Writing to be heard: The Indigenous
print media’s role in establishing and
developing an Indigenous public
sphere
Elizabeth Anne Burrows
Bachelor of Communication
Bachelor of Arts (Hons)
Griffith School of Humanities
Humanities and Social Sciences
Griffith University
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Doctor of Philosophy
June 2009
Warning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are warned that this thesis
contains images of deceased people.
1
Abstract
Indigenous Australians make up only 2.5 percent of the Australian population and
have historically had limited opportunity to influence public debate or policy. This
has led to many Indigenous people feeling democratically disconnected from the
broader Australian society. Despite this, since 1938 more than 35 publications have
been produced by Indigenous Australians and those with an interest in Indigenous
affairs, yet very little research has been carried out to establish how and why these
newspapers were produced or what they achieved. Similarly, little is known about the
role Indigenous print media in establishing and developing an Indigenous public
sphere. This thesis seeks to bridge these gaps.
The thesis investigates the nature of an Indigenous public sphere in Australia, and
aims to provide both an historic and journalistic understanding of how and why these
newspapers existed with an insight into the people who produced the newspapers, the
problems they faced and the journalistic techniques that they employed to achieve
their very diverse aims.
A three-phase research approach was undertaken. A series of semi-structured, indepth interviews were conducted with Indigenous print media producers and
contributors. A general textual analysis was then undertaken of a wide range of
Indigenous publications accessed through Australian libraries and universities.
Finally, available archival materials relating to the organisations and individuals
involved in the production of Indigenous publications were analysed. The data
gathered was then evaluated using the qualitative analytical software program, Nvivo.
The study reveals Indigenous public spheres have always existed and since 1938
Indigenous print media have played a significant role in their development. This study
suggests the broader Indigenous public sphere consists of a series of overlapping
spheres that are themselves made up of layers. The tiered construction of Indigenous
public spheres limits the access individuals may have to public sphere processes and
therefore influences engagement with Indigenous public spheres. Another key
conclusion drawn by this investigation is that Indigenous public sphere processes are
not static and have transitioned through different stages since 1938. This transition
has occurred in response to stimuli from both within and outside the Indigenous
community.
3
Until the 1990s, most Indigenous publications produced were connected to
organisations concerned with Indigenous affairs. The growing number of Indigenous
political and social organisations, resulted in a growing number of publications and is
evidence of the level of healthy debate taking place within the Indigenous public
sphere. However, a constant theme throughout these publications, from both an
historic and contemporary perspective, has been the desire to obtain and maintain
control of Indigenous public sphere processes and the messages and ideas being
disseminated from within and throughout the Indigenous public sphere. Indigenous
newspapers have mapped this battle for control.
Educating mainstream Australians in order to bring about attitudinal and social
changes was and is an important focus for Indigenous publications. In an attempt to
influence public opinion, Indigenous campaigners have used these publications to
educate, inform, shame and cajole mainstream Australians. Indigenous newspapers
have also been used successfully to bridge the gap between the Indigenous and
dominant public spheres. Newspapers like Land Rights Queensland and the
contemporary newspaper the National Indigenous Times have successfully managed
to facilitate mainstream media engagement with issues that are of particular concern
to Indigenous communities.
Indigenous publications have opened up Indigenous public sphere processes by
including a diverse range of Indigenous voices and by covering topics that are often
ignored by mainstream media. The connection between Indigenous publications and
the Indigenous community is inextricable. Importantly, Indigenous newspapers
provide an historical record of the views and actions of Indigenous public sphere
participants and of their engagement with the dominant public sphere across time.
