blood Pressure from observation one to two (obs
A 81.03 (mmHg), obs B 82.03 (mmHg), and from obs C 81.40 (mmHg) to obs
D 80.93 (mmHg) slight reduction due to training phase. The Blood Pressure
was more close to normal and then after obs E 83.23(mmHg) .There was slight
increase in diastolic blood pressure.
It was observed from the mean of Vital Capacity in Table-7 that there
was sequential increase in vital capacity from observation one to four (obs A
2.35 (liters), obs B 2.39(liters), obs C 2.58(liters), obs D 2.91(liters). Whereas
at obs E of detraining phase there was slight decrease in the mean of vital
capacity 2.72 (liters).
81
SECTION TWO
The findings pertaining to brisk walking group one factor repeated
measure analysis of variance was computed and data pertaining to that have
been presented in tables.
Field A (2012) Repeated measure is a term used when the entities
takes part in all conditions of an experiment. In simple terms we can say that
when the same test administered on the same subject for more than 2 times is
known as repeated measures.
Sphericity: - As parametric tests based on the normal distribution
assume that data points are independent. This is not in the case in a repeated
measures design because data for different conditions have come from the
same entities. This means that from different experimental conditions will be
related because of this we have to make an additional assumption those of the
independent ANOVAs we have so far knows. Put simply (and not entirely
accurately), we assumes that the relationship between pairs of experimental
conditions is similar (i.e. the level of dependence between pairs of group is
roughly equal). This assumption is known as the assumption of sphericity.
Effect of violating the assumption Sphericity
The effect of violating sphericity is a loss power (i.e. an increase
probability of committing type II error) and a test statistics (F-Ratio) that
82
simply cannot be compared to tabulated values of the F-distribution. (Field,
2009, 13)
Assessing the severity of departure from Spericity
Departures from sphericity can be measured in three ways:
1. Greenhouse and Geisser (1959).
2. Huynh and Feldt (1976).
3. The lower Bound estimate (the lowest possible theoretical value for the
data).
The Greenhouse-Geisser and huynh-Felgt estimates can both range from
the lower bound (the most severe departure from sphericity possible given the
data) and 1 (no departure from sphericity at all).
Mauchly’s test, which tests the hypothesis that the variances of the
differences between conditions are equal. If Mauchly’s test statistic is
significant at 5% level of significance (i.e. has a probability value less than <
0.05) we conclude that there are significant differences between the variance of
differences: i.e. the condition of sphericity has not been met. If Mauchly’s test
statistics is non significant (i.e. P > 0.05) then it is reasonable to conclude that
the variances of differences are not significantly different (i.e. they are roughly
equal).
83
If Mauchly’s test is significant then it cannot trust the F=Ratio vis-à-vis
its discriminating power.
Correcting violations of Sphericity
Fortunately, if data violate the sphericity assumption then simply adjust
the degrees of freedom for the effect by multiplying it by one of the
aforementioned sphericity estimates. This will make the degree of freedom
smaller; by reducing the degree of freedom we make the f-ratio more
conservative (i.e. it has to be bigger to be deemed significant).
Greenhouse-Geisser estimate of spericity (ε) in SPSS hand out.
1) When ε > 0.75 then use the Huynh-Feldt correction.
2) When ε < 0.75 then use the Greenhouse-Geisser correction.
Then use huynh-Feldt correction, if Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of
sphericity (ε) is greater than 0.75 other wise to use Greenhouse-Geisser
estimates of correction.
84
FLEXIBILITY
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Flexibility presented in Table- 8
Table-8
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Flexibility
Epsilon
Within
Subjects Mauchly's Approx.Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh- Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df Sig.
Observation
.270
35.934
9 0.000
Geisser
.614
Feldt bound
.675
.250
The above table shows that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
significant X2(9) =35.93, p=0.000. (i.e. has a probability value less than 0.05)
and it is concluded that there was significant variance of difference and thus the
condition of Sphericity has been violated.Further, as the value of Epsilon of
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was less than 0.75, therefore in test within
subject effect, Greenhouse-Geisser value of ‘F’ was taken into consideration.
85
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Flexibility
presented in Table 8.1
Table-8.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Flexibility
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
Df
MS
1152.58
29
9.74
59.99
2.50
24.42
F
P
90.78
0.000*
within-subject
Observation
Subject x
Observations
19.14
71.24
0.27
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence (F (2.50, 71.24) = 90.78, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been
violated, X2(9) = 35.93, p = 0.00, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected
using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε =.61). The results show
that there was significant effect of brisk walking on flexibility of sedentary
college students, (F (2.50, 71.24) = 90.78, P < 0.000).
86
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Flexibility presented
in Table -8.2
Table-8.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Flexibility
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 9.91
2) 9.90
0.01
1.000
2) 9.90
3) 10.74
0.84*
0.000
3) 10.74
4) 11.60
0.86*
0.000
4) 11.60
5) 10.70
0.90*
0.000
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a :- Adjustment for multiple comparison: Bonferroni.
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.01, p=1.000), whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=0.84, p=1.000) ,also in third observation and fourth
observation (MD=0.86, p=1.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=0.90,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
week) elicits a statistically significant increase in Flexibility after a certain time
interval.
87
12
Flexibility (cm)
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
obs A
Pre-Training
obs B
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure: 1 Graphical representation of means on repeated observations in
relation to Flexibility (cm).
88
FAT PERCENTAGE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Fat Percentage presented in Table -9
Table-9
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Fat Percentage
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects Mauchly's
Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh- Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df
Sig.
Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observation
.018
109.98
9
0.000
.394
.412
.250
The above table reveals that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
significant X2(9) =109.98, p=0.00, (i.e. has a probability value less than 0.05)
and it is concluded that there was significant variance of difference and thus the
condition of Sphericity has been violated. Further, as the value of Epsilon of
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was less than 0.75, therefore in test within
subject effect, Greenhouse-Geisser value of ‘F’ was taken into consideration.
89
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Fat Percentage
presented in Table- 9.1
Table-9.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Fat Percentage
Source
SS
Df
MS
480.40
29
16.56
Observation
94.05
1.58
59.49
Subject x
Observations
24.72
45.66
0.54
BetweenSubject
F
P
90.78
0.000*
within-subject
*Sig, at 0.05 level of confidence (F (1.58, 45.66) = 110.16, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been
violated, X2(9) = 109.98, p = 0.00, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected
using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of Sphericity (ε =.39). The results show
that there was significant effect of brisk walking on Fat percentage, (F (1.58,
45.66) = 110.16, P < 0.000).
