Journal of Human Kinetics volume 53/2016, 231-247 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2016-0026
Section III – Sports Training
231
Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness
in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review
by
Maamer Slimani1,2, Karim Chamari3, Bianca Miarka4,
Fabricio B. Del Vecchio4, Foued Chéour5
Plyometric training (PT) is a very popular form of physical conditioning of healthy individuals that has been
extensively studied over the last decades. In this article, we critically review the available literature related to PT and its
effects on physical fitness in team sport athletes. We also considered studies that combined PT with other popular
training modalities (e.g. strength/sprint training). Generally, short-term PT (i.e. 2-3 sessions a week for 4-16 weeks)
improves jump height, sprint and agility performances in team sport players. Literature shows that short PT (<8 weeks)
has the potential to enhance a wide range of athletic performance (i.e. jumping, sprinting and agility) in children and
young adult amateur players. Nevertheless, 6 to 7 weeks training appears to be too short to improve physical
performance in elite male players. Available evidence suggests that short-term PT on non-rigid surfaces (i.e. aquatic,
grass or sand-based PT) could elicit similar increases in jumping, sprinting and agility performances as traditional PT.
Furthermore, the combination of various plyometric exercises and the bilateral and unilateral jumps could improve
these performances more than the use of single plyometric drills or traditional PT. Thus, the present review shows a
greater effect of PT alone on jump and sprint (30 m sprint performance only) performances than the combination of PT
with sprint/strength training. Although many issues related to PT remain to be resolved, the results presented in this
review allow recommending the use of well-designed and sport-specific PT as a safe and effective training modality for
improving jumping and sprint performance as well as agility in team sport athletes.
Key words: plyometric training, jumping, sprint, agility, team sport athletes.
Introduction
A vertical jump, sprint performance and
agility tests are commonly used within research
and applied settings to investigate the effects of
plyometric training on physical fitness of team
sport athletes (Chamari et al., 2004; Chaouachi et
al., 2009; Khlifa et al., 2010; Ramirez-Campillo et
al., 2014, 2015ab). However, effective contextual
improvement with plyometric training requires
knowledge about the intervention and the kind of
athletes targeted (Markovic et al., 2007).
Moreover, the requirement to produce an accurate
training session of plyometric elements to
improve physical fitness, which involves open
and complex skills, is not new for team sports
(Chaouachi et al., 2009; Duncan et al., 2006;
Gabbett, 2000; Ostojic et al., 2006; Stolen et al.,
- Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, Tunisia.
- Tunisian Research Laboratory ‘‘Sport Performance Optimization’’, National Centre of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS),
El Menzah, Tunisia.
3 - Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre, ASPETAR, Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar.
4 - Superior School of Physical Education, Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil Education and Sport, University of Sao Paulo,
Brazil.
5 - High Institute of Applied Biology of Médenine, Tunisia.
.
Authors submitted their contribution to the article to the editorial board.
Accepted for printing in the Journal of Human Kinetics vol. 53/2016 in September 2016.
1
2
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Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
2005). Soccer, basketball, handball and rugby are
examples of intermittent team sports that combine
cyclic and acyclic movements in competitive
success (Arazi et al., 2012; Chelly et al., 2014;
Stolen et al., 2005). Despite the significance of
plyometric training (PT) in team sports, to date no
study has summarized crucial information on the
effects of different training protocols on physical
fitness of team sport athletes.
Physical improvements have important
implications on team sports, as players perform
numerous explosive movements like kicking,
tackling, jumping, turning, sprinting, and
changing pace and directions during the match
(Chaouachi et al., 2009; Duncan et al., 2006;
Gabbett, 2000; Ostojic et al., 2006; Stolen et al.,
2005), thus, plyometric drills usually involve
stopping, starting and changing directions in an
explosive manner (Gabbett, 2000). Although in
those sports, performance requires good aerobic
capacity for recovery after high-intensity activity,
many authors agree that it is anaerobic capacity
that determines success (Chaouachi et al., 2009;
Duncan et al., 2006; Gabbett, 2000; Ostojic et al.,
2006; Stolen et al., 2005).
The capacity to improve performance in
athletes and recreationally trained individuals is
the primary goal of sport performance
professionals and PT is ranked among the most
frequently used methods for the development of
the above mentioned profiles in team sport
games. Several research studies have confirmed
that PT can enhance muscle strength and power
(Markovic et al., 2007), speed (Diallo et al., 2001;
Impellizzeri et al. 2008; Michailidis et al., 2013)
and agility (Arazi et al., 2012; Ramirez-Campillo
et al., 2014, 2015a). Additionally, numerous
studies have discovered positive effects of shortterm PT on jumping performance in basketball
(Brown et al., 1986; Matavulj et al., 2001), soccer
(Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014, 2015ab; Thomas et
al., 2009), volleyball (Martel et al., 2005; Milič et
al., 2008), handball (Chelly et al., 2014; Hermassi
et al., 2014) and other team sport games. It has
been reported that plyometric training induces
specific neural adaptations such as increased
activation of motor units and less muscle
hypertrophy than typically observed after heavyresistance strength training (Sale, 1991).