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Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... 9
Statement of Originality ....................................................................................... 11
Figures and Images ............................................................................................ 13
List of Appendices............................................................................................... 15
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 17
1.1
Previous research ............................................................................................18
1.2
Defining Indigenous media .............................................................................20
1.3
Overview of this thesis.....................................................................................21
Chapter 2: Media, Democracy and Indigenous Australians ................................ 27
2.1
Democracy and Indigenous people ...............................................................27
2.2
The media and democracy .............................................................................28
2.3
Defining “alternative media”............................................................................31
2.3.1
The role of the alternative media ...................................................................32
2.4
Alternative media and social movements .....................................................32
2.5
Indigenous communication prior to colonisation .........................................34
2.6
The role played by Indigenous media ...........................................................35
2.7
Indigenous print media research ...................................................................36
2.8
Broadcast media...............................................................................................38
2.9
Chapter summary .............................................................................................42
Chapter 3: Exploring the Public Sphere .............................................................. 45
3.1
The evolution of the public sphere ................................................................46
3.2
Critiquing Habermas: Alternative perspectives and counterpublic
spheres ..............................................................................................................47
3.3
Towards a greater understanding of the public sphere..............................51
3.4
3.4.1
3.5
Indigenous media and their role in building an Indigenous public
sphere ................................................................................................................52
Existing studies of marginal public spheres .................................................56
Chapter summary .............................................................................................62
Chapter 4: News Values and Sources ................................................................ 65
4.1
News values ......................................................................................................65
4.1.1
Ideology, the journalist and news values ......................................................65
4.1.2
Ideological role of news values ......................................................................68
4.1.3
Story selection and news values ...................................................................69
4.2
Alternative news values ..................................................................................71
4.2.1
News values and minority groups ..................................................................73
4.2.2
The representation of Indigenous affairs ......................................................74
4.3
Sources ..............................................................................................................78
5
4.3.1
4.4
Journalists’ source choices .............................................................................78
Chapter summary .............................................................................................80
Chapter 5: Research Design ............................................................................... 83
5.1
Research focus .................................................................................................83
5.2
Methodological choices ...................................................................................84
5.3
Phase One - Interviews ...................................................................................87
5.3.1
Sample list .........................................................................................................87
5.3.2
Survey instrument ............................................................................................87
5.3.3
Interview rationale ............................................................................................88
5.3.4
The interview process......................................................................................90
5.4
Phase Two - Textual analysis ........................................................................91
5.5
Phase Three - Archival research ...................................................................94
5.6
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................95
5.7
Chapter summary .............................................................................................95
Chapter 6: The Trailblazers ................................................................................ 97
6.1
Aboriginal Australia, circa 1930s-1960s .......................................................97
6.2
The Indigenous public sphere, circa 1930s .................................................98
6.3
Overview of publications launched from 1938-1960 ..................................99
6.3.1
The Australian Abo Call; Smoke Signals; Churinga; Westralian
Aborigine...........................................................................................................................99
6.4
Access to and participation in Indigenous public sphere processes ......103
6.5
Access to Information ....................................................................................107
6.6
Early Indigenous newspapers and the public sphere ...............................110
6.7
News values ....................................................................................................115
6.8
Sources ............................................................................................................117
6.9
Pressures –internal and external .................................................................119
6.10
Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................120
Chapter 7: The Revolutionaries ........................................................................ 123
7.1
Aboriginal Australia in transition ..................................................................124
7.2
Selected publications 1968-1989 ................................................................125
7.3
Access to the Indigenous public sphere .....................................................138
7.3.1
Participation in Indigenous public sphere activity .....................................138
7.3.2
Access to information ....................................................................................143
7.4
The diversity within the Indigenous public sphere ....................................147
7.5
Characteristics of newspapers .....................................................................149
7.6
Role of Indigenous newspapers ..................................................................151
7.7
Pressures – internal and external ................................................................154
7.8
Chapter summary ...........................................................................................155
Chapter 8: The Fight for Land Rights ................................................................ 159
8.1
Land rights publications in the Indigenous public sphere ........................159
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8.2
8.2.1
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Indigenous public sphere activity and participation ..................................163
Identifying and reaching their audience ......................................................164
Characteristics of early Indigenous newspapers ......................................167
Funding ............................................................................................................167
Journalists’ perceptions of their role............................................................168
Raising awareness of Indigenous issues ...................................................169
News values ....................................................................................................170
Sources ............................................................................................................172
Pressures – internal and external ................................................................174
Chapter summary ...........................................................................................177
Chapter 9: The Professionals ........................................................................... 179
9.1
Political and social environment, 1991-2008 .............................................179
9.2
Indigenous print media in the contemporary Indigenous public
sphere ..............................................................................................................183
9.2.1
Participation in Indigenous public sphere activity .....................................188
9.3
Multiple public spheres ..................................................................................190
9.4
Characteristics of newspapers .....................................................................192
9.5
Staff ..................................................................................................................194
9.6
Role of Indigenous newspapers ..................................................................196
9.7
News values ....................................................................................................199