90
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to fat percentage
presented in Table 9.2
Table-9.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to fat percentage
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 14.32
2) 14.37
0.05
0.49
2) 14.37
3) 13.07
1.30*
0.00
3) 13.07
4) 12.48
0.59*
0.00
4) 12.48
5) 12.79
0.31*
0.01
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.05, p=0.49),whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=1.30, p=0.00) , third observation and fourth observation
(MD=0.59, p=0.00) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=0.31, p=0.01). We
can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6 week) elicits a
statistically significant reduction in Fat Percentage after a certain time interval.
91
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
obs A
Pe-Training
obs B
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure: 2 Graphical representation of means on repeated observation in
relation to Fat (%).
92
AEROBIC/CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Aerobic/cardiovascular function
presented in Table 10
Table-10
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Aerobic/cardiovascular function
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects Mauchly's
Chi-
Effect
W
Square
Observation
.710
9.550
Greenhouse- Huynh- LowerDf
Sig.
9 0.389
Geisser
Feldt
bound
.867
1.000
.250
It was observed from the above table that the Mauchly’s Test of
Sphericity was insignificant X2(9) =9.55, p=0.389, (i.e. has a probability value
greater than 0.05) and it is concluded that there was no significant variance of
difference and thus the condition of Sphericity has not been violated. Therefore
in test within subject effect, Sphericity assumption value of ‘F’ was taken into
consideration.
93
One Factor Repeated-Measure analysis of variance for aerobic/
cardiovascular function presented in Table 10.1
Table-10.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure analysis of variance for aerobic/
cardiovascular function
Source
SS
Df
MS
25.28
29
0.87
Observation
481.22
4
120.30
Subject x
Observations
262.97
116
2.226
BetweenSubject
F
P
53.23
0.000*
within-subject
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence, (F (4, 116) = 53.23, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity has not been
violated, X2(9) = 9.55, p = 0.389, the results show that there was significant
effect of brisk walking on aerobic/cardiovascular function, (F (4, 116) =
53.23, P < 0.000).
94
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to aerobic/
cardiovascular function presented in Table 10.2
Table-10.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to
Aerobic/ cardiovascular function
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 21.70
2) 21.65
0.05
1.00
2) 21.65
3) 19.12
2.53*
0.00
3) 19.12
4) 16.90
2.22*
0.00
4) 16.90
5) 19.48
2.58*
0.00
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.05, p=1.000), whereas sequential significant difference was found in
second and third observation (MD=2.53, p=0.000) , third observation and
fourth observation (MD=2.22, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation
(MD=2.58, p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training
program (6 week) elicits a statistically significant improvement in
Aerobic/cardiovascular function.
95
25
Aerobic/cardiovascular function(min/sec)
20
15
10
5
0
obs A
Pre-Training
obs B
obs C
obs D
Training
obs E
De-Training
Figure:-3 Graphical representation of means on repeated observations in
relation to Aerobic/cardiovascular Endurance (min/sec).
96
ABDOMINAL MUSCULAR STRENGTH ENDURANCE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Abdominal Muscular Strength and
Endurance presented in Table- 11
Table-11
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Abdominal Muscular Strength and
Endurance
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects Mauchly's
Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh- Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df Sig.
Observation
.375
26.876
9 0.001
Geisser
Feldt
bound
.637
.704
.250
The above table reveals that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
significant X2(9) =26.88, p=0.001 ,(i.e has a probability value less than 0.05)
and it is concluded that there was significant variance of difference and thus the
condition of Sphericity has been violated. Further, as the value of Epsilon of
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was less than 0.75, therefore in test within
subject effect, Greenhouse-Geisser value of ‘F’ was taken into consideration.
97
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Abdominal
Muscular Strength Endurance presented in Table -11.1
Table-11.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Abdominal
Muscular Strength Endurance
Source
SS
Df
MS
4729..57
29
163.08
Observation
755.77
2.55
296.38
Subject x
Observations
171.42
73.94
2.31
BetweenSubject
F
P
128.30
0.000*
within-subject
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence, (F (2.55, 73.94) =128.30, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been
violated, X2(9) = 26.88, p = 0.001, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected
using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε =0.64). The results show
that there was significant effect of brisk walking on abdominal muscular
strength and endurance, (F (2.55, 73.94) =128.30, P < 0.000).
98
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Abdominal
Muscular Strength Endurance presented in Table-11.2
Table-11.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Abdominal
Muscular Strength Endurance
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 26.86
2) 26.20
0.67
0.157
2) 26.20
3) 30.23
4.03*
0.000
3) 30.23
4) 32.10
1.87*
0.000
4) 32.10
5) 30.33
1.77*
0.000
*Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.67, p=0.157), whereas significant difference is found in second and
third observation (MD=4.03, p=0.000) , third observation and fourth
observation (MD=1.87, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=1.77,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
week) elicits a statistically significant increase in Abdominal Muscular
Strength Endurance.
99
35
Abdominal muscular str and end(No.)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
obs A
Pre-Training
obs B
obs C
obs D
Training
obs E
De-Training
Figure: - 4 Graphical representation of means on repeated observations in
relation to Abdominal Muscular Strength and Endurance (No.).
100
UPPER BODY MUSCULAR STRENGTH (PULL-UPS)
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Upper Body muscular Strength (Pullups) presented in Table -12
Table-12
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Upper Body muscular Strength
(Pull-ups)
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects Mauchly's
Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh- Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df
Sig.
Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observation
.600
14.004
9
0.123
.804
.916
.250
The above table reveals that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
insignificant X2(9) =14.004, p=0.123, (i.e. has a probability value greater than
0.05) and it is concluded that there was no significant variance of difference
and thus the condition of Sphericity has not been violated. Therefore in test
within subject effect, Sphericity assumed value of ‘F’ was taken into
consideration.
101
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Pull-ups presented in
Table-12.1
Table-12.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Upper-body
Muscular Strength (Pull-ups)
Source
Df
MS
281.97
29
9.72
Observation
36.17
4
9.04
Subject x
Observations
44.62
116
.38
BetweenSubject
SS
F
P
23.78
0.000*
within-subject
*Sig. at 0.05 level confidence, (F (4, 116) = 23.78, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity has not been
violated, X2(9) = 14.004, p = 0.123, the results show that there was significant
effect of brisk walking on upper body muscular strength, (F (4, 116) =
23.78, P < 0.000).