Conceptually, PT is characterized by the
operation of the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 53/2016
that develops during the transition from a rapid
eccentric muscle contraction (deceleration or a
negative phase) to a rapid concentric muscle
contraction (acceleration or a positive phase)
(Bedoya et al., 2015; Makaruk et al., 2014;
Michailidis et al., 2013). SSC tasks take advantage
of the elastic properties of connective tissue and
muscle fibers by allowing the muscle to
accumulate
elastic
energy
through
the
deceleration/negative phase and release it later
during the acceleration/positive phase to enhance
muscle’s force and power output (Michailidis et
al., 2013; Padulo et al., 2013). Therefore, this
regime of SSC muscle contractions is a typical part
of muscle activity in a number of specific team
sport activities including acceleration, changing of
directions, vertical and horizontal jumps. Cormie
et al. (2011) clarified the interactions between the
contractile and elastic elements and pointed out
that their different length-shortening behaviour
was vital in SSC movements. Moreover, the
power/strength produced during the initial phase
of the stretch-shortening cycle positively
influences neuromuscular control and joint
stabilization (Markovic and Mikulic, 2010). Thus,
plyometrics, also known as "jump training" or
"plyos", are exercises based on maximum muscle
force production in a shortest possible time to
improve speed and power (Markovic, 2007).
Lately, ”anaerobic” and ”aerobic” power
production has been shown to improve after
traditional training techniques such as PT
(Chamari and Padulo, 2015; Markovic and
Mikulic, 2007). Short PT programs have proved to
be effective in groups of individuals of various
physical fitness levels and sport experience with a
PT frequency of two sessions a week (Milič et al.,
2008). For instance, a training program of two
weeks with three sessions per week including
high intensity plyometric exercises (between 180
and 250 jumps per session) can be recommended
as the short term strategy that will optimize one's
probability of reaching significant improvements
in explosive power and sprint velocity
performance (Maćkala and Fastiak, 2015).
Determinant
features
of
planning
programs such as a systematic decrease of volume
or an increase of intensity in exercises are not
considered in many PT studies (Markovic and
Mikulic, 2007). Nonetheless, some studies
demonstrate a small improvement in jump height
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233
by Maamer Slimani et al.
(Sohnlein et al., 2014), sprint performance (Arazi
and Asadi, 2011; Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014,
2015ab) and agility (Arazi et al., 2012; Váczi et al.,
2013). Furthermore, previous meta-analytical
reviews have included the effects of PT on jump
height (Markovic, 2007) in young children
(Johnson et al., 2011), however, the findings are
not consensual and should be clarified to improve
understanding of PT properties. Therefore, the
purpose of this systematic review was to describe
the effects of PT on jump, sprint and agility
performances in team sport athletes.
Material and Methods
Study Selection and Inclusion Criteria
This review was conducted in accordance
with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) Statement
guidelines (Moher et al., 2009) (Figure 1). A
comprehensive search of the investigations was
performed electronically in the following
databases: Web of Science, PubMed / Medline, ISI
Web of Knowledge, Scopus and The Cochrane
Library from their inception up to March 2015 for
English-language, peer-reviewed investigations
using the terms “plyometric” or “plyometrics”
alone or together with “jump training”, “drop
jump”, “depth jump”, “stretch-shortening cycle”,
“training of power”, “plyometric training”,
“jump height”, “agility”, “sprint performance”,
“soccer”, “basketball”, “handball”, “volleyball”
or “rugby”.
The exclusion criteria were as follows:
participants whose characteristics were not
consistent with the search of Sport Discus or
Medline databases; data from theses or from nonEnglish articles; data from chapters in books. In
addition, the present study selected investigations
examining their internal validity based on the
recommendations by preceding reports (Campbell
and Stanley, 1966; Villarreal et al., 2010) and
included: (1) studies involving either a control
group or condition against which an intervention
could be compared; (2) randomized control
studies (RCTs: Randomized Controlled Trials); (3)
research using instruments with high reliability
and validity, and; (4) investigations with
experimental no-mortality.
Study methods were assessed and a total
of 32 original-research peer-reviewed articles
were selected. Each research work was analyzed
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
to evaluate the real effects (relative effect %) of PT
alone or combined with strength/sprint training
on physical fitness performance, particularly in
terms of a wide range of characteristics, including
participants, gender, a performance level and
intervention. The effects of PT on athletes of team
sports were identified and grouped into the
following topics: vertical jump height, sprint and
agility performances.
Analysis of Training
Based on the articles’ search and
analysis, we divided the training process into two
categories:
- Plyometric training: sets of plyometric
drills with three modalities – a countermovement
jump (CMJ), a drop jump (DJ) or a combination of
plyometric drills (COMB) (Tables 1 A/B and 2).
- Combined training: sets of plyometric
drills performed concurrently to strength/sprint
training (Tables 3 and 4).
Duration of PT was classified as <8 weeks
and ≥8 weeks. Particularly, the classification of
some plyometric-training studies was difficult
owing to the combination of exercises or lack of
details.