9.8
Sources ............................................................................................................205
9.8.1
Sources of news .............................................................................................205
9.8.2
Interviewed sources .......................................................................................207
9.9
Pressures – internal and external ................................................................208
9.10
Chapter summary ...........................................................................................216
Chapter 10: Looking at the big picture .............................................................. 219
10.1
Placing an Indigenous public sphere within a theoretical
framework ........................................................................................................219
10.2
The changing structure of the Indigenous public sphere .........................230
10.3
The impact of government attitude on Indigenous public sphere
processes ........................................................................................................231
10.4
Visualising the shape and structure of the Indigenous public
sphere ..............................................................................................................233
Identifying the key characteristics and functions of Indigenous
print media within an Indigenous public sphere. .......................................237
Opening up and expanding Indigenous public sphere discussion
and activity ......................................................................................................238
Engaging the community ..............................................................................238
Including Indigenous voices in public sphere debates .............................240
The Audience-producer barrier ....................................................................241
Facilitating political participation ..................................................................242
Generating social and government policy change ....................................245
10.5
10.6
10.6.1
10.6.2
10.6.3
10.6.4
10.6.5
7
10.7
Other Indigenous media functions ...............................................................248
10.7.1 Challenging mainstream media and dominant public sphere
ideas 248
10.7.2 Improving relations between Indigenous people and the
dominant group ..............................................................................................................251
10.8
News values ....................................................................................................253
10.9
Sources ............................................................................................................256
10.10 Strengths and weaknesses of the Indigenous print media ......................259
Chapter 11: Conclusion .................................................................................... 263
11.1
Public sphere structure and processes ......................................................263
11.2
The changing focus within the Indigenous public sphere ........................265
11.3
Motivating discussion from Indigenous perspectives ...............................266
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Encouraging broader political awareness, participation and
generating social change ..............................................................................268
Interacting with government .........................................................................270
Perceptions and functions of contemporary Indigenous media ..............271
Limitations of the study..................................................................................274
Future research ..............................................................................................275
Chapter 12: Bibliography .................................................................................. 279
List of abbreviations .......................................................................................... 319
Appendix 1:
List of newspapers studied ......................................................... 321
Appendix 2:
List of completed interviews ....................................................... 323
Appendix 3:
List of newspapers analysed ...................................................... 325
Appendix 4:
Indigenous Media Survey ........................................................... 333
Appendix 5:
Concept map showing Nvivo nodes ........................................... 353
Appendix 6:
Squires’ model for analysing public spheres .............................. 354
Appendix 7:
Ethics Clearance statement ....................................................... 356
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Acknowledgements
The completion of this thesis has been a journey in so many ways. There have been
amazing high points as I reached each milestone or managed to track down an
important source to speak to or found a newspaper I really wanted to read and then
finally when I put the final touches on this project. There have equally been moments
of self-doubt and frustration when I have wondered why I started this task in the first
place and could I ever really finish it. Along the way, as well as learning much I did
not know about Indigenous media, I have learned a lot about myself and the
wonderfully, supportive people who surround me.
I want to thank my principle supervisor, Dr Susan Forde for her continued support
and guidance. I have also valued your mentoring of me as a student, teacher and a
journalist. We have both had many changes in our lives since I started this project and
I thank you for sticking with me throughout and helping me to cross the finish line. I
also want to thank Associate Professor Michael Meadows for his calm wisdom and
unerring enthusiasm and helping me to find the right direction when I began this
work. Your guidance was spot on and while I may have struggled with the sheer size
of the task I undertook and may have doubted my own ability to complete it at times, I
have never doubted the need for this study or lost interest in it. I want to thank you
both for the passion you both exhibit for journalism and journalism education. Your
sincere and honest approach to your work inspires the students who work with you.
I also want to acknowledge the many people I interviewed during this investigation.
You not only gave me your time (and some people gave me a lot of time) and told me
about your involvement with the Indigenous print media, but you shared with me
aspects of your lives. I learned that for most of you, your work as journalists, sources
and campaigners went far beyond circulating information and producing newspapers.
I hope I have, in at least some small way, captured your passion and commitment to
your work. I have often been left in awe of the work you have done and continue to
do.
During this investigation I visited the National Library of Australia, the State Library
of New South Wales, the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Studies, the University of Queensland‘s Fryer Library and the National Archives of
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Australia. I want to thank the librarians and archivists I met in each of these places
who helped me to gather the information I needed for this study from copies of
newspapers to dusty files in the archives. Your expertise, and willingness to share it,
helped me to find little nuggets of information that I might otherwise have missed.
I also want to thank my colleagues at Griffith University who have both supported me
with their friendship but also with their skills. My thanks go to Julie Somers and
Mary-Ann Shuker who helped me to format this very long document and never once
said ―you really should have attended a long documents workshop‖. A special thank
you to my friend Colleen Cuddihy, who went far beyond the bounds of friendship by
proof reading my thesis. Only a true friend would take on such a task.
And lastly but most definitely not least, I want to thank my children Danielle, Leah
and Matthew and my husband John. Matthew thank you for never complaining about
growing up with a mother whose head must have seemed to be permanently buried in
a book or newspaper. And Danielle and Leah you will never know how much I
appreciate your help with the initial transcribing of my interviews. I know that while
they are fascinating to me, they bored you to tears. I could not have completed this
project without your amazing support, help and belief. And finally to John, my
husband and unpaid but never faltering research assistant who can now probably
operate any photocopier in any library. Thank you for listening to me waffle on
without ever complaining. And thank you for spending hours in libraries and archives
to help me get through my work faster. Thank you for the coffees, the glasses of wine,
the hugs and the stern talks when I needed them but most of all thank you for your
unwavering belief in me. This journey would have been very lonely without you.
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Statement of Originality
This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation contains no
material previously published or written by another person except where due
reference is made in the dissertation itself.
……………………………………………………
…………………………………..
Elizabeth Anne Burrows
Date
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Figures and Images
Figures
Figure 1
Diagrammatic representation of research design
Images
Image 1
Faith Bandler, Sydney, NSW, 30 November 2004.
Image 2
Corey Bousen, Brisbane, Queensland, 24 February 2005.
Image 3
Tiga Bayles, Brisbane, Queensland, 2004.
Image 4
Gary Foley, Melbourne, Victoria, 22 February 2005.
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List of Appendices
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Table of publications
List of completed interviews
List of newspapers analysed
Indigenous media survey
Nvivo model of themes and nodes
Squires’ model for analysing public spheres
Ethics clearance statement
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