102
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Upper Body
Muscular Strength (Pull-ups) presented in Table-12.2
Table-12.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Upper
Body Muscular Strength (Pull-ups)
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 4.63
2 ) 4.80
0.17
1.00
2) 4.80
3 ) 5.50
0.70*
0.00
3) 5.50
4 ) 5.93
0.43*
0.07
4) 5.93
5) 4.86
1.07*
0.00
*Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a: Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni.
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation and second observation
(MD=0.17, p=1.00), whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=0.70, p=0.00), once again a insignificant difference was
found in third observation and fourth observation (MD=0.43, p=0.07) and once
again significant difference was found in fourth and fifth observation
(MD=1.07, p=0.00). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training
program (6 week) elicits a statistically significant increase in Upper Body
Muscular Strength (Pull-ups).
103
7
Pull-ups(No.)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
obs A
obs B
Pre-Training
obs C
Training
obsD
obs E
De-Training
Figure: -5 Graphical representations of means on repeated observations in
relation to Pull-ups (No).
104
PULSE RATE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for pulse rate presented in table -13
Table-13
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for pulse rate
Epsilon
Within
Subjects
Mauchly' Approx. Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh-
Lower-
Effect
sW
Square
Df Sig.
Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observations
.197
44.602
9 .000
.680
.757
.250
The above table reveals that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was significant
X2(9) =44.602, p=0.00, (i.e. has a probability value less than 0.05) and it is
concluded that there was significant variance of difference and thus the condition of
Sphericity has been violated. Further, as the value of Epsilon of Greenhouse-Geisser
correction was greater than 0.75, therefore in test within subject effect, Huynh-Feldt
value of ‘F’ was taken into consideration.
105
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Pulse Rate presented in
Table 13.1
Table-13.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Pulse Rate
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
171.19
Df
MS
29
59.04
F
P
92.80
0.000*
within-subject
Observation
1740.49
3.02
576.32
Subject x
Observations
545.50
87.79
6.21
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence ;( F (3.02, 87.79) = 92.80, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been
violated, X2(9) = 44.60, p = 0.00, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected
using Huynh-Feldt estimates of sphericity (ε =.76). The results show that there
was significant effect of brisk walking on pulse rate, (F (3.02, 87.79) =
92.80, P < 0.000).
106
Pair wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Pulse Rate presented
in Table 13.2
Table-13.2
Pair Wise Comparison of Observation in relation to Pulse Rate
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 72.93
2 ) 71.1
1.83*
0.03
2) 71.1
3 ) 65.8
5.30*
0.00
3) 65.8
4 ) 63.57
2.23*
0.00
4) 63.57
5) 68.63
5.06*
0.00
*Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a: - Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that significant
difference was found in case of first observation
and second observation
(MD=1.83, p=0.03), second and third observation (MD=5.30, p=0.00) , third
observation and fourth observation (MD=2.23, p=0.00) and fourth and fifth
observation (MD=5.06, p=0.00). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk
walking training program of (6 weeks) elicits a statistically significant
reduction in pulse rate.
107
74
Pulse rate(No.)
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
obs A
obs B
Pre-Training
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure: - 6 Graphical representation of means on repeated observation in
relation to pulse rate (beats/min)
108
RESPIRATORY RATE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Respiratory rate presented in table -14
Table-14
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Respiratory rate
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects Mauchly's
Chi-
Greenhouse- Huynh- Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df
Sig.
Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observation
.599
14.058
9
0.121
.771
.873
.250
It is evident from the above table that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
was insignificant X2(9) =14.06, p=0.121, (i.e. has a probability value greater
than 0.05) and it is concluded that there was no significant variance of
difference and thus the condition of Sphericity has not been violated. Therefore
in test within subject effect, Sphericity assumed value of ‘F’ was taken into
consideration.
109
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Respiratory Rate
Presented in Table -14.1
Table-14.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for Respiratory Rate
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
Df
MS
44.09
29
15.48
F
P
199.65
0.000*
within-subject
Observation
463.22
4
115.80
Subject x
Observations
67.97
116
0.58
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence; (F (4, 116) = 199.65, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity has not been
violated, X2(9) = 14.06, p = 0.121, the results show that there was significant
effect of brisk walking on respiratory rate, (F (4, 116) = 199.65, P < 0.000).
110
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Respiratory Rate presented
in Table- 14.2
Table-14.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Respiratory Rate
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 19.37
2) 19.53
0.16
1.00
2) 19.53
3) 17.23
2.30*
0.00
3) 17.23
4) 14.7
2.53*
0.00
4) 14.7
5) 18.03
3.33*
0.00
*Significant at 0.05 level confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.16, p=1.00), whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=2.3, p=1.00) , third observation and fourth observation
(MD=2.53, p=0.00) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=3.33, p=0.00). We
can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6 weeks) elicits
a statistically significant reduction in Respiratory rate.
111
25
Respiratory rate (No)
20
15
10
5
0
obs A
obs B
Pre-Training
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure:-7 Graphical representation of means on repeated observations in
relation to Respiratory rate(r/min).
112
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Systolic Blood Pressure presented in table -15
Table-15
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Systolic Blood Pressure
Epsilon
Within
Approx.
Subjects
Mauchly
Chi-
Greenhou Huynh-
Effect
's W
Square
Df
Observation
.693
10.060
9
Sig. se-Geisser
0.346
.846
Lower-
Feldt
bound
.971
.250
The above table shows that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
insignificant X2(9) =10.06, p=0.346, (i.e. has a probability value which was
greater than 0.05) and it is concluded that there was no significant variance of
difference and thus the condition of Sphericity has not been violated. Therefore
in test within subject effect, Sphericity assumed value of ‘F’ was taken into
consideration.
113
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Systolic Blood Pressure
presented in Table 15.1
Table-15.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for
Systolic Blood Pressure
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
217.96
Df
MS
29
7.51
F
P
2.10
0.085
within-subject
Observation
192.56
4
48.14
Subject x
Observations
2655.84
116
22.89
Insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence; (F (4,116) = 2.10, P < 0.085).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity has not been
violated, X2(9) = 10.06, p = 0.346, the results show that there was insignificant
effect of brisk walking on systolic blood pressure, (F (4,116) = 2.10, P <
0.085).
114
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Systolic Blood
Pressure presented in Table -15.2
Table-15.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Systolic Blood
Pressure
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 126.20
2) 125.10
1.1
1.00
2) 125.10
3) 123.13
1.97
0.767
3) 123.13
4) 124.73
1.60
1.00
4) 124.73
5) 126.20
1.47
1.00
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction showed that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=1.1, p=1.00), second and third observation (MD=1.97, p=0.767) , third
observation and fourth observation (MD=1.60, p=1.00) and fourth and fifth
observation (MD=1.47, p=0.13). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk
walking training program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically insignificant reduction
in Systolic Blood Pressure.