Results
Descriptive Characteristics of Included Studies
The full texts of 140 studies were
assessed for eligibility and 32 studies were
included (Tables 1AB, 2, 3, 4). Studies that met the
inclusion criteria consisted of investigations of
effects of PT on physical fitness (26 studies), and
randomized controlled trials examining the effects
of combined training (PT plus strength/sprint
training) on jump height and sprint performance
(6 studies). Fifteen studies (~47% out of 32 studies)
used students and amateur athletes as a sample
population. Five studies (~16%) chose national
athletes as sample participants and measured
their performance. Twelve studies (~37%) selected
elite and semi-professional athletes as sample
subjects. Furthermore, the number of participants
per study ranged between 12 and 76, and the
studies included males and/or females. The total
population size included in this review was 958
(864 males and 94 females). Eighteen studies
chose soccer players (56.2%), seven studies used
basketball players (21.9%), three studies chose
handball players (9.4%) and four studies used
rugby, volleyball and/or hockey players (12.5%) as
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Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
participants. Others elements differed between
the PT interventions: the number of weeks (range
from 4 to 16) and the number of PT sessions per
week (range from 2 to 4). For the combined
training interventions, the number of weeks
ranged between 6 to 12 weeks with 2-3 sessions
per week.
Vertical Jump
The reviewed studies indicated that
vertical jumping performance was assessed using
all types of vertical jumps: a standard vertical
jump (VJ), a squat jump (SJ), a countermovement
jump (CMJ), a countermovement jump with the
arm swing (CMJA), a standing long jump (SLJ), a
multiple 5 bounds test (MB5) and a depth vertical
jump (DVJ) (Table 1AB). The results show that the
greatest relative effects of PT were observed with
increases for: VJ = 15.6% (range: 3.1 to 30.4%), SJ =
21.3% (range: 3.9 to 23.3%), CMJ = 10.2% (range:
4.1 to 27.6%), SLJ distance = 5.6% (range: 2.6 to
9.4%), MB5 = 9.9% (range: 4 to 22.9%) and finally
DVJ = 9.3% (range: 3.1% to 15.9%). Previous
research in which vertical jump performance was
improved following a training program of PT
combined with strength training seems to have
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 53/2016
lower potential in enhancing vertical jumping
height (around SJ: 7.7%; CMJ: 5.3%) compared
with PT alone. When PT was performed with
sprint training, the data showed a significant
improvement in vertical jumping height (CMJ:
5.2%; CMJA: 2.4%; DVJ: 2.6%), with lower values
than for PT alone (Table 3).
Sprint Performance
The
present
review
suggests
improvements in sprint time following PT over
distances from 5 to 60 m, although slight
decreases in sprint time following PT and lack of
improvements have been also observed (Table 2).
The results of this review partly support the
abovementioned statement as the greatest relative
effects of PT were observed for 10 m sprint time
(average -2.6%; range: -0.4 to -5%), with the same
average improvement of -2.6% (range: -0.4 to 4.7%) for 20 m sprint time, and finally an average
improvement of -4.1% (range: -1.9 to -6.5%) for 30
m sprint time. However, the combination of PT
and strength training also showed a significant
improvement in 10 m sprint time (-3.1%) and 30 m
sprint time (-2.3%), with lower value (30 m sprint
time only) compared to PT alone (Table 4).
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by Maamer Slimani et al.
Figure 2
Effects of short versus long plyometric training duration on squat jump (SJ)
and countermovement jump (CMJ) heights in amateur players
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
235
236
Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
Table 1A
Effects of plyometric training on jump height in team sport athletes
Study
Age; Team; Subjects;
Sex; AL
PT intervention
(weeks/sessions)
Relative effects (%)
<8 weeks of plyometric training
Yn; Soccer; 44; M; A
Grass COMB (4/3)
Sand COMB
↑5.2 SJ and ↑14.5 CMJ
↑10.2 SJ and ↑6.4 CMJ
Yn; Soccer + Hockey;
20; F; NCAADI
Y; Basketball; 20; M; E
COMB (6/2)
↑5.8 SJ and ↑5.8 VJ
COMB (6/2)
↑24.1 VJ and ↑9.4 SLJ
Yn; Basketball; 12; M;
E
Yn; Basketball; 23; M;
E
Yn; Basketball; 36; F; A
COMB (6: 4/2; 2/4)
NSD CMJ
COMB (6/2)
NSD CMJ
COMB (6/2)
↑15.4 SJ and ↑11.3 CMJ
Yn;Volley-ball;18; F;
HSA
ABPT COMB (6/2)
After 4 weeks
After 6 weeks
↑ 3.1 VJ
↑8 VJ
Váczi et al. (2013)
Yn; Soccer; 24; M; TL
COMB (6/2)
↑9 VJ
Ramirez-Campillo et al.
(2015a)
Y; Soccer; 54; M; SubE
BJ (6/2)
CONS (6/2)
↑18.7 CMJA and ↑5.8
MB5
↑7.9 CMJA and ↑11.5
MB5
↑15.4 CMJA and ↑10.4
MB5
↑16.86 CMJ and ↑8.3
DVJ
↑8 CMJ and NSD DVJ
DJ (7/2)
↑4.3 CMJ and ↑4.1 MB5
Impellizzeri et al.