115
126.5
Systolic B.P.(mmHg)
126
125.5
125
124.5
124
123.5
123
122.5
122
121.5
obs A
Pre-Training
obs B
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure:-8 Graphical representations of means on repeated observations in
relation to Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg).
116
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Diastolic Blood Pressure presented in Table
16
Table-16
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Diastolic Blood Pressure
Epsilon
Within
Subjects
Mauchly's Approx. Chi-
Greenhouse Huynh-
Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df
Sig.
-Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observation
.798
6.188
9
0.722
.887
1.000
.250
The above table shows that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
insignificant X2(9) =6.19, p=0.722, (i.e. has a probability value greater than
0.05) and it is concluded that there was no significant variance of difference
and thus the condition of Sphericity has not been violated. Therefore in test
within subject effect, Sphericity assumed value of ‘F’ was taken into
consideration.
117
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of Diastolic Blood
Pressure presented in Table -16.1
Table-16.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for
Diastolic Blood Pressure
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
207.71
Df
MS
29
7.16
F
P
1.23
0.301
within-subject
Observation
107.42
4
26.85
Subject x
Observations
2527.77
116
21.79
Insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence; (F (4, 116) = 1.23, P < 0.301).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been met,
X2(9) = 6.19, p = 0.722, the results show that there was no significant effect of
brisk walking on Diastolic blood pressure, (F (4, 116) = 1.23, P < 0.301).
118
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to Diastolic Blood
Pressure presented in Table- 16.2
Table-16.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to Diastolic Blood
Pressure
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 81.03
2) 82.03
1.00
1.00
2) 82.03
3) 81.40
0.63
1.00
3) 81.40
4) 80.93
0.46
1.00
4) 80.93
5) 83.23
2.30
0.37
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that an
insignificant difference was found in case first observation and second
observation (MD=1.00, p=1.00), second and third observation (MD=0.63,
p=1.00), third observation and fourth observation (MD=0.46, p=1.00) and
fourth and fifth observation (MD=2.3, p=0.37). We can, therefore, conclude
that a brisk walking training program (6 week) elicits a statistically significant
reduction in Diastolic Blood Pressure.
119
83.5
Diastolic B.P.(mmHg)
83
82.5
82
81.5
81
80.5
80
79.5
obs A
Pre-Training
obs B
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure: -9 Graphical representations of means on repeated observations in
relation to Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg).
120
VITAL CAPACITY
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Vital capacity presented in Table 17
Table-17
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity for Vital capacity
Epsilon
Within
Subjects
Mauchly's Approx. Chi-
Greenhouse Huynh-
Lower-
Effect
W
Square
Df
Sig.
-Geisser
Feldt
bound
Observation
.096
64.151
9
0.000
.515
.555
.250
The above table shows that the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was
significant X2(9) =64.151, p=0.00, (i.e. has a probability value less than 0.05)
and it is concluded that there was significant variance of difference and thus the
condition of Sphericity has been violated. Further, as the value of Epsilon of
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was less than 0.75, therefore in test within
subject effect, Greenhouse-Geisser value of ‘F’ was taken into consideration.
121
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance of vital capacity
presented in Table 17.1
Table-17.1
One Factor Repeated-Measure Analysis of Variance for vital capacity
Source
BetweenSubject
SS
4.32
Df
MS
29
0.14
F
P
104
0.000*
within-subject
Observation
6.44
2.06
3.12
Subject x
Observations
2.02
59.76
0.03
*Sig. at 0.05 level of confidence; (F (2.06, 59.76) = 104, P < 0.000).
Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of Sphericity had been
violated, X2(9) = 64.15, p = 0.00, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected
using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε =0.52). The results show
that there was significant effect of brisk walking on Vital capacity, (F (2.06,
59.76) = 104, P < 0.000).
122
Pair wise Comparison of observations in relation to vital capacity
presented in Table-17.2
Table-72.2
Pair Wise Comparison of observations in relation to vital capacity
(I) Observation
(J) Observation
Mean Difference (I-J)
Sig.a
1) 2.35
2) 2.39
0.04
0.22
2) 2.39
3) 2.58
0.19*
0.00
3) 2.58
4) 2.91
0.33*
0.00
4) 2.91
5) 2.72
0.18*
0.00
Significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
a:- Adjustment for multiple comparison:Bonferroni
Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction shows that insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.33, p=0.226), whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=0.190, p=0.000) , third observation and fourth
observation (MD=0.33, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=0.187,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
week) elicits a statistically significant improvement in vital capacity.
123
3.5
Vital capacity(liters)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
obs A
obs B
Pre-Training
obs C
Training
obs D
obs E
De-Training
Figure: - 10 Graphical representation of means on repeated observations in
relation to Vital capacity (liters).
124
DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS
Walking is one of the most relaxing refreshing and enlivening form of
exercise which reaps numerous physical, emotional and psychological benefits
to stay fit and healthy one does not need to spend a bounty on gym facilities as
the natural way of remaining healthy can be achieved by indulging in the
healthy practice of brisk walking. Brisk walking can reap numerous health
benefits which range from keeping one’s heart in a healthy shape to helping in
the process of weight management. Further, walking helps in refreshing and
rejuvenating the mind along with reducing stress and fatigue. Brisk walking
implies picking up a pace which is faster than normal leisure speed but
something which is not exhausting, thus, if somebody want to reap the
numerous benefits of brisk walking one should pick up a pace which is fast,
involving the work out of the entire body but that pace should be within
comfortable range and should not exhaust you in couple of steps. Ayushveda
(2008).
Mean of Flexibility in table-7 reveals that there was slight decrease in
Flexibility from observation one to observation second (obs A 9.91(Cm), obs B
9.90(Cm), whereas after second observation to fourth observation there was
sequential increase in Flexibility till the training phase obs C 10.74(Cm), obs D
11.60(Cm). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there was slight decrease in
Flexibility 10.70 (Cm), mean flexibility differed statistically significantly
between Observation points (F (2.50, 71.24) = 90.78, P < 0.000), insignificant
125
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=0.01, p=1.000), whereas significant difference was found in second and
third observation (MD=0.84, p=0.000) ,also in third observation and fourth
observation (MD=0.86, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=0.90,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
weeks) elicits a statistically significant increase in Flexibility.
It was evident from the mean of Fat Percentage in table-7 that there was
slight increase in Fat Percentage from observation one to observation second
(obs A 14.32, obs B 14.37, whereas after second observation to fourth
observation there was sequential decrease in Fat Percentage till the training
phase obs C 13.07, obs D 12.48). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there
was slight increase in Fat Percentage 12.79. Mean Fat Percentage differed
statistically significantly between Observation points (F (1.58, 45.66) =
110.16, P < 0.000), insignificant difference was found in case first observation
and second observation (MD=0.05, p=0.49), whereas significant difference was
found in second and third observation (MD=1.30, p=0.000), third observation
and fourth observation (MD=0.59, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation
(MD=0.31, p=0.01). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training
program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically significant reduction in Fat Percentage.
R Mendes, N Sousa and J L Barata Brisk walking seems to be the preferred
aerobic exercise. Vigorous intensity aerobic exercise and resistance exercises
126
for muscle strengthening, at least two days an observation is also
recommended.
Paul A. Ford, Gill Perkins & Ian Swaine, et al
(2012)show that
regular accumulated bouts of brisk walking during the school day can
positively affect body composition in primary school children.
Mean of Cardiovascular Endurance in table-7 shows that there was
sequential reduction in the mean of Cardiovascular Endurance from
observation one to four (obs A 21.70(m/sec), obs B 21.65(m/sec), obs C
19.12(m/sec), obs D 16.90(m/sec)). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there
was slight increase in the mean of Cardiovascular Endurance 19.48 m/sec).
Mean Aerobic/Cardiovascular function differed statistically significantly
between Observation points (F (4, 116) = 53.23, P < 0.000), insignificant
difference was found in case first observation and second observation
(MD=0.05, p=1.000), whereas sequential significant difference was found in
second and third observation (MD=2.53, p=0.000), third observation and fourth
observation (MD=2.22, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=2.58,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
weeks) elicits a statistically significant increase in cardiovascular endurance.
Hardman Adrianne E et al. (1994) suggested that regular brisk walking can
improve endurance fitness in sedentary women.
It was observed from the mean of Abdominal muscular strength and
endurance in table-7 that there was slight decrease in Abdominal muscular
127
strength and endurance from observation one to observation second (obs A
26.86, obs B 26.20, whereas after second observation to fourth observation
there was sequential increase in Abdominal muscular strength and endurance
till the training phase obs C 30.23, obs D 32.10). Whereas at obs E of
detraining phase there was slight decrease in abdominal muscular strength and
endurance 30.33. mean abdominal muscular strength and endurance differed
statistically significantly between Observation points (F (2.55, 73.94) =
128.30, P < 0.000), insignificant difference was found in case first observation
and second observation (MD=0.67, p=0.157), whereas significant difference is
found in second and third observation (MD=4.03, p=0.000), third observation
and fourth observation (MD=1.87, p=0.000) and fourth and fifth observation
(MD=1.77, p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training
program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically significant increase in Abdominal
Muscular Strength Endurance.
Mean of Upper body muscular strength and endurance (Pull-ups) in
table-7 showed that there was sequential increase of Upper body muscular
strength and endurance (Pull-ups) from observation one to four (obs A 4.63,
obs B 4.80, obs C 5.50, obs D 5.93). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase
there was slight decrease in Upper body muscular strength and endurance
(Pull-ups) 4.86. Mean Pull ups differed statistically significantly between
Observation points (F (4, 116) = 23.78, P < 0.000), insignificant difference was
found in case first observation and second observation (MD=0.17, p=1.000),
128
whereas significant difference was found in second and third observation
(MD=0.70, p=0.000), once again a insignificant difference was found in third
observation and fourth observation (MD=0.43, p=0.07) and once again
significant difference was found in fourth and fifth observation (MD=1.07,
p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
weeks) elicits a statistically significant increase in Upper Body Muscular
Strength (Pull-ups).
In the present study there was sequential reduction of pulse rate from
observation one to four (obs A 72.93(b/min), obs B 71.1(b/min), obs C
65.8(b/min), obs D 63.57(b/min)). Whereas at obs E of detraining phase there
was slight increase in pulse (68.63 b/min). The mean Pulse rate differed
statistically significantly between Observation points (F (3.02, 87.79) =92.80,
P<0.000. Significant difference was found in case first observation and second
observation (MD=1.833, p=0.038), second and third observation (MD=5.30,
p=0.000), third observation and fourth observation (MD=2.23, p=0.000) and
fourth and fifth observation (MD=5.067, p=0.000). Therefore, it was conclude
that a brisk walking training program of (6 weeks) elicits a statistically
significant reduction in pulse rate.
The Mean of Respiratory rate in table-7 reveals that there was minor
increase in respiratory rate from observation one to observation second (obs A
19.37(r/min), obs B 19.53(r/min), whereas after second observation to fourth
observation there was sequential decrease in respiratory rate till the training
129
phase obs C 17.23(r/min), obs D 14.7(r/min)). Whereas at obs E of detraining
phase there was slight increase in respiratory rate (18.03 r/min). The mean
respiratory rate differed statistically significantly between Observation points
(F (4, 116) = 199.65, P < 0.000). Insignificant difference was found in case
first observation and second observation (MD=0.16, p=1.000), whereas
significant difference was found in second and third observation (MD=2.30,
p=1.000), third observation and fourth observation (MD=2.53, p=0.000) and
fourth and fifth observation (MD=3.33, p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude
that a brisk walking training program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically significant
reduction in Respiratory rate.
The mean of Systolic Blood Pressure in table-7 reveals that there was
sequential reduction of Blood Pressure from observation one to three (obs A
126.20 (mmHg), obs B 125.10 (mmHg), obs C 123.13 (mmHg), whereas from
obs D 124.73 (mmHg) to obs E 126.20(mmHg) .there was slight increase in
Systolic blood pressure. mean respiratory rate differed statistically significantly
between Observation points (F (4, 116) =2.10, P < 0.085). insignificant
difference was found in case first observation
and second observation
(MD=1.1, p=1.000), second and third observation (MD=1.96, p=0.767) , third
observation and fourth observation (MD=1.60, p=1.000) and fourth and fifth
observation (MD=1.46, p=0.139). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk
walking training program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically insignificant reduction
in Systolic Blood Pressure. It was evident from the mean of Diastolic Blood
130
Pressure in Table-7 that there was fluctuation of Blood Pressure from
observation one to two (obs A 81.03 (mmHg), obs B 82.03 (mmHg), and from
obs C 81.40 (mmHg) to obs D 80.93 (mmHg) slight reduction due to training
phase. The Blood Pressure was more close to normal and then after obs E
83.23(mmHg), there was slight increase in Diastolic blood pressure. Mean
Diastolic blood pressure differed statistically significantly between Observation
points (F (4, 116) = 1.23, P < 0.301). Insignificant difference was found in case
first observation and second observation (MD=1.000, p=1.000), second and
third observation (MD=0.63, p=1.000), third observation and fourth
observation (MD=0.46, p=1.000) and fourth and fifth observation (MD=2.3,
p=0.37). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk walking training program (6
weeks) elicits a statistically insignificant reduction in Diastolic Blood Pressure.