(2008)
Chimera et al. (2004)
Asadi (2013)
Lehnert et al. (2013)
Gottlieb et al. (2014)
Attene et al. (2015)
Martel et al. (2005)
UJ (6/2)
BJ+UJ (6/2)
Sankey et al. (2008)
Ramirez-Campillo et al.
(2014)
A; Rugby; 18; M; HSA
Y; Soccer; 76; M; A
INCR (6/2)
AL: activity level; PT: plyometric training; E: elite; A: amateur; HSA: high school athletes;
SP: semi-professional; TL: third league; N: national; SubE: sub-elite;
NCAADI: national collegiate athletic association division I; A: adult; Y: youth;
Yn: young; A: adolescent; M: male; F: female; VJ: vertical jump; SJ: squat jump;
CMJ: countermovement jump; CMJA: countermovement jump with the arm swing;
MB5: multiple 5 bounds test;
DVJ: depth vertical jump; SLJ: standing long jump; DJ: drop jump; Aft: after;
COMB: combination of plyometric drills; BJ: bilateral jump; UJ: unilateral jump;
BJ+UJ: bilateral + unilateral jumps; ABPT: aquatic-based plyometric training;
INCR: periodised plyometric intensity; CONS: constant moderate plyometric intensity;
↑: increased in jump height; NSD: no significant difference compared to pre-training.
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237
by Maamer Slimani et al.
Table 1B
Effects of plyometric training on agility and sprint performances in team sport athletes
Study
Age; Team; Subjects;
Sex; AL
PT intervention
(weeks/sessions)
Relative effects (%)
≥8 weeks of plyometric training
Arazi et al. (2012)
Yn; Basketball; 18;
M; SP
LBPT COMB
ABPT COMB (8/3)
↑29.3 VJ and ↑5.7 SLJ
↑30.4 VJ and ↑6.5 SLJ
Chelly et al. (2010)
J; Soccer; 23; M; N
COMB (8/2)
↑8.3 SJ and ↑2.5 CMJ
Meylan and Malatesta
(2009)
C; Soccer; 25; M; A
COMB LI (8/2)
↑7.9 CMJ and ↑4 MB5
J; Handball; 23; M:
N
Yn; Handball; 24; M;
E
A; Soccer; 76; M; A
COMB (8/2)
↑12.8 SJ and ↑9.5 CMJ
COMB (8/2)
↑9.7 SJ and ↑11.4 CMJ
COMB (9/2)
NSD SJ and NSD CMJ
Khlifa et al. (2010)
S; Basketball; 27; M ;
N
COMB (10: 3/2; 7/3)
LPT COMB
Diallo et al. (2001)
A; Soccer; 20; M ; A
DJ (10/3)
Santos et al. (2011)
A ; Basketball; 24;
M; A
PA; Soccer; 45; M; A
COMB (10/2)
↑5.8 SJ and ↑7 CMJ and
↑5.6 5JT
↑9.9 SJ and ↑12.2 CMJ and
↑7.5 MB5
↑7.3 SJ and ↑11.6 CMJ and
↑5.7 MB5
↑3.9 SJ and ↑4.1 CMJ and
↑3.1 DVJ
Chelly et al. (2014)
Hermassi et al. (2014)
Brito et al. (2014)
Michailidis et al.
(2013)
COMB (12/2)
After 6 weeks
After 12 weeks
Sedano Campo et al.
(2009)
A; Soccer; 20; F; E
Sohnlein et al. (2014)
MP; Soccer; 22; M; E
COMB (12/3)
After 6 weeks
After 12 weeks
COMB (16/2)
↑14.3 SJ and ↑18.5 CMJ
and ↑2.6 SLJ and ↑14.6
MB5 and ↑10 DVJ
↑23.3 SJ and ↑27.6 CMJ
and ↑4.2 SLJ and ↑22.9
MB5 and ↑15.9 DVJ
↑8.5 SJ and ↑12.8 SLJ
↑14.4 SJ and ↑16 SLJ
↑11.8 MB5 and ↑7.3 SLJ
J: junior; PA: pre-adolescent; C: children; MP: mid-puberty; LI: low intensity;
LPT: loaded plyometric training program; LBPT: land-based plyometric training;
PPT: progressive plyometric training;
NPPT: without progressive plyometric training; for the rest of the legend,
please see the legend of Table 1A
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
238
Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
Table 2
Effects of plyometric training on agility and sprint performances in team sport athletes
Study
Age; Team; Subjects; Sex;
AL
PT intervention
(weeks/sessions)
Relative effects (%)
<8 weeks of plyometric training
Impellizzeri et al. (2008)
Yn; Soccer; 44; M; A
↓3.7 10 m and ↓2.7 20 m
↓4.2 10 m and ↓2.5 20 m
Asadi (2013)
Y; Basketball; 20; M; E
Grass COMB
Sand COMB
(4/3)
COMB (6 /2)
Gottlieb et al. (2014)
Yn; Basketball; 23; M; E
COMB (6/2)
NSD 20 m
Thomas et al. (2009)
Y; Soccer; 12; M; SP
CMJ
DJ (6 /2)
NSD 5 m × 6 and NSD 10 m and NSD
20 m
NSD 5 m × 6 and NSD 10 m and NSD
20 m
Váczi et al. (2013)
Ramirez-Campillo et al.