Ghosh Arnab (2006) recommended that brisk walking is useful to lower blood
pressure, blood glucose, and obesity (particularly central obesity) in middleaged obese individuals. Chiriac S et al. (2002) Dynamic exercise of moderate
intensity, 50-75% VO2max, (e.g. brisk walking, cycling) for 50-60 minutes, 35 times per observation, is preferable to vigorous exercise because it appears to
be more effective in lowering blood pressure. In addition to reducing
hypertension, physical activity improves other cardiovascular risk factors.
Chanudet X et al. (2006) Thirty minutes of brisk walking daily is beneficial.
Benefits are not limited to blood pressure. Physical activity provides
cardiovascular protection by reducing risk factors such as overweight and
131
metabolic abnormalities. Byron's (2008). “Accumulating brisk, 10-minute
walks appear to be very effective for lowering blood pressure.
Kaukab Azeem (2011) it was concluded that twelve observations brisk
walking is beneficial for lowering of blood pressure, body mass index, and
anthropometric circumference of obese males.
Mean of Vital Capacity in table-7 showed that there was sequential
increase in vital capacity from observation one to four (obs A 2.35 (liters), obs
B 2.39(liters), obs C 2.58(liters), obs D 2.91(liters). Whereas at obs E of
detraining phase there was slight decrease in vital capacity 2.72 (liters). Mean
vital capacity differed statistically significantly between Observation points (F
(2.06, 59.76) = 104, P < 0.000). Insignificant difference was found in case first
observation and second observation (MD=0.04, p=0.22), whereas significant
difference was found in second and third observation (MD=0.19, p=0.000),
third observation and fourth observation (MD=0.33, p=0.000) and fourth and
fifth observation (MD=0.18, p=0.000). We can, therefore, conclude that a brisk
walking training program (6 weeks) elicits a statistically significant increase in
vital capacity.
132
DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESES
The outcome of the analysis of data and the findings of the investigation
has been presented below.
1. The first hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
flexibility of sedentary college students. The investigator accepted the
first hypothesis.
2. The second hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend
in fat percentage of sedentary college students. The investigator
accepted the second hypothesis as the significance difference was found
in observation points.
3. The third hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
aerobic/cardiovascular function of sedentary college students. The third
hypothesis was accepted as the linear trend as well as significant
difference was seen observation points of aerobic/cardiovascular
function.
4. The fourth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
abdominal muscular strength and endurance of sedentary college
students. The investigator accepted the fourth hypothesis as the results
showed that a linear trend exist between observation points of
Abdominal muscular strength and endurance.
133
5. The fifth hypothesis of the present study was partially accepted as linear
trend was found in upper-body muscular strength (pull-ups) of sedentary
college students.
6. The sixth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
pulse rate of sedentary college students. The investigator accepted the
sixth hypothesis as the significant difference was found in observation
points of pulse rate.
7. The seventh hypothesis of the present study was accepted as linear trend
was found in respiratory rate of sedentary college students. As the
respiratory rate differed significantly between the observation points.
8. The eighth hypothesis of the present study was rejected as no linear
trend was found in blood pressure (Systolic and diastolic) of sedentary
college students.
9. The ninth hypothesis of the present study there would be linear trend in
vital capacity of sedentary college students. The investigator accepted
the ninth hypothesis as the vital capacity differed significantly between
the observation points as seen in the result.
134
Chapter V
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter-V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY
The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of brisk walking on
health related physical fitness and physiological variables of sedentary college
students. Thirty male sedentary college students of Lucknow Christian College
between 18 to 25 years of age were selected as subjects for the present study
and the subjects were briefed in details about the study. Lower-back flexibility
was measured by Sit and Reach test and score was recorded in cm. Body fat
was measured by three site of the body i.e. chest, thigh & abdomen and score
was recorded in percentage (%). Aerobic/cardiovascular function was measured
by 1 Miles walk/run test and the score was recorded in min/sec. Abdominal
muscular strength and endurance were measured by Sit-ups test and the score
was recorded in numbers. Upper-body muscular strength was measured by
pull-ups test and the score was recorded in numbers. Pulse rate was measured
by manual method and scores recorded in pulse/min. Blood pressure (Systolic
& diastolic) was measured by sphygmomanometer and the scores recorded in
mmHg. Vital capacity was measured by dry spirometer and the scores were
recorded in liters. Respiratory rate was measured by manual method and the
scores recorded in numbers of inspiration and expiration per minute.
The reliability of data was established by the instrument reliability and
the tester’s reliability. The instruments used for the study were calibrated and
tested prior to the collection of the data. Thus, these were considered accurate
enough for the purpose of this study. The tester’s reliability was established
with the help of test retest method. An Intra class correlation coefficient was
computed to analyse the data. For all the variables coefficient value was
between 0.88 to 0.99 which shows that the tests were reliable enough.
The Time series design was used as experimental design. One group was
formed which participated in brisk walking programme (6 days in a week
training protocol for 6 weeks, expect national holidays in which subjects
assured that they will continue the training programme of their own). After
observation B six week brisk waking was prescribed to the subject’s up to
observation D. The whole programme of brisk walking was carried out in
morning session approximately from 7 am. Total research period was of 84
days. Initial data of all the variables were collected as Observation A on day1.
Again on the 21st day second observation (Obs B) was collected. Similarly on
the 42nd, 63rd and 84th day Obs C, Obs D and Obs E was collected respectively.
To determine the level of health related physical fitness and
physiological variables, descriptive statistics will be applied. To determine the
effect brisk walking on health related physical fitness and physiological
variables in sedentary college students, repeated measures analysis of variance
(Trend Analysis) will be used at 0.05 level of significance (one tailed)
136
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the results obtained and within the limitations of the
present study the following conclusions may be drawn:
1. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Weeks) elicits
a statistically significant reduction in pulse rate.
2. A brisk walking training program (6 Weeks) elicits a statistically
significant reduction in respiratory rate.
3. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically insignificant reduction in systolic blood pressure
4. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically insignificant reduction in diastolic blood pressure
5. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically significant increase in vital capacity.
6. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically significant increase in flexibility.
7. A brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits a statistically
significant reduction in cardiovascular endurance.
8. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically significant increase in abdominal muscular strength
endurance.
137
9. It was concluded that a brisk walking training program (6 Week) elicits
a statistically significant increase in upper body muscular strength and
endurance (Pull-ups).
RECOMMENDATION
In the light of the findings of the study the following recommendations
are made:
1. The results of this study may be used by Physical Education
teachers, Health trainers and Fitness experts for prescribing the brisk
walking programme for different age groups.
2. A similar Study may be conducted on women of different ages.
3. A longitudinal study may be conducted on a large sample with people
having cardiovascular problems.
4. Attempt should be made to educate all classes of people (rural, urban,
hilly and coastal), the importance of involvement in Physical Education
and active life style in life, so as to lead a healthy living devoid of
hypokinetic diseases.
5. More geographical areas may be included for further studies on healthrelated physical fitness and physiological variables of sedentary people,
other than Lucknow.
6. Parents, Teacher and general public may be made aware of ill effects of
sedentary lifestyle, so as to make their wards involve in sports, games
and physical activities, thereby reducing the risk of hypokinetic diseases.
138
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148
APPENDICES
APPENDIX-A
AGE AND WEIGHT OF THE SUBJECT
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Age
20
19
21
22
19
23
21
24
21
25
23
24
23
21
22
23
23
24
25
24
23
23
18
19
21
22
21
23
24
23
Weight
48
52
56
49
57
56
58
54
51
58
58
62
61
58
53
51
57
54
59
56
51
57
52
54
56
65
53
58
54
59
149
APPENDIX-B
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON FLEXIBILITY (In c.m) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
8
7.8
8.8
13
6.3
7.8
10.6
5.4
7.7
8.2
13.3
10.1
13.2
11.4
13.9
8.2
10.6
8.2
9.1
10.5
10.4
10.1
16.6
11.4
12.9
13.2
5.3
5.7
8.2
10.8
Observation
2
7.8
7.9
9
12.9
5.5
8
10.4
5.5
7.6
8
13.2
10
13.4
11.3
14.2
8.1
10.6
8.3
9.2
10.5
10.5
11.4
16.5
11.3
13
12.9
5.2
5.7
8.1
10.6
Observation
3
9.2
9.9
10.4
13.9
7.2
9.2
11.9
6.5
8.7
8.7
15.1
11.9
14.2
12.4
14.6
8.6
11.5
8.7
9.6
10.8
10.6
12.4
16.7
12
13.6
12.9
5.2
5.5
8.3
11.3
Observation
4
9.7
10.4
11.4
15
8.8
10.6
12.4
7.2
9.5
9.2
15.6
12.5
14.7
12.8
15.3
9
12.2
9.2
10.6
12.4
11.05
13.2
17.9
14.3
14.7
14.7
6.6
6.2
8.8
11.6
Observation
5
9
9.2
10.3
14.3
6.6
8.7
11.4
5.9
8.7
8.5
14.6
11.7
13.9
12.5
14.1
8.8
12.2
8.6
10
11.3
10.5
12.5
17.5
11.5
13.9
13.2
6.1
5.9
8
11.05
150
APPENDIX-C
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON FAT PERCENTAGE (In %) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
14.25
10.6
11.72
15.05
12.98
13.13
15.51
13.24
13.49
12.46
12.24
11.45
13.13
14.07
15.34
15.45
12.24
15.56
16.81
16.42
13.42
14.59
15.74
15
10.22
15.91
16.08
18.81
16.42
18.54
Observation
2
14.25
10.6
11.72
15.05
12.98
13.13
15.51
13.24
13.49
12.46
12.24
11.45
13.13
14.07
15.34
15.45
12.24
15.56
16.81
16.42
13.42
14.59
15.74
15
10.22
15.91
16.08
18.81
16.42
18.54
Observation
3
13.09
9.69
10.82
13.6
12.09
11.94
14.36
12.35
12.32
11.87
11.64
10.55
12.24
13.2
13.31
13.42
11.34
14.12
15.68
15.28
12.24
14.01
14.03
13.56
9.61
14.76
14.94
15.45
14.41
16.31
Observation
4
12.5
9.09
10.22
13.02
11.5
11.94
13.49
11.75
11.12
10.96
11.04
10.24
13.13
12.02
12.43
13.13
11.04
13.53
15.1
14.41
11.64
13.13
13.16
13.27
9
14.48
13.78
15.16
13.83
15.45
Observation
5
13.38
9.39
10.52
13.31
11.5
12.54
13.49
13.83
11.12
11.45
11.34
10.85
13.13
12.02
13.02
13.13
11.64
13.53
15.1
14.41
12.54
13.13
13.16
13.27
9.91
14.48
13.78
14.88
14.12
15.74
151
APPENDIX-D
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON CARDIOVASCULAR (In min/sec)
VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
19.40
20.13
18.70
21.25
23.18
22.35
19.70
18.10
23.93
21.71
19.70
22.26
24.38
20.11
24.65
22.63
21.60
18.13
19.41
22.33
23.46
24.56
21.63
22.33
21.00
23.62
20.49
23.48
22.90
24.13
Observation
2
20.10
21.23
21.40
19.28
22.03
25.70
23.95
21.35
23.35
20.20
20.08
21.43
24.48
22.41
23.96
21.95
22.06
20.38
21.31
18.41
22.63
19.48
21.78
19.13
21.13
24.80
21.48
21.52
20.16
22.33
Observation
3
19.56
17.76
18.40
18.56
20.40
17.75
20.03
22.08
17.43
18.56
18.45
17.43
19.58
18.48
20.53
17.30
20.82
18.25
18.68
19.71
21.63
18.05
19.38
18.25
19.67
19.92
18.58
20.31
18.10
20.03
Observation
4
15.73
14.86
15.13
16.93
14.15
15.80
17.26
16.75
13.81
15.76
16.43
16.20
18.70
16.23
18.76
17.10
16.53
16.15
17.06
18.05
16.53
18.20
18.46
17.27
18.56
17.91
18.26
17.06
19.05
18.26
Observation
5
18.20
16.13
20.93
19.46
21.35
18.10
21.88
22.48
19.86
17.58
18.35
17.43
20.26
20.70
22.13
21.33
18.01
20.63
18.01
19.73
17.35
21.80
18.50
19.82
20.58
19.47
18.11
17.10
18.38
20.75
Note: Aerobic/cardiovascular endurance value is taken in min/sec but for
purpose of calculation of data, min/sec was converted in decimal form 0.00 to
0.99
152
APPENDIX-E
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON ABDOMINAL MUSCULAR STRENGTH