(2015a)
Yn; Soccer; 24; M; TL
Y; Soccer; 54; M; SubE
COMB (6 /2)
BJ
UJ
BJ+UJ (6/2)
↓2.5 ATT and ↓1.7 IAT
↓3.9 ATT and ↓3.8 15 m and ↓3.2 30 m
↓8.3 ATT and ↓5.1 15 m and ↓6.2 30 m
↓8.3 ATT and ↓5.9 15 m and ↓6.5 30 m
Ramirez-Campillo et al.
(2015b)
Yn; Soccer; 24; M; A
COMB
PPT
NPPT (6/2)
↓0.9 10 m
↓1.6 10 m
Ramirez-Campillo et al.
(2014)
Y; Soccer; 76; M; A
DJ (7/2)
↓3.5 IAT and ↓0.4 10 m
↓8.6 ATT and ↓7.1 IAT
≥8 weeks of plyometric training
Yn; Basket-ball; 18; M; SP
LBPT COMB
ABPTCOM (8/3)
↓9.6 ATT and ↓6 IAT
↓18.7 ATT and ↓5.8 IAT
Meylan and Malatesta
(2009)
C; Soccer; 25; M; A
COMB LI (8/2)
↓9.6 ATT and ↓2.1 10 m
Haghighi et al. (2012)
Yn; Soccer; 30; M; E
COMB
RT (8/2)
↓4 5 m × 6
↓7.4 5 m × 6
Brito et al. (2014)
A; Soccer; 76; M; A
COMB (9/2)
Diallo et al. (2001)
A; Soccer; 20; M ; A
DJ (10/3)
NSD ATT and NSD 5 m × 6 and ↓4.9
20 m
NSD 10 m and ↑2.6 20 m and NSD 30
m
Michailidis et al. (2013)
PA; Soccer; 45; M; A
COMB (12/2)
After 6 weeks
Arazi et al. (2012)
After 12 weeks
Sohnlein et al. (2014)
MP; Soccer; 22; M; E
COMB (16/2)
↓5 ATT and ↓3.1 10 m and ↓2.2 20 m
and ↓1.9 30 m
↓23 ATT and ↓5 10 m and ↓3.5 20 m
and ↓3 30 m
↓6.1 HAR and ↓3.2 20 m
ATT: agility T test; IAT: Illinois agility test; HAR: hurdle agility run;
↓: decreased in sprint or agility time; ↑: increased in performance;
for the rest of the legend, please see the legend of Tables 1A/B.
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by Maamer Slimani et al.
Table 3
Effects of plyometric training added to strength/sprint training
on jump height in team sport athletes
Study
Age; Team; Subjects; Sex; AL
Training
intervention
(weeks/sessions)
Relative effects (%)
Faigenbaum et al.
(2007)
Perez-Gomez et
al. (2008)
Marques et al.
(2013)
Ronnestad et al.
(2008)
Cherif et al. (2012)
A; Basketball + Rugby; 27; M;
A
Yn; Soccer; 37; M; A
PT + RT (6/2)
↑7.8 VJ
PT + WL (6/3)
↑6.4 SJ and ↑8.3 CMJ
Yn; Soccer; 42; M; N
PT + SPT (6/2)
↑7.7 CMJ
Yn; Soccer; 21; M; E
PT + ST (7/2)
Yn; Handball; 22; M; E
PT + SPT (12/2)
Wong et al. (2010)
Yn; Soccer; 51; M; R
PT + ST (12/2)
↑9.1 SJ and NSD
CMJ
↑2.7 CMJ and ↑2.4
CMJA
and ↑2.6 DVJ
↑5.9 CMJ
R: regional; RT: resistance training; ST: strength training; WL: weight lifting;
SPT: speed training; ↑: increased in jump height; for the rest
of the legend, please see the legend of Table 1A.
Table 4
Effects of plyometric training added to strength/sprint training
on sprint time in team sport athletes.
Study
Faigenbaum et
al. (2007)
Marques et al.
(2013)
Ronnestad et al.
(2008)
Wong et al.
(2010)
Age; Team; Subjects;
Sex; AL
A; Basketball + Rugby;
27; M; A
Yn; Soccer; 42; M; N
Training
intervention
(weeks/sessions)
PT + RT (6/2)
Relative effects (%)
PT + SPT (6/2)
NSD 9.1 m
Yn; Soccer; 21; M; E
PT + ST (7/2)
NSD 15 m and ↓3.2 15 - 30 m
and ↓1.7 30 m
↓1.4 10 m and ↓0.8 30- 40 m
Yn; Soccer; 51; M; R
PT + ST (12/2)
↓4.9 10 m and ↓2.3 30 m
↓: decreased in sprint time; for the rest of the legend,
please see the legend of Tables 1A and 3.
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
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Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
Agility Performance
In the reviewed studies, agility performance
was assessed using an agility t-test (ATT) and/or
the Illinois agility test (IAT). However, the results
of this review (Table 2) show that greater relative
effects (a decrease in agility time) of PT are
observed for the ATT -9.7% (range: -2.5 to -23%)
and the IAT -4.8% (range: -1.7 to -7.1%).
Discussion
Vertical Jump
The data reported in the present review
indicate that PT is an effective training method for
the improvement of vertical jump height. The
findings of two recent meta-analyses further
support this view by showing significant and
practically relevant PT-induced increases in
vertical jump height in athletes and non-athletes
of both sexes (de Villarreal et al., 2009; Markovic,
2007). However, the present review shows that PT
with low intensity or without progressive
intensity is of lower effectiveness than moderately
high and progressive PT, respectively. It has been
also shown that combination of plyometric drills
is more effective than single plyometric drills
(e.g., DJ, CMJ) (Reilly et al., 2000a). Furthermore,
combination of unilateral and bilateral jump drills
seems more advantageous to induce significant
jump height performance improvements during
high-intensity short-term plyometric training
compared to the use of bilateral jump drills alone.
Moreover, it could be concluded that training
duration of 6-7 weeks is too short to improve
muscular power in elite male players due to a
high training level of the athletes. Nonetheless, in
amateur male and female players a significant
improvement in jump height in the same period
was reported (Figure 1). In fact, following general
recommendations, more than 8 weeks of
systematic application of PT are required to
improve muscular power in elite athletes. Also,
non-rigid surfaces (i.e. aquatic, grass or sandbased PT) could elicit similar increases in jumping
and performance as traditional PT. Nevertheless,
it has to be noted that performing PT on a sand
surface may increase the risk of overuse injuries to
the lower limbs and back (Bahr and Reeser, 2003;
Giatsis and Kollias, 2004). Likewise, some studies
reported no change (Brito et al., 2014; Gottlieb et
al., 2014; Lehnert et al., 2013) or even slight
decreases in vertical jumping performance (de
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 53/2016
Villarreal et al., 2008), probably due to the
characteristics of the subject, in particular: a
training level, sport activity, age, gender,
familiarity with plyometric exercises and a
training program (duration, volume, rest periods,
frequency, type of exercises and their
combination, intensity of exercises, external
resistance) (de Villarreal et al., 2009). A positive
significant relationship between training duration,
the number of sessions and the number of jumps
per session and the PT effect has been confirmed.
Moreover, PT lasting 10 weeks or more (more
than 20 sessions in total) has been recommended
to maximize the probability of obtaining
significant
improvements
in
athletes.
Nevertheless, the study does not mention the
sports level of these athletes (de Villarreal et al.,
2009).
It is important to point that
improvements observed in the vertical jump
could
have
been
induced
by
various
neuromuscular adaptations, such as an increased
neural drive to the agonist muscles, changes in
muscle-tendon
mechanical-stiffness
characteristics, alterations in muscle size and/or
architecture, and changes in single-fiber
mechanics (de Villarreal et al., 2009; Maffiuletti et
al., 2002; Potteiger et al., 1999; Thomas et al.,
2009). Other possible aspects of neural adaptation
to PT include (i) changes in leg muscle activation
strategies (or inter-muscular coordination) during
vertical jumping, particularly during the
preparatory (i.e. pre-landing) jump phase; and (ii)
changes in the stretch reflex excitability (Bishop
and Spencer, 2004; de Villarreal et al., 2009).
Sprint Performance
Team sports are considered intermittent
activities involving sudden variations in
movement and intensity (Chaouachi et al., 2009;
Stolen et al., 2005). However, during a match, the
duration of activities at high velocities does not
usually last longer than 3 s (e.g., soccer) (Stolen et
al., 2005). Despite their short duration, the
readiness to these different and rapid movements
is essential and sprint performance may be
considered relevant in these sports. It represents a
multidimensional movement skill that requires
explosive concentric and SSC force production of
a number of lower-limb muscles (Markovic and
Mikulic, 2010), and maximal intensity sprinting
necessitates extremely high levels of neural
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by Maamer Slimani et al.
activation (Nummela et al., 1994). Measurable
neurological variables such as nerve conduction
velocity, maximum electromyographic (EMG)
activity and Hoffman reflex (H-reflex) all alter in
response to physical training (Bernardi et al.,
1996). Potential mechanisms for improvements in
sprint performance include changes in temporal
sequencing of muscle activation for more efficient
movement, preferential recruitment of fastest
motor units, increased nerve conduction velocity,
a frequency or degree of muscle innervations and
increased ability to maintain muscle recruitment
and rapid firing throughout the sprint (Ross et al.,
2001). Several previous studies have suggested
that PT can enhance sprinting ability just because
it is based on the use of the SSC (de Villarreal et
al., 2008).