AND ENDURANCE (In max. numbers) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
18
19
24
25
27
28
34
17
36
29
34
31
30
19
32
23
26
28
17
27
35
35
24
21
23
25
32
26
24
37
Observation
2
19
18
23
23
28
27
33
16
34
26
34
29
28
21
31
24
25
29
18
26
32
37
23
20
22
23
30
24
25
38
Observation
3
23
22
28
28
32
30
38
19
38
32
35
33
31
24
38
29
29
35
20
29
40
38
26
24
25
27
34
29
29
42
Observation
4
25
25
29
30
37
34
40
20
38
33
37
36
34
25
37
32
31
38
23
28
42
40
29
26
26
29
35
31
31
42
Observation
5
23
24
26
29
35
32
39
21
35
31
34
35
32
26
36
30
28
35
21
26
39
40
25
25
26
26
34
29
29
39
153
APPENDIX-F
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON PULL-UPS (In max. numbers) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
4
3
4
2
6
4
6
3
4
5
4
8
9
9
3
4
5
6
7
5
4
3
2
4
3
4
3
4
5
6
Observation
2
5
3
5
3
5
5
6
4
5
5
4
8
8
8
4
5
6
5
6
4
4
2
3
4
5
4
3
4
6
5
Observation
3
6
4
5
3
6
5
7
6
6
6
4
8
9
9
5
5
6
6
6
5
5
3
3
5
6
6
4
5
5
6
Observation
4
5
5
5
4
6
6
7
5
5
6
5
8
9
9
5
6
6
7
8
6
7
3
4
5
5
7
5
6
6
7
Observation
5
5
5
4
4
5
4
6
4
5
5
4
7
8
8
4
4
5
4
6
4
6
3
3
5
4
6
4
5
5
4
154
APPENDIX-G
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON PULSE RATE (beats/min) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
74
78
77
69
68
82
74
73
64
79
74
68
69
73
70
76
74
67
64
84
80
75
76
68
73
74
64
76
69
76
Observation
2
68
69
73
70
69
74
67
69
65
80
75
71
68
73
72
74
70
64
64
80
75
74
78
64
72
73
65
73
71
73
Observation
3
66
64
67
64
62
72
65
66
62
66
68
64
62
66
68
64
69
63
62
72
71
68
64
59
69
68
61
68
65
69
Observation
4
64
62
64
63
60
68
61
63
63
64
67
62
60
64
65
63
68
62
59
68
68
65
62
58
68
64
58
66
62
66
Observation
5
67
64
70
72
71
76
66
70
65
72
69
64
64
68
69
71
69
66
63
74
72
71
72
65
70
69
62
72
68
68
155
APPENDIX-H
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON RESPIRATORY RATE (No. of inspiration &
expiration per min.) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
18
18
19
17
19
20
17
16
19
21
20
19
17
18
19
21
22
18
19
23
20
18
21
22
19
17
18
23
21
22
Observation
2
17
19
20
18
18
21
18
17
19
22
19
18
16
18
19
22
22
19
19
22
21
19
20
23
18
19
19
22
22
20
Observation
3
15
16
17
15
16
18
15
14
17
19
15
16
15
17
17
18
20
16
18
20
19
16
18
21
17
17
16
20
20
19
Observation
4
12
13
14
13
14
16
11
12
14
17
12
14
11
13
12
16
17
15
15
18
17
16
16
19
15
14
13
17
17
18
Observation
5
16
17
17
16
17
19
18
17
18
20
18
17
16
17
18
19
20
16
19
21
19
18
19
20
16
17
16
21
19
20
156
APPENDIX-I
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
Observation
1
Observation
2
Observation
3
Observation
4
Observation
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
125
118
129
122
128
126
125
128
129
119
128
121
128
122
116
129
134
136
124
119
123
138
132
128
123
126
120
128
132
130
122
120
126
124
121
128
122
126
126
120
131
128
132
138
118
130
124
126
121
124
120
126
125
122
125
122
128
122
124
132
122
126
118
116
122
124
132
128
120
124
124
129
130
126
124
122
122
122
120
114
128
122
124
116
128
128
116
118
123
126
124
116
120
121
120
122
122
122
124
119
122
136
126
118
146
124
124
132
122
124
122
128
130
124
126
126
126
122
126
128
128
126
122
124
126
124
118
121
128
122
126
124
132
124
119
126
126
132
128
128
126
138
122
132
123
132
118
120
134
137
157
APPENDIX-J
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
76
78
81
68
87
78
78
86
89
82
88
88
82
74
82
83
78
81
84
78
83
81
82
74
79
84
82
85
79
81
Observation
2
74
82
85
92
83
89
74
76
78
84
90
87
80
76
75
88
83
88
79
80
82
84
76
78
84
86
80
82
84
82
Observation
3
84
90
87
76
82
86
76
72
84
85
78
76
78
77
74
92
87
89
68
84
86
82
81
84
82
88
76
80
78
80
Observation
4
82
82
78
78
78
78
88
78
86
72
88
75
74
75
76
89
88
80
86
76
85
88
82
72
86
82
78
88
76
84
Observation
5
84
84
79
86
92
82
90
76
82
78
85
84
84
78
78
87
80
85
89
88
87
79
88
79
79
78
84
84
82
86
158
APPENDIX-K
SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON VITAL CAPACITY (in liters) VARIABLES
(N=30)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Observation
1
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.1
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.3
2.1
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.6
2.7
2.3
2.4
2.1
2.4
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.1
2.6
2.3
2.5
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.6
Observation
2
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.1
2.6
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.7
2.5
2.5
2.7
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.1
2.5
2.2
2.5
2.4
2.5
2.2
2.5
2.3
2.6
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.5
Observation
3
2.3
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.7
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.8
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.6
2.6
2.4
2.9
2.5
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.3
2.7
2.5
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.9
2.6
Observation
4
2.7
2.9
2.6
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.9
3.4
2.8
2.8
3
3.1
2.8
2.9
2.7
3.2
2.8
3.4
3.3
3.1
2.7
3.2
2.8
2.9
2.9
2.8
3.2
2.9
Observation
5
2.5
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.4
2.8
3.1
2.7
2.7
2.9
3
2.6
2.5
2.5
3.1
2.8
3.1
3
2
2.9
3.1
2.6
2.5
2.7
2.7
3.1
2.8
159