The greatest benefits of PT for sprint
performance are dependent on the velocity of
muscle action employed in training (Rimmer and
Sleivert, 2000). Therefore, it has been suggested
that greatest effects of PT on sprinting
performance occur in the acceleration phase. It is
known that slow SSC (long-response) plyometrics
(>0.25 s), such as countermovement or squat
jumps, transfer most directly to start and
acceleration performance, whereas fast SSC
(short-response) plyometrics (<0.25 s), such as
drop jumps, have more transfer to maximum
running velocity (Delecluse et al., 1995; Plisk,
2008; Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000).
The findings of the present review
indicate that the combination of various
plyometric exercises (e.g., SJ, CMJ, DJ, and hurdle
jump) would be the optimal form of PT (Table 2).
This could be attributed to differences in the use
of SSC characteristics, as a SJ mainly consists of a
concentric (push-off) phase, whereas a CMJ and
other forms of plyometrics involve a coupling of
eccentric and concentric phases (Markovic and
Mikulic, 2010).
Some researchers suggest that PT is more
effective in improving performance due to the
ability of subjects to use the elastic and neural
benefits of the SSC (de Villarreal et al., 2008;
Markovic and Mikulic, 2010). Thus, the effects of
PT
may
differ
depending
on
subject
characteristics such as a training level, gender,
age, sports activity or familiarity with PT
(Markovic and Mikulic, 2010). However, the
present review also pointed out that the effects of
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
241
PT were greatest in pre-adolescent athletes in
team sport amateur players for sprint
performance over 10 and 20 m compared to
children and youth athletes as well as other sprint
distance. Furthermore, it has been reported that in
pre-pubertal athletes enhancements are more
considerable in initial acceleration time than
secondary acceleration and maximal velocity time
(Michailidis et al., 2013). Other factors that seem
to determine the effectiveness of PT are types of
training, program duration and training volume.
The data gathered in the present review suggest
that pre-pubertal amateur players performing PT
with a frequency of 2 sessions per week had more
beneficial effects over 10 weeks compared to
longer duration training programs. The
combination of unilateral and bilateral jump drills
seems more advantageous to induce significant
sprint performance improvements during highintensity short-term plyometric training (RamirezCampillo et al., 2015a).
When sprint performance was evaluated
after PT, results from different studies were
contradictory. Several studies found statistically
significant effects of a PT program on sprint
performance (Arazi and Asadi, 2011; de Villarreal
et al., 2008; Meylan and Malatesta, 2009; Moore et
al., 2005; Ronnestad et al., 2008). In contrast, no
changes were observed in other studies
(Impellizzeri et al., 2008; Thomas et al., 2009). PT
seems to result in positive effects when excitation
of the central nervous system produces an
increase in contractile function due to a
conditioning stimulus (de Villarreal et al., 2008;
Meylan and Malatesta, 2009; Moore et al., 2005;
Ronnestad et al., 2008). The methodological
strategy used to explore PT programs that are able
to increase sprint performance include the
execution of plyometric muscular movements that
involve the stretch-shortening cycle and increases
in movement speed (de Villarreal et al., 2008).
Therefore, the positive effects of PT on sprint
performance could be explained by the fact that
repeated ballistic exercises could potentially
improve the ability to generate explosive groundreaction forces (Delecluse, 1997; Harland and
Steele, 1997). Indeed, ground-contact times in
plyometric bounce (DJ and CMJ) activities have
been reported to be of ~300 ms (Bobbert et al.,
1987) and ranging from 200 to 400 ms (Young et
al., 1999). In sprinting, ground-contact times
242
Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes
decrease from <200 ms at acceleration to <100 ms
at top speed (Plisk, 2008) showing the similarity of
contact time between plyometrics and sprinting.
Delecluse et al. (1995) suggest that sprint
performance is characterized by 3 phases: (a) an
initial acceleration phase (0 - 10 m), (b) a
secondary acceleration phase (10 - 30 m), and (c) a
maximal velocity phase (after 30 m); with
duration of the second and third phases being
highly dependent on gender, age and a
performance level. Women develop maximal
velocity at 25 - 35 m, untrained pre-pubertal boys
at 20 - 30 m, whereas elite male sprinters peak
after 60 m (Delecluse et al., 1995). Acceleration
(especially during the initial phase) and agility are
seen as independent predictors of physical
performance related to soccer during childhood
and adulthood (Reilly et al., 2000b).
The data gathered here show that sprint
performance improvements are significantly
greater when plyometrics are combined with
other types of exercises (i.e., plyometric + sprint)
(Marques et al., 2013). Thus, combined
sprint/plyometric training (Table 4) can be the
reason of sprint improvement, by facilitating the
neuromuscular system into making a more rapid
transition from eccentric to concentric contraction
(Markovic et al., 2007). Biomechanical analyses of
sprinting have shown that sprint performance
over longer than 50 m distance may depend on
the elasticity of the plantar flexor muscles to a
greater extent than shorter sprints do as they
consist mostly of acceleration. Sprints of at least
100 m consist of 3 phases: acceleration, constant
velocity (or maximum speed) and deceleration
related to neuromuscular fatigue. The acceleration
phase is highly dependent on the reaction time
and the athlete's ability to generate a rate of force
development
(RFD)
and
power
during
propulsion. During the constant-velocity phase,
explosive power and efficiency of movement are
critical up to the point of the deceleration phase in
which the attainment of maximal speed may rely
greatly on elasticity of the plantar flexor muscles
(Mero et al., 1992). It is important in that regard to
mention neural fatigue that greatly contributes to
the latter deceleration phase (Markovic et al.,
2007).
Agility Performance
Agility is often defined as “a rapid
whole-body movement with change of velocity or
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 53/2016
direction in response to a stimulus” (Sheppard
and Young, 2006). This can take many forms, from
simple footwork actions to moving the entire
body in the opposite direction while running at a
high speed. Thus, agility has a speed component,
but it is not the most important component of this
ability. The basic definition of agility is too
simplistic, as it is now thought to be much more
complex and involving not only speed, but also
balance, coordination and the ability to react to a
change of the environment (Plisk, 2008).
Furthermore, acceleration and deceleration
involved in the change of direction movements,
which in turn underpin agility performance, are
therefore specific qualities and should be trained
as such (Jeffreys, 2006). Sheppard and Young
(2006) also claim that agility represents an
independent physical ability and therefore, its
development requires a high degree of neuromuscular specificity. Perceptual components,
which form their fundament and include the
anticipation and decision-making processes, also
play an important role in their development
(Young et al., 2002). However, when testing
agility, one has to take into consideration sudden
changes of direction of movement, accelerations
and fast stops. Specifically, agility in team sports
does not comprise only the ability of changing the
direction of movement, but also the capability to
anticipate the movement of the opponent, read
and react to specific game situations (Sheppard
and Young, 2006).
The literature search revealed nine
studies that examined PT effects on agility
performance (Arazi et al., 2012; Asadi, 2013; Váczi
et al., 2013; Ramirez-Campillo, 2013; RamirezCampillo et al., 2014, 2015a; Meylan and
Malatesta, 2009; Michailidis et al., 2013; Sohnlein
et al., 2014). In addition, the data obtained in the
present review show that there was a significant
increase in agility performance in elite and
amateur team sport players following PT.
Particularly, the data show that PT with 2 sessions
per week have more beneficial effects over 8-12
weeks compared to shorter duration training
programs (>8 weeks) in amateur players.
Moreover, the combination of unilateral and
bilateral jump drills seems more advantageous in
improving agility performance than bilateral
jump drills alone. Another aspect is that an
aquatic based plyometric training program
http://www.johk.pl
by Maamer Slimani et al.
provided similar or more improvements in agility
of young players than the land-based plyometric
training program of the same duration.
Considering that T-agility and Illinois agility tests
require ~11 and ~14 s to be completed,
respectively, during these tests not only the ATPPC system, but the glycolytic energy system is
also used. The latter could be the reason why
improvements were smaller compared with the
agility tests that require less time for execution.
Overall, improvements in agility after PT can be
attributed to neural adaptation, specifically to
increased intermuscular coordination (Markovic
and Mikulic, 2010).
Conclusions
The reviewed studies have shown that PT
(4–16 weeks) can improve physical fitness in team
sport players. The positive effects on explosive
power associated with improved performance of
the vertical jump, sprint performance and/or
agility can be explained by the subject
characteristics, in particular a training level,
sports activity, age, gender, familiarity with as
well as the choice of plyometric exercises and a
program design (program duration, volume, rest
periods, frequency, the type of exercises and their
combination). The present review shows that PT
with low intensity or without progressive PT has
lower effects than moderately high and
progressive PT. Also the combination of
plyometric drills is a more effective method
compared to single plyometric drills (e.g. DJ,
CMJ). Furthermore, the combination of unilateral
and bilateral jump drills seems more
advantageous to induce significant performance
improvements during high-intensity short-term
243
plyometric training in team sport players. It
appears that training duration of 6-7 weeks is too
short to improve muscular power in elite players.
The general recommendation states that more
than 8 weeks of systematic application of PT are
necessary to improve physical performance in
elite players. This review also shows that short PT
(<8 weeks) has the potential to enhance a wide
range of athletic performance (i.e. jumping,
sprinting and agility) in children and youth
amateur players. In addition, available evidence
suggests that short-term PT on non-rigid surfaces
(i.e. aquatic, grass or sand-based PT) could elicit
similar increases in jumping, agility and sprinting
performance as traditional PT. Thus, the present
review indicates a greater effect of PT alone on
jump and sprint (30 m sprint performance only)
performances than the combination of PT with
sprint/strength training. Moreover, given the
specific nature of the selected training modality
(plyometric training), their incorporation in the
workout routines of technical and tactical training
is fundamental for amateur and elite team sport
athletes. The gains that were observed should be
of great interest for players and coaches as
performance in these team sports relies greatly on
specific power, sprinting and agility which were
shown to be significantly enhanced by many
plyometric training regimens. It is thus
recommend that team sport coaches implement
in-season plyometric training to enhance
performance of their athletes. Finally, future
research is needed to identify the physiological
and hormonal mechanisms responsible for these
performance gains.
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Corresponding author:
Maamer Slimani
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, Tunisia
Phone: +216-97067695/ +216-21137853
E-mail: [email protected]
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics