TRAINING OF THE PHYSICAL FACTORS FOR WHEELCHAIR TENNIS
PLAYERS
Horst Guentzel, Japan
The game of wheelchair tennis has become more and more professional in the last decade
and a player’s physiology is playing a more important role in their performance.
With the expanding of the tournament calendar, players’ participation at tournaments and
number tournament matches they are playing has increased. Resultantly, there is now the
need for specific preparation in order to master these higher physical demands.
The game itself has become faster and more aggressive. The players try to hit the ball
more often off the first bounce and with increased power to pressurize to the opponent. A
rally between the points takes only a few seconds, but the duration of a match e.g. a 3 set
match can extend to over three hours. This means the physical demands on the body are
very complex and the level of speed, mobility, power, endurance, coordination during a
match, during a tournament and general for the training becoming more important.
Similar to that which exists for able bodied tennis players, there already is a well-planned
fitness training based on the principles discovered through sport science research and
experiences from coaches and experts. This is a decisive component in competitive
wheelchair tennis too.
This article will give some ideas for the training of the physical factors in wheelchair
tennis. Unfortunately the experiences and current findings for the specific of the Quad
category are very small and can’t deeper be discussed. The specific of the training of
Quad players should include in further analyzes in the future.
Considerations
“Wheelchair tennis players have many different types of disabilities, which will impact
on the nature of the training players can perform and the level of fitness that they can
achieve. It therefore becomes a priority for trainers to understand …. how these injuries
influence one’s physical performance capacity” (Bullock and Pluim, 2003).
On the other hand the development of the physical conditional factors for wheelchair
tennis players is determined by the requirements during a tennis match. This means
players with very different types of disabilities face during a match the same conditions
1
and should be prepared.
The analysis of the wheelchair tennis matches has shown the following components:
A wheelchair tennis match can last several hours. A three set match on average takes
about two hours, but easily can be stretched to three hours as shown in table 1.
Table 1: Average of match time at the Grand Slam singles matches
2011/2012 (Roland Garros, US Open, AUS Open);
[data based on IBM Slam Tracker]
n
men
n
women
Hard court
14
86 min
14
60 min
Clay court
7
90 min
7
85 min
Total
21
87 min
21
68 min
2 set matches
14
69 min
20
62 min
3 set matches
7
123 min
1
193 min
Analysis of real match data shows there are no large differences in the total match time
between different performance categories or between men and woman, as well adult and
junior players.
The actual effective playing time is very short. Usually it can be calculated as on average
between 10 to 30% of the total time. There is also obviously a difference between
individual types of players, kind of surface and small differences between women and
men tennis.
Table 2: Average of the number of points played at the Grand Slam
singles matches 2011/2012 (Roland Garros, US Open, AUS Open)
[data based on IBM Slam Tracker]
n
Men
n
women
Hard court
14
141.3
14
95.9
Clay court
7
151.0
7
134.7
Total
21
144.9
21
108.8
2 set matches
14
121.3
20
101.5
3 set matches
7
192.0
1
255.0
2
Bullock and Pluim (2003) analyzed three matches at the Sydney Paralympic in 2000, with
an average of 150 points. The data from this is displayed in Table 3 and 4.
Table 3: Average of time per rally, men matches
Time per rally (Bullock and Pluim, 2003)
Time per rally (Maruyama, 2008)
3 matches
9.7 sec
30 matches
6.0 sec
Longest rally
21.1 sec
The duration of playing time per point shows a short loading. In context with the
work:rest ratio, on average it is 6 sec. work to about 20 sec. rest. One can conclude
wheelchair tennis is a sport mainly worked in the anaerobic-alactic energy area. Of course
a good general endurance based on aerobic energy resources is an important requirement
for competing and training at a high level without exhausting.
Table 4: Average number of strokes within a point:
Strokes per rally (Bullock and Pluim, 2003)
Strokes per rally (Maruyama, 2008)
3 matches
4.7 strokes
30 matches
3.7 strokes
Longest rally
15 strokes
This data and the comparison of the two surveys show that the game is becoming faster.
The number of strokes in the rally becomes fewer and the time taken for one point is
reduced. The players are increasingly trying to hit the ball after the first bounce and to
finish the point earlier. On the other hand the data shows the longest number of strokes
and the time for the longest rally that the players should also be prepared to carry out
successfully in this situation, with long rallies still occurring during a match.
The dimensions of the court are constant and limit the movement area of the players. The
longest straight line to move is about 16 meters. Based on the findings that on average the
point will be finished after 4 strokes (3.7 strokes) and the moving distance for most
strokes is about 3 to 7 meters, the player moves during a point an average of 15 to 20
meters. The average of total distance the player has to move during a match varies
between 1800 to 3000 meters per match according the number of games and points
played.
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An important fact to consider is that all these movements during the rally varies between
pushes at normal speed and high speed, normal power and maximal power. There are also
several sudden stops/breaks as well quick turns in the wheelchair and new starts.
Research about the structure of pushing the wheelchair is showing some nuances in the
technique to accelerate the wheelchair. The courses/trajectory of time, speed and power
for the first three pushes from a standstill starting position especially show different ways.
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Fig.4: Analysis of push technique (Ando, 2012)
As the figures 1 to 3 show one way is a constant increase of the push power from 1. to 3.
push (players B, C). Another way is an enormous power output at the second push (player
A). There could also be different recovery times discovered (release of the hands from the
wheels) between pushes. One way is a decrease of this time from 1. to 3. push (players B,
C). The player grasps the wheel faster after the 3. push than after the 1. push.
Another way is a steady time between the 3 pushes (player A). This technique of
pushing/acceleration of the wheelchair from player A seem to be more efficient and close
to the specific demands on mobility in wheelchair tennis. So therefore the training of
reactive power and speed to accelerate the wheelchair within one to three pushes to high
speed, as well for the quick turns and stops of the wheelchair is very important.
Modern wheelchair tennis has generally become faster. There are several reasons:
technical, tactical and material reasons, the physical factor of more powerful hitting the
balls with higher racquet speed and the better conditioning preparation are some of those
to be mentioned and considered.
Services at speeds of 150 and 160 km/h in men’s tennis with top speeds of up to 170 km/h
have become the norm. Even the speed of strokes from the baseline, winners and passing
shots is increasing in men wheelchair tennis as well in women wheelchair tennis.
These place besides the importance of power and speed training for the arm and upper
body, even greater importance on perception and anticipation as well as the application of
practiced motor programs.
5
Conditional factors for wheelchair tennis players and principles of development
Based on the analysis of the wheelchair tennis matches we can define the following
conditional factors for wheelchair tennis players:


Mobility in the wheelchair on court; characteristics are quick movements and turns,
powerful pushes forward, sometimes pulls backward and suddenly stops combined
with powerful pushes again.
Speed in the wheelchair on court for maximal acceleration over short straight
distances from 2 to 5m and over longer distances combined with turns during a rally
pending on the number of strokes.
Racket swing speed for the strokes.
Reaction speed is always as one component for mobility, speed in the wheelchair and




racket swing speed included.
Power as a basic factor for the development of speed and mobility. Characteristic for
wheelchair tennis is the reactive power for the pushes to accelerate the movement in
the wheelchair and for the increasing of the racket swing speed.
Strength as specific basic factor for power development, for stabilization of body
core and for well-balanced muscle development around shoulder, elbow and wrist
joints to prevent injuries.
Flexibility of muscles, tendon, ligaments and joints for wide motion range and for
injury prevention.
Endurance as a basic requirement for general fitness and specific to overcome
tiredness and exhaustion during long matches and tournaments as well the daily
practice.
The systematical development of these physical factors can be done in on court and off
court practice as separate practice or as part of tennis practice. The tasks and goals of
physical training should be always planned in line with the tennis specific goals and
training programs. The fitness routines, especially for the development of mobility, speed,
power and endurance should be very similar and closely related to the demands on court
during a match.
For the development of muscle strength, power, speed, endurance, mobility and
flexibility the same principles as for able bodied tennis players can used as far as possible
with some specific considerations.
6
These training principles are to be seen as guidelines for the performance development. A
detailed explanation of the principles would go beyond the scope of this chapter. For this
reason only a few important principles will be shortly mentioned (Grosser et al.
, 2008; Chandler and Chandler, 2003; Bompa, 1994; Schnabel et al., 1994):
 Principle of the effective motor stimulus
This principle states that training stimulus has to exceed a particular intensity
threshold in order to achieve an adaptive reaction.
 Principle of progressive load increase
When training loads remain equal over a long period of time, the player adapts to
them and therefore the same load stimuli ceases to become less effective. Progressive
load increase is given through a change of the load components, and can occur
gradually or in sudden jumps in training load.
 Principle of optimal ratio of workload and relaxation
This principle takes into consideration the fact, that after an effective training load
(training unit, training days or week) a certain time is necessary for the individual to
recreate him-/herself in order to carry out a new similar load under favorable
conditions. Load and relaxation should be viewed as a whole.
 Principle of variation of training load
The volume and intensity of training are continuously increasing and exercises/drills
are repeated numerous times. This, unfortunately, may lead to monotony and
boredom. Similar training stimuli over a longer period of time lead to stagnation and
concomitant fall off in performance. A change in the load stimulus can bring the
player back the previous stage of stimulation. This change could easily enrich the
content of the training program, bringing into it greater variety which in the end will
reflect positively upon mental, psychological well being and development of physical
factors.
 Principle of individuality
Because of the different types and grades of disability the training principle of
individuality is natural in wheelchair tennis. But the knowledge and application of
this principle has a few more reasons. For an optimal performance development the
personal situations of the players have to be given the coaches’ full attention. Every
player regardless of level of performance should being treated individually according
the technical abilities, physical make up, potential, learning characteristics, type of
temperament, character, trainability, etc. in addition to more environmentally
influenced components like motivation, resolution and others. Individualization in
training also refers to the fact that a coach should make individual training plans for
7
each athlete based on, and reflecting each athlete’s abilities.
 Principle of dividing into periods and cycles
A player cannot be in top-class competitive form all year long, because he/she finds
himself/herself at the borderline of his particular capacity. The phase character of the
course of adaptation with intensity, stabilization and reduction phase demands
consideration in the annual training and tournament plan. For these reasons the
training year should be divided and planned in long term periods (preparatory,
competitive, transition period) and medium term periods/cycles and micro term
cycles.
Fundamental components for planning and carrying the training are training volume,
training intensity, training density, type of training exercise/training content, complexity
and quality of the exercises.
-
Training volume: quantitative prerequisite needed for technical, tactical, physical
achievements [measured in time, distance or number of repetitions];
-
Training intensity: qualitative component of work performed in given time [measured
in time – sec, min; speed m/s, km/h; resistance – kg, kg/m; physiological parameter
–lactat, pulse]:
-
Training density: The density of training expresses the relation in time between
working and recovery phases in training. [measured in frequency of exercises and
training stimuli per unit of time];
-
Type of exercise/Training content
The kind of exercise indicates the activities, especially physically exercises that are
performed with the intention of reaching certain training objectives. We can subdivide
the exercises in different ways in connection to particular tasks.
-
Complexity and quality of exercises. The complexity of a skill, its coordination
demand could be an important cause of increasing the intensity in training. The
quality of execution of a movement is an important component for goal-orientated
training, especially in the complex training of technical, tactical and physical factors.
The first step to improving a wheelchair tennis player’s physical condition is the
determination of the current state before contemplating the direction and steps what is to
develop and how it is to train. As a first step physical tests should be applied. An
appropriate battery wheelchair tennis specific fitness tests can help coaches refine
training programs with greater confidence for coaches and players.
Also, because the wheelchair tennis is more and more expanding in the junior stage some
8
general training principles for juniors, which consider the growing process of the body
should be included in the planning of the physical training.
The following are examples of exercises are given as guide to help tennis coaches
improve different physical factors of the players. The general suggestions for training
dosages as repetitions, sets, intervals, work:rest ratio should act as a guide and the coach
should fit them to the different individual level of the players.
4. Training for mobility and speed in the wheelchair
Basic principles
“Mobility is the single most important aspect of wheelchair tennis. It
provides the base and transition for balance, timing, motion, and execution of
skills.” Randy Snow [Moore/Snow, 1994].
Mobility and speed in the wheelchair is the result of the combination of
multiple and complex skills.
This complexity includes beside pure solely physical skills to handle the
wheelchair, match specific components of anticipation/reaction, speed and
decision making. For this reason drills/exercise with clear restricted
execution pattern as well with randomly/open situations should be included
in mobility training.
The training of mobility and speed in the wheelchair includes a variety of
movements (turns, pushes, pulls, stops, circular mobility, reverse mobility)
which should always be quick, fast and be executed near maximal speed.
(Parks, 1997)
Mobility training routines in the wheelchair can be done without racket,
carrying the racket and as specific tennis drills with hitting the ball, etc.
In order to motivate players to work fast and with high motion speed the
exercises should be measured by stop watch or with time pressure to catch a
ball.
Based on the content of the drill groups of exercises can build up:
- Turns on the spot,
- Push sprints from different starting positions or combined with different
other movements,
-
Turns and push sprints combined with ball hitting.
9
Training dosage for mobility/speed training
Training method
Repetition method
Repetition or
Time
2 to 10 per set or
5 to 15 sec
Intensity
90 to 100 %
Sets
3 to 8
Rest interval
30 sec to 2 min
Use per week
1 to 3 times
Exercises
These analyses of the physical qualities of mobility in the wheelchair provide
coaches with the opportunity to create numerous training situations, which
when prescribed appropriately will contribute significantly to player’s
success.
Exercise 1: Turns on the spot
Purpose
-
Set-up
Mark a spot on court as orientation, (T-point or center mark or
baseline)
Equipment
6 to 10 tennis balls
Execution
-
-
Modify the
situation
-
To develop the quickness for turns in the wheelchair,
To develop reaction speed,
To develop coordination to handle the wheelchair,
Player and coach standing face to face in 2 m distance;
Coach tosses slightly the tennis ball slightly on one side of
the player, the players have to turn about 90 ﾟ the
wheelchair and touch the ball, then the players turns back
to the starting position;
Immediately coach tosses the ball slightly to the other side,
the player moves the wheelchair now to other side and
touch the ball;
These alternate movements will be repeated for 3 to 5
times to each side;
Shortening the time for the next toss;
360 ﾟ movement in the wheelchair; maximum of turns until
6, because players become dizzy;
10
-
ball toss randomly in different sides;
in a group practice: players position on the baseline - the
coach can give the direction for the movement with hand
signal;
Fig. 5: turns on the spot, players touch
Fig. 6: coach give signal
with ball drop
the tossed ball from the coach
Exercise 2: Turns with short pushes and pulls on spot
Purpose
-
Set-up
To develop the quickness for turns in the wheelchair,
To develop coordination to handle the wheelchair, especially
first push, stop and pulls,
Mark 5 points around the
T-point as shown on the
diagram, points 1,2,4,5
are 1 m from the center
line and 1 m from the
service line, point 3 & 6 is
50 cm from the service
line,
Equipment
5 marking points or cones
Execution
-
Starting position of the player is behind the service line,
racket in the hand face to the net, on the command “ready –
go” the player starts the drill;
-
Player turns and pushes fast to point 1 - touch with front
11
-
gear and pulls back and turns to starting position behind
the service line and moves similar to point 2, the movement
will continued on similar way with pushes, turns and pulls
to all other points in the right order;
After the 6th point is touched, the player pulls back over the
service line;
When the front gear cross the service line the time will be
stopped;
Exercise 3: Push sprints from different start positions
Purpose
Develop the quickness for the transition from turns to
acceleration of the wheelchair and reaction speed
Set-up
Players starting point – center mark, coach position service
line
Equipment
Tennis balls
Execution
-
Coach has one ball in each hand in the lateral stretched
arms, coach drops one ball, players has to react quick with
a 360 ﾟ turn;
-
During the turn of the player the coach drops the ball on
the service line, after the completion of the spin the player
has to sprint and catch the ball;
The height of the ball drop is depend from players sprint
level, rule should be, the player push the wheelchair to
maximal speed to catch the ball;
-
Modify the
situation
-
-
-
Player faces the fence and coach give an oral command and
tosses a ball about 5 meters away from the player, the
player turns around and recognizes now where the ball will
bounce and tries to catch the ball;
After 360 ﾟ turn coach toss one ball to a corner on the
baseline and a second ball to the service line, the player
has to try to touch the balls;
Player moves in moderate tempo backwards from the
center mark to the fence; coach drops a ball on the service
line, the players has now to change the direction of the
wheelchair forward and accelerate to catch the ball;
12
Fig. 7: speed training with ball catch
Exercise 4: Push sprint combined with turns and pulls
Purpose
-
To develop the speed, quickness for pushes and pulls during
turns in the wheelchair,
To develop coordination to handle the wheelchair,
Set-up
Set two marks/cones on the single line at the corner of service
line and 2 m before the net,
Equipment
2 cones, tennis balls
Execution
-
Player starts from
baseline beside
the singles line
and pushes to the
1. cone, after
passing the cone
the player pulls
backward and
circles around the
cone, after the
player passed the
cone with
backward
movement the
player pushes
forward
backward
again forward
beside the singles
13
-
line to the second
cone;
Around this cone
the players turns
on normal way
forward and made
a push sprint to
the baseline;
Modify the
Coach drops gently one tennis ball, when the players turns
situation
around the first cone, that the player has time pressure to
touch the ball, than the player moves around the second cone,
in this moment coach tosses a second ball to the baseline, so
that the player has to accelerate to catch the second ball;
Fig. 8: movements around cone
Exercise 5: Turns and push sprints with ball catch (1)
14
Purpose
-
To develop the reaction speed, quickness for turns and speed
for the first pushes for sprint in the wheelchair,
To develop coordination to handle the wheelchair and
timing,
Set-up
Players starting point behind the center mark on baseline,
coach stands in front of the player
Equipment
tennis balls
Execution
-
-
Player and
coach standing
face to face 2 3 m apart;
Coach tosses
gently the
tennis ball to
the singles
line (point A),
the player has
to turn and
sprint to catch
the ball,
player turns
around and
toss the ball to
the coach and
moves back to
the starting
-
position;
Then the
coach tosses
the ball gently
to the singles
line on the
other side
(point B), the
player sprints
now to other
side and catch
15
the ball;
This alternate
turns and
sprints will be
repeated for 2
to 4 times to
each side;
-
Modify the
situation
-
Coach tosses the ball randomly to points A or B (total 4 to 8
balls);
-
Coach toss the ball randomly with faking of the side (total 4
to 8 balls);
The player has to start with a back turn to the opposite side
of the ball toss direction (maybe only 4 balls total, high
-
concentration);
Exercise 6: Short tennis
Purpose
-
To develop the quickness for turns and speed for the first
-
pushes for sprint in the wheelchair and change of direction,
To develop reaction speed and anticipation,
To develop coordination to handle the wheelchair and
timing for stroke preparation,
Equipment
tennis balls
Execution
-
Player and coach are rallying in the service boxes;
Coach is playing the balls with moderate speed in various
directions that the player has to apply all kind of
movements in the wheelchair combined with speedy
pushes over short distance;
Exercise 7: volley drill
Purpose
-
To develop the quickness for turns with timing for volley
strokes,
To develop reaction speed,
Set-up
Players position is behind the T-mark, coach position on the
opposite side,
Equipment
tennis balls
Execution
-
Coach feeds the ball to forehand side so that the player has
16
Modify the
situation
to turn in the wheelchair to hit a volley, player turns back
to the starting position, then the coach feeds the ball to the
opposite side, player has to move the wheelchair to the
other side,
These alternate movements will be repeated for 3 to 5
times to each side;
-
Coach shorten the time to the next feed;
Coach feeds the first ball randomly to the right or left side;
-
Coach feeds every ball randomly;
Training of power for mobility and speed in the wheelchair
Power of the trunk and arm muscles is a necessary prerequisite for good mobility and
speed in the wheelchair. “Power is a quality that is associated with speed of movement. In
(wheelchair) tennis, the emphasis is on the ‘first step’ (first push) and quick
change-of-direction, early set up etc. All of these terms relate to the ability of the athlete
to overcome the inertia of his own body/weight (weight of body and wheelchair) to
initiate movement” (Chu, 2003). In wheelchair tennis the player has to apply force rapidly
against the wheels to move the wheelchair immediately in all directions as well as to
accelerate the wheelchair over short distances.
This specific kind of power can be developed with different types of resistance training
exercises in the wheelchair on court and off court. This can be done with additional
weights on the wheelchair, pulling of resistances (heavy baskets, other players in the
wheelchair, resistance produced by coach), pushing and pulling exercises on slopes. The
distance or execution time for the exercise is not very long, but the exercises should
always be carried out at maximal speed and power. The player should focus on an
explosive first push or pull in the execution of the exercise to overcome the inertia
rapidly.
Because of the high intensity in the execution of the motion the anaerobic energy system
is mainly working. Therefore, rest ratios should allow for energy replenishment and
should be sufficient. The recovery time is much longer than the work time.
The development of the power abilities can be done separately as a special training unit or
17
in context with mobility and speed training. In middle and short term training planning,
the development of the power should be planned as a preliminary stage before the speed
and mobility development. This should be considered especially in off season or longer
periods without tournaments.
Dosage for power training for mobility/speed in the wheelchair
Training method
Resistance training:
weight, partner, tube, slope etc.
Distance or
Time
6 to 25 m/repetition or
2 to 8 sec/repetition
Repetition
6 to 10/set, interval 15 – 30 sec
Intensity
High to max
Sets
2 to 6
Set interval
2 to 3 min
Use per week
1 to 2 times
Exercises
Exercise 1: Resistance pushes (Fig.5 and 6)
Purpose
Development of power for trunk and arm muscles for pushing of the
wheelchair
Set-up
Player has to push against a resistance over a fixed distance (e.g. baseline
– service line; fence – service line)
Equipment
Tube, rope, tyre, partner etc.
Execution
Player is pushing the wheelchair and pulling a weight or resistance over a
distance of 6 to 10 m. Execution always with maximal power and speed.
The grade of resistance should be always so high that still a smooth
movement is possible
Modify the
situation
Player is pushing the wheelchair and pulling with other players or against
the resistance of the coach from fence; after 6 meters, around the baseline
resistance will released and the player has to push with high frequency
and speed about 5 m to the service line (use of the principle
transition/after effect for speed development)
18
Fig.9: Resistance training with coach
Fig.10: Resistance training with weight
basket
Exercise 2: Slope pushes, slope pulls (Fig.7)
Purpose
Development of power for trunk and arm muscles for pushing of the
wheelchair
Set-up
Even course about 20 to 25 m; slope - angle of inclination around 5 ﾟ to
8ﾟ
Equipment
Stop watch
Execution
Player is pushing with maximal power/speed the wheelchair from start to
the goal; 15 sec. to 30 sec. rest to move back to the starting point
Modify the
situation
Player is moving backward in the wheelchair through pulling the wheels
Fig.11: Slope training
Fig.12: Set up of additional weights on the
wheelchair
19
Exercise 3: Drills with heavier wheelchair
Purpose
Development of power for trunk and arm muscles for moving of the
wheelchair
Set-up
Put some additional weights on the wheelchair, 5 kg to maximal 10 kg,
The weights should be centered that the player doesn’t feel some
unbalance when moving
Equipment
Weight bands 2 kg to 10 kg
Execution
The exercises for speed and mobility in the wheelchair can be used.
Drills without hitting the ball are recommended, because some negative
effects due to adjustment and timing to hit the ball can occur.
After two or three drills (or 15 to 20 min.) the weight should be released
and few speed and mobility drills should carried out, to give the players
the feeling for movement and speed in the wheelchair with normal
weight. Also the so called after effect will support the development of
speed and mobility
Training of speed and power for strokes
In contrast to able bodied tennis players the wheelchair tennis player can’t use ground
reactive power for the execution of the strokes. The power and racquet swing speed for
the strokes will be developed mainly through the trunk, shoulder and arm muscles. The
working base of support for the development of these upper body muscles is less stable
and works mostly shoulder vs hip/wheelchair.
The physiological basis for the development of this power is the principle of
‘stretch-shortening’ cycle of muscle activity. The stretch-shortening cycle includes the
combination of eccentric and concentric muscle work or so called rebound effect. This
effect only occurs when the rate of stretch is rapid and of sufficient magnitude that it will
trigger this muscle action. This allows the muscles to develop more forceful and faster
contraction speeds than if they are not subjected to a stretch stimulus (Chu, 2003).
For the power training of the trunk, shoulder and arm, exercises with medicine ball as a
form of resistance are used. The weight and size of medicine balls used for wheelchair
tennis players is dependent on a players’ physical level, the kind of exercise and
especially for Quad players on the ability of the hands to grasp the ball.
20
Exercises with medicine ball can be used with
different purposes. The player can work on
developing strength and different movement
patterns with less speed and power but higher
number of repetitions while execution.
To develop power as base for improvement of
arm and racquet swing speed the throwing
motion should similar to the swing motion and
the speed of tosses should always near the
maximum (90 to 100 %).
Fig.13: Different medicine balls
Dosage for training of power for racquet swing and strokes
Training method
Resistance training:
Medicine ball, weight 0.5 to 3 kg
Repetition
6 to 10/set
Intensity
High to max
Sets
2 to 6
Set interval
1 to 3 min
Use per week
1 to 2 times
Exercises
Fig.14: FH medicine ball toss with free no dominate hand
21
Fig.15: FH medicine ball toss with fixed no dominate hand
Fig.16: BH medicine ball toss
Exercise 1:Medicine ball tosses similar forehand and backhand swing (Fig.10-12)
Purpose
Development of power for shoulder, arm muscles and for trunk rotation
Set-up
Player is using the sports wheelchair; the drill can carry out on court or
off court, where the sports wheelchair can be moved
Equipment
Medicine ball, medicine ball with rope or in a sack/bag: weight of the
medicine ball depends on the individuals level, 0.5 to 2 kg
Execution
-
The player tosses the medicine ball similar to the FH motion to the
coach; the arm motion should be a down – up motion.
Coach tosses ball back to the player with one bounce, the players
catch the ball with one or both hands and carry out the next toss with
take back etc., the toss can be carried out with the support of the free
hand to fix the wheel of the wheelchair or without fixing the
wheelchair position with the free hand, depending on the
coordination skill level of the player
-
The player tosses the medicine ball with rope or in a sack/bag similar
the BH motion to the coach; the arm motion should be a down – up
motion. Coach tosses or rolls the ball back to the player; the toss
22
should carry out with support of the free hand to fix the wheel of the
wheelchair
-
As far as possible the toss/take back should always begin with a
rotation of the trunk to apply the rebound effect
Exercise 2: Medicine ball tosses similar serve
Purpose
Development of power for shoulder, arm muscles and for trunk rotation
Set-up
Player uses their sports wheelchair; the drill can be completed on court or
off court, where the sports wheelchair can be moved;
Equipment
Medicine ball: weight of the medicine ball depends on the individuals
level, 0.5 to 1 kg,
Execution
-
The player tosses the medicine ball similar to the service motion to
the coach. Coach tosses or rolls the ball back to the player
-
As far as possible the toss/take back should always begin with a
rotation of the trunk to apply the rebound effect
-
The weight of the medicine ball should be carefully chosen, and a
sufficient warm up the shoulder should be done before the tosses
with full power. The risk to harm the shoulder is high!
Exercise 3: Combined power and speed training for strokes
Purpose
Development of power and speed for racquet swing speed using the
transition or after effect
Set-up
Player uses the sports wheelchair; the drill should be carried out on court;
The described exercises 1 and 2 with medicine ball will applied
Equipment
Medicine ball,; weight of the medicine ball depends on the individuals
level, 0.5 to 2 kg; basket with tennis balls
Execution
-
To use the transition or after effect the medicine ball exercises for
FH, BH and serve will be combined with exercises with the racquet
focusing on the swing speed
-
After one set (10 reps) medicine ball tosses, the player takes the
racquet and is hitting the ball as FH or BH or serve (one set 10 reps).
For the FH and BH the coach stands beside the player and drops the
ball from height of his shoulder, the player has to hit the ball before
bounce
-
Three to six sets each can be carried out
23
Exercise 4: Medicine ball tosses for strengthening of the trunk
Purpose
Strengthening and development of power for the trunk
Set-up
Player uses the normal wheelchair or chair or bench
Equipment
Medicine ball,; weight depends on the individuals level, 1 kg to 5 kg
Execution
-
The player is sitting in the wheelchair or on a bench in a sideward
position and tosses the medicine ball with both hands after a take
back rotation of the trunk to the coach. The coach toss the ball back to
the player with one bounce or directly, depending on the individual’s
skill level and weight of the medicine ball
-
The number of repetitions and set for each side should be equal
Endurance training
As discussed earlier a wheelchair tennis match can expand to over three hours. This is one
reason why endurance is beside mobility and speed an important physical factor in
wheelchair tennis. Simply spoken endurance is defined as ability to overcome physical
fatigue.
A good level of physical endurance in wheelchair tennis is:
-
a key factor to improve the competitive performance without exhaustion during a
match and tournament.
-
requirement for the realization of and to sustain high training quality and volume.
important factor for regeneration during the match, tournament and in training
periods.
-
substantially factor for improvement of general well-being and to cope the mental and
physical stress during training periods.
One can distinguish two emphases in endurance training for wheelchair tennis players.
One emphasis is the development of general basic endurance as a foundation for the
realization of high training quality and volume and general well-being. Another
emphasizes is the wheelchair tennis-specific endurance which is determined by the needs
during a tennis match, during a tournament and during training.
Based on the workload in training and tennis matches different sources of energy are used.
The workload depends on many factors such as speed/intensity of performing, muscle
force, technical abilities of performing a movement efficiently, the ability to
24
economically use physiological potential and psychological status when performing
(such as will power etc.). Figure.13 describes general energy sources which are used
when performing in sport. The described energy sources are connected to the duration of
work.
Fig.17: Energy sources for competitive sport (Bompa, 1994)
Anaerobic Pathway
Energy Pathway
Alactic
Primary energy source
Fuel
Aerobic Pathway
Lactic
ATP produced without the presence of O2
Phosphate system,
Lactic Acid (LA)
ATP/CP stored in muscle
system
Glycogen
ATP produced in the presence of O2
Glycogen
Completely burned in the presence
LA
Fats
Protein
of O2
Byproduct
Duration
0 sec.
10 sec.
40 sec.
70 sec.
2 min.
6 min.
25 min.
1h
-
ATP - Adenosin Triphosphat: primary source of energy for all muscle contraction.
CP - Creatine Phosphate: energy-rich phosphate that forms a chemical reaction
with ADP to create ATP.
-
ADP - Adenosine Diphosphate: chemical substance that develops through the
hydrolytic splitting of a phosphate molecule from ATP result is release of energy.
-
Glycogen: The form in which glucose (sugar) is stored in the muscle and liver.
Fat: A compound containing glycerol and fatty acids.
Protein: A compound containing amino acids.
Generally three ways of energy production are applicable:
Anaerobic systems
1. ATP – CP system or phosphate system.
ATP is manufactured, when phospho-creatine is broken down.
2. Lactic acid system
ATP is manufactured when glucose (sugar) is broken down to lactic acid.
High intensity efforts are requiring one to three minutes to perform draw
energy (ATP) primarily from this system.
Aerobic system
3. Oxygen (O2) system
25
2h
3h
ATP is manufactured food (principally sugar and fat) is broken down. This
system produces ATP most abundantly and is prime energy source during
long-lasting (endurance) activities.
Based on sports science to measure and determine the quality of endurance training
biological components such as heart rate, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and
blood lactate are used. Using this information categories for endurance training such as
training of the aerobic threshold, anaerobic threshold or maximum oxygen consumption
are determined.
Very few tennis players have the opportunity to measure all these biological components
regularly in field training or laboratory. The most common system and usable in training
is monitoring and controlling the heart rate during exercising.
Aerobic threshold means training without the oxygen debt and at an intensity of about 50
to 60 %, the heart rate varies individually between 120 and 150 bpm, lactate about 2
mmol/l. When training at a lower intensity and heart rate an improvement of aerobic
endurance cannot be expected.
Anaerobic threshold means until this point the body can work with the oxygen debt but in
lactate steady-state. The work intensity is from 70 to 85% the heart rate varies individual
between 150 to 170 bpm, lactate about 4 mmol/l.
During training at a higher intensity and longer duration more lactate is produced because
of absence of O2 during the breakdown of glycogen. The larger quantity of lactic acid
accumulates in the muscle causing fatigue, which eventually leads to a cessation of
physical activity. Individual heart rates until 200bpm can occur.
For wheelchair athletes the level in endurance training that can be achieved will be
dependent on the disability. “Amputees or those having had poliomyelitis or severe
athrosis are able to reach the same training-induced cardiac hypertrophy and aerobic
power in relation to body mass as observed non handicapped persons (Hoffman, 1986).
However, cardiovascular capacity in wheelchair players with SCI is compromised. …
Furthermore, wheelchair athletes with low thoracic lesions have a better capacity for
adaptation to exercise than those with a high thoracic lesion, because of the loss of cardiac
sympathetic innervation, resulting in a maximum cardiac frequency of around 130 bpm
(Bernard et al., 2000; Schmid, 1998)” (cited in Bullock/Pluim, 2003).
Bhambhani (2011) explained that individuals with quadriplegia (lesion levels above T6)
26
can attain peak heart rates between 110 and 125 bpm. In contrast, individuals with
paraplegia (lesions below T6) have complete stimulation of the myocardium and,
theoretically should be able to attain the age-predicted maximum heart-rate (210 - age,
years). (Bhambhani, 2011). Other sources e.g. count 220 minus age in men and 226 minus
age woman. (Ferrauti, 2003, page 100). These facts should be considered in planning and
evaluation of endurance training for wheelchair tennis players.
Basic endurance
As mentioned above the development of general basic endurance as a foundation for the
realization of high training quality and volume and general well-being should be an
important part in the regular program and should not be neglected.
Dosage for training of basic endurance/aerobic endurance
Training method
Continuously training
Time/Distance
Continuously push 20 to 40 min;
1 to 2 km/2 to 6 sets;
Intensity
Moderate, 50 - 60 % of speed maximum;
Pulse: 130 – 150 bpm
Sets
1 to 8
Set interval
3 min
Use per week
2 to 4 times
For basic endurance all kinds of continuous endurance exercises such as long distance
pushes over given time or distance, hand cycles or hand cycles machines can be used to
develop aerobic endurance. Other way is to practice 6 to 8 sets shorter distances e.g. 1 km
or about 5 min. with 60% speed and rest intervals of 3 min.
Wheelchair tennis specific endurance training
Based on the characteristics for a wheelchair tennis match with duration of rallies about 6
to 10 sec. on average and following rest periods about 20 sec. the energy supply is
primary anaerobic-alactic and only partly anaerobic-lactic. The player has always after a
workload a short rest period and can partly restore the used energy resources (ATP, CP).
These findings should be considered for training program for the development of the
tennis specific endurance.
27
We can distinguish the specific endurance training in training without and with hitting of
the ball.
Dosage for training of specific endurance without hitting
Training method
Interval training
Time/repetition
20 to 45 sec per set;
8 to 12 repetitions per set;
Intensity
High to maximum;
75 to 100 % of the speed maximum
Pulse: 160 – 190 bpm (Quad players individual lower)
Sets
4 to 12
Set interval
90 sec. to 3 min.
Use per week
2
to 4 times depend from training cycle
Exercises without hitting
Exercise 1: Turns and push sprints with ball catch
Purpose
Set-up
- Development speed endurance;
- Reaction-speed;
- Will power
Players starting point behind the center mark on baseline, coach stands in
front of the player
Equipment
tennis balls
Execution
-
Player and coach standing face to face in 2 - 3 m distance
Coach tosses slightly the tennis ball to the singles line (point A), the
player has to turn and sprint to catch the ball, player turns around and
toss the ball to the coach and moves back to the starting position
Modify the
situation
-
Then the coach tosses the ball slightly to the other singles line (point
B), the player sprints now to other side and catch the ball
-
Coach tosses the ball randomly to points A or B (total 8 to 12 balls)
Coach toss the ball randomly with faking of the side (total 8 to 12
balls);
Exercise 2: Slope dash
Purpose
Development power endurance and will power
Set-up
The setup is described in the chapter 5: power for mobility in the
28
wheelchair
Equipment
Stopwatch, even course about 20 to 25 m, slope - angle of inclination
around 5 ﾟ to 8 ﾟ
Execution
Player is pushing with maximal power/speed the wheelchair from start to
the goal. 15 sec. rest to move back to the starting point. Under the aspect
of the development of power endurance this exercise will be executed
with a higher number of repetitions and sets as well with shorter rest
intervals. The rest between the repetitions should be about 15 sec. The
repetitions per set should be 10 with set interval of 3 min. by 5 to 8 sets.
In table 5 an example of slope training is shown. The slope has an angle of inclination
around 5 ﾟ. The distance was 25 m. The player (with disability SCI) practiced 5 sets with
10 reps. The interval time between the repetition was 15 seconds and the set-interval 3
minutes.
Table 5: Example for slope training
Time in sec
set
1
2
3
4
5
best time
6.0
5.9
6.0
5.9
5.9
slowest time
6.6
6.2
6.3
6.2
6.1
average time
6.21
6.06
6.14
6.00
6.04
HR after set
168 bpm
180 bpm
180 bpm
174 bpm
174 bpm
HR after 3 min
rest
120 bpm
120 bpm
114 bpm
126 bpm
114 bpm
This example shows the practice for power endurance with high intensity could keep in
all sets (the first reps in the first set were still a little warm up). These were confirmed
by measured time for each repetition and by level of the heart rate around 180 bpm. The
HR after 3 min. rest shows a still uncompleted but on a level to start the next set.
The experience with this kind of training for the improvement of mobility in the
wheelchair is positive. If such program is carried out weekly once or twice per week in
periods without tournaments an effect for the movement in the wheelchair on court is
detectable.
Exercise 3: 5-point fan run
29
Purpose
Development speed endurance and will power
Set-up
The setup is described in the chapter 10: Fitness testing
Equipment
6 cones and stopwatch
Execution
-
Start position: Player stand behind the cone on the center mark facing
the net; the racquet will be carried; after command “ready, go”, the
player pushes around the cones at the sidelines and T and always
back to the cone at the starting position, one at a time in a
counterclockwise direction;
-
After the player drove round the last cone at the sideline, the player
should drive straight back to the cone at the starting point; when the
player pass the cone at the center mark the time will be taken with a
stop watch;
-
rest between sets should be about 90 seconds;
the exercise can also carried out with start to the opposite side in
clockwise direction;
Exercise 4: Zigzags
Purpose
Development speed endurance and will power
Set-up
Players starting point 2 m behind the center mark on baseline, coach
stands in front of the player on the net
Equipment
tennis balls
Execution
Coach gives signal by hand to
the player about the direction of
the movement;
after a few pushes the coach
Ball toss
Players movement
Coach
gives a new signal to change the
direction; the player moves
with the wheelchair step by step
to the net; when the player is in
the zone close to the net, the
coach toss the ball to the
baseline and the player turns
and pushes fast to the baseline
to catch the ball;
Modify the
Players starts from the net beside the coach and moves to the fence by
30
situation
watching the coaches signal over the shoulder, when the player is near the
fence the coach drops the ball at the service line and the player pushes fast
to catch the
ball;
Exercise 5: shuttle run with racquet swing
Purpose
Development speed endurance, power endurance and will power
Set-up
Players carrying the racquet starting point behind the center mark on
baseline; coach stands in front of the player at the service line;
Equipment
Two cones,
Execution
Coach gives signal by hand to
the player about the direction of
the movement;
the player moves quick with the
wheelchair in the direction until
the sideline and imitate a stroke
swing; than the players moves
Coach
quick back in the hub zone
behind the center mark; the
coach gives randomly the next
direction; the players moves
quick and imitate the next
stroke swing; these will be
continued about 20 to 40 sec.;
This drill can be used when the player has some injuries on the wrist, elbow and cannot hit
the ball in tennis training, but swing the racquet and push the wheelchair. With including
the racquet swing physical demand is more complex and more match like.
The endurance training with hitting of the ball is physical and technical the most specific
form of endurance training for wheelchair tennis players, because it includes all in
wheelchair tennis necessary motions. Depend from the intensity it can be used to develop
all different kinds of aerobic/anaerobic endurance.
Dosage for training of specific endurance with hitting
Training method
interval training
31
Time or
Stroke repetitions
Rallies about 20 sec. to 1 min.
8 to 12 repetitions per set;
Intensity
High to maximum;
80 to 100 % of the speed maximum
Pulse: 160 – 190 bpm (Quad players individual lower)
Sets
4 to 8
Set interval
2 to 4 min.
Use per week
1
to 3 times depend from training cycle
Exercises with hitting
Exercise 6:
baseline drill
Purpose
Development endurance and will power
Set-up
Players carrying the racquet starting point behind the center mark on
baseline;
Coach position opposite side in front of the baseline;
Equipment
Basket with balls
Execution
Coach feeds the ball deep close
to the FH corner of
baseline-singles line; the player
moves and hit the ball down the
line; the coach feeds the next
ball deep close to the opposite
side; the player moves quick to
this side and hit the ball down
the line; this will continued for
8 balls;
Coach feeds the ball speed in
moderate speed for the player,
that the player can reach each
ball by pushing with about 70
to 80 % of speed;
Modify the
situation
-
increasing the speed of the feed balls;
shortening of the rest time between the set;
direction of first ball will be decided randomly;
-
increase of the number of balls to 12 per set;
32
Exercise 7:
4-balls all court drill
Purpose
Development speed endurance/anaerobic endurance and will power
Set-up
Players starting point behind the center mark on baseline;
Coach position opposite side close behind the net;
Equipment
Basket with balls
Execution
Coach feeds the ball (1) deep
close to the corner of
baseline-singles line on the ad
side; the player moves and hit
the ball down the line; the
coach feeds the next ball (2)
deep close to the deuce side;
the player moves quick to this
side and hit the ball down the
line; the coach feeds the ball
(3) short behind the net as a
drop shot; the player moves
quick to the net and hit this ball
down the line; the coach feeds
the ball (4) as an lob to the
baseline; the player moves
back to the baseline and hit the
down the line;
Coach feeds the ball on such
way, that the player can reach
the ball with pushing speed 80
to 95 %;
4 strokes pattern can repeated 4
times with rest interval of 45
sec.; 3 to 4 sets after 3 min. set
interval can practiced;
Modify the
situation
-
increasing the speed of the feed balls, more time pressure;
shortening of the rest time between the set from 45 sec to 20 sec.;
-
the pattern for strokes change to randomly combination;
33
-
Exercise 8:
rally drill
Purpose
Development speed endurance/anaerobic endurance and will power
Set-up
Players starting point behind the center mark on baseline;
Coach position opposite side in one corner on the baseline;
Equipment
Basket with balls
Execution
Coach rallies up to 1 min. with the player and plays on all court; player
has to play in coaches corner;
After 3 or 4 sets coach changes the position to the other corner on
baseline;
Modify the
situation
-
Coach change the position to the net;
shortening of the rest time between the set from 45 sec. to 20 sec.;
it will be played 2 vs. 1 player, 2 on baseline or net;
Flexibility training
Specifically characteristic for wheelchair tennis is that the drive for the movement in the
wheelchair and for the strokes are concentrated on the shoulder, arms and hands as well as
depending on the grade of disability the trunk. With the specificity of the movement in the
wheelchair, powerful acceleration, quick stops and turns as well the hitting of the ball
with the dominate arm, the shoulder joints especially and the attached ligaments, tendons
and muscles are all very highly strained. This is one reason that wheelchair tennis players
commonly suffer from overuse injuries of the rotator cuffs. The prevention of muscle
imbalance about the shoulder and the development of flexibility, muscle-, ligaments- and
tendon elasticity are important.
Flexibility is defined as a motor ability to conduct movements with an appropriate range
of motion. Maximal movement amplitude is the criterion of flexibility.
Flexibility in sport is necessary:
-
To prevent athlete from getting injured;
To impair and support the process of learning or perfection of various movements;
-
To support the development of strength, speed and co-ordination for economical
34
motions;
-
To avoid imbalanced development of muscles;
To support and shortening the process of recovery after
high and intensive load in training and competitions.
(Pechtl, 1982; Grosser/Starischka/Zimmermann, 2008)
Factors affecting flexibility are:
-
Collaboration and elasticity of muscle, ligaments and
tendons for wide range of movement;
-
Adequate muscle strength which supports the anatomical
possible amplitude of movement;
-
The inter- and intra-muscular coordination of the involved muscles.
(Grosser/Starischka/Zimmermann, 2008)
In any movement, the contraction of muscles which act actively (agonists) is
paralleled by relaxation or stretching of the antagonist muscles. However, flexibility
is often limited if the antagonistic muscles are not relaxed, or if there is a lack of
co-ordination between contraction (agonists) and relaxation (antagonists). (Bompa,
1994)
-
The form, type and structure of the joints.
In context with these general findings Bullock/Pluim are demanding effective exercises
which involve the strengthening and stretching of the rotator cuff muscle group and the
shoulder blade stabilizers, with special emphasis on external and internal rotation and
abduction. (Bullock/Pluim, 2003)
Typically feature for wheelchair tennis players are strong developed anterior muscles of
the shoulder, as the subscapularis as the biggest muscle. In contrast to this the posterior
muscles as the infraspinatus and teres minor are weaker developed. This imbalance can
be shown for a large group of wheelchair tennis players when one check the shoulder
flexibility with shoulder flexibility test.
Fig:18 The test is well known with the grip of the hands behind the back.
One can simple evaluate the shoulder flexibility:
Excellent = Fingers overlap,
Good = Fingers touch,
Average = Fingers are less than 2 cm apart,
Poor = Fingers are more than 2 cm apart,
35
Conclusions to minimize this imbalance in the shoulders are to focus
strengthening of the posterior muscles and to focus more the
development of flexibility and elasticity of the anterior muscles of
the shoulder.
Various forms and methods to develop flexibility are known.
-
The active method, comprised of: a) static method; b) ballistic
method;
-
The passive method;
-
The combined method, or proprioceptive neuro-muscular
facilitation (PNF).
It is to mention that there exists some contradiction between coaches and athletes
regarding which method is more efficient. However several experts viewed and
concluded that there is no difference between their effectiveness.
The active ballistic method can be described as a technique whereby maximum flexibility
is achieved through an individual muscular activation. It can be performed through
explosive rebounding movements. The movement should be careful carried out to avoid
muscle pull.
Fig. 19: Ballistic stretching of the spine, dorsal- and
trunk muscles through rotation to the right and
left side. The amplitude of the movement will be
limited by the grade of spinal cord injury or
flexibility and elasticity of trunk muscles.
Fig. 20: Ballistic stretching of the shoulder muscles
36
and joint by moving the stretched arms with
the stick/bath towel/rope/tube alternately from the
front side to the back side. The elbows shouldn’t
be bent.The wide of the grip of the hands on the
stick should be chosen depend from the flexibility
of the joint and through training careful narrowed.
Fig. 21: Ballistic stretching of the shoulder muscles
and joint by alternated circling of the stretched
arms with stick/bath towel/rope/tube from the
front with beginning of the motion with move of
one hand over the head following the other hand
to the back and continue with the move to the front.
With the active static method two segments of the limbs or the trunk
are flexed to the outmost point of flexibility, holding this position for
15 to 30 seconds (maximum 1 min). This method refers to both the
flexion and relaxation of the muscles. Attention to the agonistic and
antagonistic muscles should be paid.
Fig. 22: Static stretching of the forearm flexor and extensor. The player can control the
tension and amplitude.
37
The passive method achieves maximum flexibility through the assistance of a partner or
external force.
Proprioceptive neuro-muscular facilitation (PNF) requires the limb to be actively flexed
to the joint limits, then execute a maximum isometric contraction against the resistance of
a partner, coach, trainer for about 5 to 10 seconds. Then the player will relax 10 to 15
seconds before the trainer moves the limb to a new end range. This process is repeated
three to four times with an increase in the joint’s range of movement (ROM).
Reque described the advantages and disadvantages of each method in “Strength and
Conditioning for Tennis” more detailed and introduced stretching exercises for able
bodied tennis players. Most of these exercises for shoulder, arms and wrist, as well for the
trunk with some specifications and adaptations can be used for wheelchair tennis players
too. (Reque, 2003)
Flexibility exercises have to be incorporated in the warm-up part of the training. The
exercises have to be preceded by a general warm up of at least 10 minutes. The selection
38
of the exercises has to be related to the players’ level and content of the training. Each
selected exercise has to be performed in 3 to 6 sets of 1 to 15 repetitions or 10 to 30
seconds. During the rest interval relaxation exercises should be applied. Throughout
performance the amplitude of an exercise has to be increased progressively and carefully.
Flexibility training can be applied as part of the regular tennis- or fitness training session
or separately.
Strength training
Strength training in wheelchair tennis has the function to strengthen the muscles and
joints as a prerequisite to improve the performance and to strength the muscles, ligaments
and tendons of the joints to prevent injuries.
Because of the specific of the movement in the wheelchair, with acceleration,
deceleration, turns, quick stops as well for the strokes different types of strength are
applied and are to develop in training. In contrast to able bodied tennis players this
specific demands are concentrated on the trunk, shoulders, arms and hands, that means
the most stressed muscles and joints are the shoulder and arm muscles, as well the
shoulder, elbow and wrist joints.
It would be out of proportion of this article to describe physiological, biological and
biomechanical fundamentals of strength, all types of strength and all methods of strength
training. A short and compromised overview will be given.
In simple terms, strength is defined as the ability to apply force to overcome resistance.
(Schmidtbleicher/Baumann, 1992)
One can distinguish different types of strength:
A very simple categorization is the differentiation in general and specific strength.
General strength refers to the strength of the whole muscular system. As this aspect it is
the foundation of the whole strength program. A low level of general strength may be a
limiting factor for the overall progress of an athlete (Bompa, 1994). For wheelchair
tennis players is this strength beneficial for the muscles which stabilize the trunk and the
joints of the shoulders, elbows and wrists. Amputees and sufferers of disorders such as
poliomyelitis and arthrosis can also perform lower body resistance training.
39
Specific strength is considered to be the strength of only those muscles that are particular
to the movement of the selected sport (Bompa, 1994). In wheelchair tennis this are the
muscle to stabilize the trunk, the prime movers of the shoulder, as well the smaller inner
muscles of the shoulder, on the upper arm especially the triceps and forearm muscles for
strong grip strength.
Another way for categorization of different types of strength is based on the result of
muscle work. Based on sports science findings and training practical experiences one can
distinguish in maximal strength, speed strength and muscular (strength) endurance.
Maximum strength refers to the highest force that can be performed by the neuromuscular
system during a maximum voluntary contraction. (Bompa, 1994) The maximum strength
can be understood as a basic function for the other strength categories. (Grosser,
Starischka, Zimmermann, 2008)
Speed strength (also called power) is the product of two abilities, strength and speed, and
is considered to be the ability to perform maximum force in the shortest period of time.
Subcategories are starting strength, explosive strength and reactive elastic strength.
(Verstegen, 2003) Their importance and development for the movement in the wheelchair
as well for the strokes is already explained in the chapter about power and speed.
Muscular (strength) endurance is defined as muscle’s ability to sustain work for
prolonged period of time. (Bompa, 1994) In this category Verstegen used the term power
endurance for tennis, as a significant endurance factor in every facet of the game; serving,
groundstroke and movement on court. Under this emphasize he suggests for able bodied
tennis players different kinds of speed endurance circuits, medicine ball circuits, energy
system circuits and resistive training circuits. (Verstegen, 2003) This kind of muscular
endurance training can also apply for wheelchair tennis.
A third way for categorization of the strength exercises for wheelchair tennis players and
maybe most useful for design of a training program is to categorize the exercises for
different parts of the body and joints. One can distinguish in:
-
Complex exercises, which strengthening multiple joints and their muscles;
Trunk exercises, which strengthening and stabilize the core. These exercises are
mostly individual limited by the grade of disability. Especially for players with spinal
cord injuries is the range of motion very limited, training with only isometric muscle
40
contractions support the stabilization of the trunk.
-
Shoulder exercises, which strengthening the prime movers (big muscles) and tendons
of the shoulder joint. Because the shoulder joint is a ball-and socket joint, exercises
should be chosen to cover all movement direction of the joint.
-
Arm and wrist exercises focusing to strengthen the muscles and tendons of the elbow,
forearm, wrist and hand.
-
Inner muscle exercises, which strengthening the small muscles in and around the
shoulder rotator cuff. Underdeveloped and in not good balance to the development of
the big shoulder muscles, they can easily get hurt and are cause for shoulder pain.
The training program in wheelchair tennis is very individual to design because the
individual grade of disability is limiting the use and load of strength exercises. Other
components for the design of a strength training program are the conditions, in the tennis
facility and in a training gym. The common equipment for strength training of wheelchair
tennis players are dumbbells, tubes and Thera-band. Not all training machines in a gym
are access able or useable for wheelchair players. Most players are familiar and confident
with exercises they can do in the wheelchair. If the player moves out of the wheelchair on
a bench or on a training machine, always the safety of the player, body balance and
necessary fix points for the body should be considered.
In the following passage from the large number of strength exercises a few exercises,
their function and application will be introduced as examples. The purpose is to give the
coaches and players some ideas and principles for the selection and use of strength
exercises. Many arm and shoulder exercise for able bodied tennis players can used for
wheelchair tennis players to.
Multi-joint exercises
Exercise 1: Bend seated pushes
Class
Complex exercise, maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing basic maximum strength similar to the pushes of the
wheelchair;
Dynamic strengthening of the shoulder & arm muscles; static
strengthening of the trunk muscles;
Equipment
Cable machine with rope,
41
Execution
Player starts in forward bent position
with bent elbows (1); pushes
powerful the arms down to full
stretch of the elbows (2); returns
slowly back in position 1;
Player shouldn’t much move with
1
the upper body;
2
Additional
This exercise can also used for Quad players, the body position is more
comments
upright and not so much forward bent. The amplitude of the arm motion
is shorter.
Exercise 2: Military press
Class
Complex exercise, maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing basic maximum strength for shoulder and arm;
Equipment
Dumbbells ,
Execution
Player starts in upright
body position with bent
arms with dumbbells (1);
moves the dumbbells over
head to full extension of
the elbows, including a
pronation of the forearms
(2); returns slowly back in
position 1, etc;
1
42
2
Another multi-joint exercise for development of maximum strength of the arms and
shoulders is bench press.
Exercise 3: Low pull rowing
Class
Complex exercise, maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing basic maximum strength for shoulder and back muscles ;
Dynamic strengthening of the shoulder & arm muscles; static
strengthening of the trunk and back muscles;
Equipment
Cable machine,
Execution
Player starts in upright sitting position with stretched arms on the handle
(1); than pulls the handle to the chest (2); the bent elbows should be kept
on the height of the shoulder joints; then move back to the starting
position;
Different effects of the exercise can be achieved with changes of the
tempo of the motion, smooth or slowly;
1
Additional
comments
2
For players which have to use the wheelchair wheel chocks for the front
caster in the right distance to the machine should be used. To keep the
balance in the wheelchair coach should fix the back of the wheelchair
when the player is using high weights. Also a belt around the lower part f
the trunk and the back of the wheelchair can fix the body in the
wheelchair. Quad players can tape the hand and handle for tight grip.
Exercise 4: Lat pull down
Class
Complex exercise shoulder & arm, maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing basic maximum strength shoulder & arm muscle;
Static strengthening of the trunk muscles;
Equipment
Cable machine with rope,
43
Execution
A: Players position facing
the machine; start with
stretched arms on the
handle over the head in pull
down to the chest; then
moves up etc.
A-1
A-2
B-1
B-2
B: Players position with the
back to the machine; start
with stretched arms on the
handle over the head in pull
down to the neck; then
moves up etc.
Additional
comments
This exercise can also used for Quad players when they are taping the
hand and handle for the grip.
The training dosage for this kind of multi-joint exercises with the aim to develop basic
maximum strength could be:
Dosage for training exercises for specific strengthening
Training method
Sub-maximum method
44
Equipment
Dumbbells, rubber tube, machine;
Resistance/weight
Moderate resistance; weights 60 to 90 %
Duration
Until local fatigue about 10 to 30 reps/set
or 20 to 30 sec;
Movement speed
slow to rapid,
(with rapid or explosive movement speed the aim
of the exercises slightly change to development of
speed strength; the number of reps/set should
reduced;)
Sets
3 to 6
Set interval
2 - 4 min
Use per week
2 to 4 times
One-joint exercises
Exercise 5: Seated reverse fly
Class
One joint exercise (shoulder), maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing specific strength of posterior muscles of the shoulder;
Equipment
Cable machine,
Execution
Player starts in upright body position with straight arms in front, hands
grasp a rope in height of the chest with weights (1); the straight arms
move sideward and pull a weight; the motion ends in lateral position;
hands are in the height of the shoulder (2); returns slowly back in position
1, etc;
Additional
comments
1
2
Similar exercise for strengthening the posterior muscles of the shoulder
is the dumbbell fly exercise; the player in the wheelchair bent the upper
body forward on the legs and moves the straight arms with the dumbbells
in the hand sideward up and down;
Other exercises for strengthening of shoulder muscles and joint are lateral raise, arm cross,
which one can practice with dumbbells, tube or on machines.
45
Exercise 6: French press
Class
One joint exercise (elbow), maximum strength exercise
Objective
Developing specific maximum strength for triceps;
Equipment
Dumbbells,
Execution
Player starts in upright body
position with bent arms
behind the head with
dumbbell (1); moves the
dumbbells over head to full
extension of the elbows (2);
returns slowly back in
position 1, etc;
Additional
comments
1
2
The exercise can also be done with one hand.
The exercise to develop the antagonist of the triceps, the bicep, is biceps
curl. This exercise should be included in the training program even if the
biceps is not a main mover for the wheelchair movement.
Exercise 7: Wrist curls: flexors & extensors
Class
One joint exercise (wrist), general strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength of wrist and fingers extensor and flexors;
Equipment
Dumbbells, (tube or Thera-band)
Execution
-
Elbows are flexed and
forearms
resting on a bench, wrist
and hands hang over the
edge, palm is up (A-1);
slow curl wrist and hand
46
upward and hold for a
count (A-2); slow lower
weight, repeat;
-
Elbows are flexed and
forearms resting on a
bench, wrist and hands
Flexors:
hang over the edge, palm
A-2
is down (B-1); slow curl
wrist and hand upward and
A-1
hold for a count (B-2);
slow lower weight, repeat;
Extensors:
B-2
Additional
comments
B-1
Rubber tube or Thera-band also can be used;
Similar exercises are wrist rolls – flexion/extension with a pipe with
weight;
Exercise 8: Forearm pronation & supination
Class
general strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength forearm muscles;
Equipment
Dumbbells, (tube or Thera-band)
47
Execution
Elbows are flexed and forearms resting
on a bench, wrist and hands hang over
the edge; grasp the dumbbell only on
one end(i.e., a hammer); one hand the
palm is upward, the other hand the palm
1
is down, the handle is horizontal (1);
slow raise the weight by rotating the
forearm and wrist upright (vertical
position), hold for count; slowly
continue the movement to the other side
by rotating the forearm and wrist to the
2
horizontal position (2); repeat to the
other side, always hold for a count in the
vertical position;
Additional
comments
Rubber tube or Thera-band also can used;
Similar exercises are wrist supination/pronation with a pipe with weight;
Exercises for inner muscle of the shoulder
Exercise 9: External shoulder rotation
Class
General strength exercise
Objective
Strengthening rotator cuff of the shoulder;
This exercise should be used not only for the racket arm, because of the
use of both arms for the movement in the wheelchair the other shoulder
needs also be strengthened.
Equipment
Rubber tube or Thera-band,
Execution
Start with the hand with the rubber tube close to the abdomen (1); rotate
the hand and forearm away from the abdomen until the hand and forearm
are straight out in front, pulling on the tube for resistance (2); keep the
elbow in 90° angle throughout the exercise; return to the starting
position, repeat;
48
1
2
Additional
Internal shoulder rotation is the movement on the opposite way, from
comments
outside to the abdominal in front of the body. The rubber tube is fixed at
opposite side.
Exercise 10: 90° – 90° external shoulder rotation
Class
General strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength for shoulder external rotators;
Equipment
Rubber tube, dumbbells or Thera-band
Execution
Starting position is placing the
upper arm parallel to the ground
and the forearm perpendicular to
the upper arm at 90° (1);
While maintaining a the 90°
angle in the elbow, externally the
forearm will rotated slowly until
it points to the ceiling (90°
abduction) (2);
return to starting position;
1
Additional
comments
2
This exercise can also done lying on a mat with dumbbells.
Exercise 11: Scaption or empty cane
49
Class
general strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength for the supraspinatus muscle and deltoid;
Equipment
Dumbbells, rubber tube or Thera-band
Execution
Elbows straight and thumb
pointed to the ground (1);
raise the arms to shoulder
level on a diagonal plane
[30° to 45° to the side]
(2); slowly lower and
repeat;
1
2
The training dosage for this kind of one-joint exercises with the aim to develop basic
strength could be:
Dosage for training exercises for general strengthening
Training method
Training for muscle hypertrophy
Equipment
Dumbbells, rubber tube, Thera-band, machine
Resistance/weight
Moderate resistance; weights 60 to 75 %
Duration
Until fatigue about 10 to 30 repetitions/set or
30 to 45 sec
Movement speed
Moderate to slowly
Sets
3 to 8
Set interval
2 min
Use per week
1 to 3 times,
Exercises for trunk
50
The use of the trunk exercises is very depending from the individual grade of disability.
As already mentioned especially for players with spinal cord injuries is the range of
motion very limited. Sometimes training only with isometric muscle contractions is
possible. Amputees and sufferers of disorders such as poliomyelitis and arthritis may also
can perform many trunk exercises like disabled players. They only need some specific
support to fix the body and to keep the body in balance, when they move out of the
wheelchair.
Exercise 12: Abdominal crunch, sit up
Class
General strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength for strong trunk (rectus abdominis muscle)
Equipment
mat, bench/box
Execution
The starting position (lie on
the back), execution and
effect of the exercise are
depending from grade of
disability.
Players with SCI maybe can
only strengthen some parts
of the abdominal muscles
without big amplitude of
motion. They should try to carrying out the exercise with isometric
muscle contraction. Maybe only lifting the head and shoulder are
possible.
Players with other disabilities can use different start positions and carry
out the exercises with crunching the abdominal, or parts of the
abdomainal.
Additional
comments
-
Crunches combined with light rotating the upper body (target oblique
muscles of the trunk);
-
Crunches with legs placed on a bench/box (hip flexors are only little
used);
Exercise 13: Back extension
Class
General strength exercise
Objective
Developing general strength for strong trunk (erector spinae)
Equipment
mat,
51
Execution
The starting position (lie on the prone), execution and effect of the
exercise are depending from grade of disability.
Players with SCI maybe can only strengthen some parts of the back
muscles with lifting the stretched arms from the ground or moving a stick
by bending (1) and stretching the arms (2) over the back of the head.
1
2
Other players can lift the trunk more and can raise and lower the trunk.
They need some support to fix the legs and lower body.
Exercise 14: Rotary torso
Class
General strength exercise
Objective
Developing specific strength of internal and external obliques;
Equipment
Machine, dumbbell,
Execution
The starting position,
1
range/amplitude of movement and
effect of the exercise are depending
from grade of disability.
Players with SCI maybe have small
amplitude of trunk motion.
Starting position in the wheelchair or
on a chair/bench; start with the
rotation of the shoulder to one side
2
(1), and then rotate against resistance
of the machine in an arc of 60° to 90°
to the other side (2); slowly return to
starting position and repeat; do
rotations to both sides to promote
balanced trunk rotation strength; if
necessary, coach should fix the
wheelchair or legs while sitting on a
52
chair;
Additional
comments
If no machine is available or accessible the exercise can carry out with
rotation of the trunk/shoulders from one to the other side by holding a
weight (Medicine ball, dumbbell etc.) with the hands in front of the
abdominal.
The training dosage for this kind of trunk exercises with the aim to develop basic strength
could be:
Dosage for training exercises for strengthening of the trunk
Training method
Sub-maximum method or isometric method
Equipment
Mat, dumbbells, rope, machine,
Resistance/weight
Body weight or moderate resistance;
Duration
Until fatigue about 25 to 50 repetitions/set or
isometric 20 to 45 sec;
Movement speed
Moderate or static
Sets
3 to 8
Set interval
2 min; isometric 10 to 25 sec;
Use per week
3 times to daily
10. Suggestions for testing of physical factors for wheelchair tennis-players
10.1 Purpose
Based on the essential components of fitness for competitive wheelchair tennis players
one can design a fitness testing protocol. The main goal of testing is to determine the
status of fitness and to design a fitness training program.
The selection and creation of the exercises come after the principle, that the grade of
disability is as far as possible not the limit for the performance. That means the exercises
can be carried out by all players (with adaptations for quad players). The routines should
be as far as possible very similar to the demands on court.
The main components which should be tested are agility/mobility, speed, power and
endurance. In this article some ideas for testing will be proposed as a field test and very
simple to apply.
53
Of course coaches can choose and apply more and other exercises based on their own
experiences, as well with better high tech equipment.
The test should be carried out at least two or three times per year. After a period of
physical training is this base to assess the level and improvement of components of
physical condition. Continuously used, is this test very helpful to design or refine the
training program for fitness training.
Exercises and procedures
The test exercises should carried out after a good warming up and sufficient induction
into every exercise
SPEED TESTS
Baseline-net dash:
In the modern version wheelchair-tennis, the fast movement in the chair on court
becomes more and more important. Distances along the baseline and from the
hub-positions behind the baseline to the net are the longest distances for wheelchair tennis
players to go. The baseline-net dash measures this component of speed.
Procedures
Mark off beside the tennis court the distance from the baseline to the net. Verify the
distance at the net-posts is wide enough, to pass this line without danger for the
wheelchair-players.
Have a partner stand at the finish line with arm in the air and stopwatch in the hand.
Start-position is with the main wheels on the start line. During the test the racket should
be used as usual.
At the command “ready, go” and the drop of the arm move in dash toward to the finish
line. When the body crosses the finish line, the time will be taken.
Record the score of two attempts.
When electronically measurement is used, confirm the time will be taken, when the body
passes the finish line (not the front wheel of the chair).
54
Tennis-ball throw:
For the ball strokes in tennis the motion speed of the racket is an important requirement.
Especially in wheelchair-tennis the motion speed of the hitting arm is an important
physically requirement for the racket speed. The tennis-ball throw is one method to be
measure this ability.
Procedures
The distance of the throw can measured on all even areas.
The wheelchair has to be behind the throwing line. Use a measuring tape to measure the
distance of the throws.
The player has 5 attempts for a usually one arm over head throw.
Measure the distance from the throwing line to the point the ball landed.
MOBILITY TEST
T-turns:
Chair mobility is the first critical element of wheelchair tennis. With today’s advances in
chair technology and powerful game style, player mobility has vastly improved. This has
led to the use of the chair as a power source as well as the advent of a more attacking style
of play. Players are taking the ball on one bounce more and more, making contact inside
the baseline as much as possible. This new tactic has changed the look of mobility. It is
now essential to attack the ball in more open position, moving into the court and
recovering back to the hub.
This powerful moving in the court and recovering back can be measured with the T-turn
test.
Procedure
Using a masking tape, mark off two points 110 cm right and left from the center mark on
the baseline. The points should be squares of 15 cm. And mark a short line 15 cm behind
the center mark of the baseline.
Starting position is behind the baseline facing the net with the front wheel on the line
behind the center mark. During the test the racket should be used as usual. At the
command “ready, go” turn the chair quick to one mark (A mark) and touch the mark with
the front wheel. Then turn quick back to the starting point and turn the chair to the
opposite mark (B mark). Then turn back to the starting point. Repeat this turns. Complete
this turns to every mark 3 times. Time should be taken when the third touch of B mark is
finished. When a wheelchair with two front-wheels will be used, the marks should be
55
touched with one front-wheel.
The player has 2 attempts.
Have a partner to take the time and record the score.
110 cm
110 cm
A
B
15 cm
STRENGTH TEST
Grip strength:
Good grip strength can help to prevent wrist and elbow injuries. In addition, it can help to
hold the racket better on those off center hits.
Grip strength measures the strength of the finger flexors and forearm muscles.
Procedure
Use a grip strength dynamometer.
In an arm down position at side, the dynamometer will squeezed about 3 seconds with one
hand. Every hand should try two attempts.
Record the results in kilogram.
POWER TESTS
Medicine ball toss/overhead:
56
In wheelchair tennis the main power for strokes will be developed by using the arm and
shoulder muscles. The level and improvement of the basic power for the strokes can be
measured with medicine ball tosses. Because the different causes of disability between
the players, the overhead toss is performed while lying on one’s back. This creates a
control mechanism for this test.
Procedure
Start position - lying on the back on a mat and hold a medicine ball in both hands behind
the head.
Toss the ball as far as possible in a motion like throw in soccer. The head should not be
lifted during the toss.
The weight of medicine ball is for woman/Quad/junior 1 kg and for men 2 kg. The player
is given 3 attempts and the scores are recorded.
Measure the distance from the starting point of the toss to the point the ball landed.
You’ve got to be aware, that the move from the tennis wheelchair down on the mat maybe
difficult, the players should have the normal wheelchair with one on court.
Resistance pushes:
In wheelchair tennis is the power of the first pushes very important for mobility and
acceleration of the chair. To measure the power for acceleration a resistance dash from the
baseline to service line, will be carried out. The player has to pull an additional weight
during the dash.
Procedure
Connect a basket with a rope (about 2 m length) at the back of the chair.
Mark off beside the tennis court the distance from the baseline to the service line. Have a
partner stand at the finish line with arm in the air and stopwatch in the hand.
Put in the basket additional weights.
1. attempt – 5 kg For men:
1. attempt – 10 kg
2. attempt – 7,5 kg
2. attempt – 15 kg
3. attempt – 10 kg
3. attempt – 20 kg
The start-position is with the main wheels on the start line.
At the command “ready, go” and the drop of the arm move in dash toward to the finish
line. When the body crosses the finish line the time will be taken with stop watch.
(electronically measurement is better)
Record the score of three attempts.
For woman/Quad/:
juniors
When electronically measurement can be used, verify the time will take, when the body
57
passes the finish line (not the front wheel of the chair).
The best surface for this check is hard-court. Using other surfaces, make sure, that the
pulled basket does not damage the court-surface.
ENDURANCE TEST
5-point fan run:
The 5-point fan run is a complex exercise, which includes speed, mobility and, because
the period of time, anaerobic endurance. The starting actions, acceleration, breaking
actions and turns in this test most closely simulate the movements during a tennis match.
Procedure
Position six cones on the court: one on each corner where the baseline and singles sideline
meet, one on each corner where the singles sideline and service line meet, one on the T
and one on the center mark on the baseline.
Start position: Player stands behind the cone on the center mark facing the net. During the
test the racket should be used as usual. After command “ready, go”, the player pushes
around the cones at the sidelines and T and always back to the cone at the starting position,
one at a time in a counterclockwise direction.
After the player drove round the last cone at the sideline, the player should drive straight
back to the cone at the starting point. When the player pass the cone at the center mark the
time will be taken with a stop watch.
The player has two attempts.
④
③
②
⑤
①
58
Long distance: 1 km (optional)
Aerobic endurance is important in wheelchair tennis. Good basics in aerobic endurance
are supporting the recovery time between the points and perform longer before getting
tired. The ligaments and tendons become tougher, reducing the threat of injury and laying
the foundation for more intense training. The aerobic endurance for wheelchair-tennis
player should be tested with a one km long distance check.
This test is optional, because not always exist even tracks for wheelchairs. You can carry
out such test on 400 m track or if you measure the distance around two courts in a tennis
facility.
Procedure
Start on a 400 m track. After command “ready, go” the player has to drive two and ½ laps.
After the distance of one km the time will be taken with stop watch and the score
recorded.
In case of use the tennis facility, the distance around the possible to use tennis-courts is to
measure and then the player has to drive on this course the distance of one km.
10.3 Order of exercises
The exercises should carry out in the order:
1. Medicine ball toss/mat (because the player has to move out of the wheelchair)
2. Tennis ball toss
3. Baseline – net dash
4. Grip strength
5. T-turns
6. Resistance pushes (r-p)
7. 5-point fan run
8. 1 km run
Anyway the exercises 6, 7 and 8 should be tested at the end of the test battery after all
other exercises are tested.
Table for comparison of best results
The Tennis Training Center in Kashiwa/Japan is carrying out this testing battery since
over ten years with players of all levels. On the table are the best data for all exercises and
different categories. This data are orientations for coaches and players when they use the
same tests.
59
Table 5: TTC fitness test best results and averages
ball toss
m
MEN
MB toss grip right grip left
m
kp
kp
dash
T-turns
r-p 1
r-p 2
r-p 3
5-point
1 km
sec
sec
sec
sec
sec
sec
min
10 kg
15 kg
20 kg
2 kg
Best results
41.2
12
74.4
65
3.09
9.4
1.78
1.82
1.99
24.5
3:31
average (n = 116)
24.3
8.9
52.1
45.8
3.67
11.6
2.25
2.44
2.65
29.4
4:34
5 kg
7.5 kg
10 kg
WOMAN
1 kg
Best results
17.2
10.3
41.2
37.8
3.89
10.8
2.22
2.25
2.3
28.8
4:39
average (n=41)
12.5
7.5
32.3
30.7
4.37
12.5
2.6
2.71
2.88
32
5:30
5 kg
7.5 kg
10 kg
JUNIORS
1 kg
Best results boys
17.3
9.2
47.5
44.4
3.5
11.5
2.14
2.14
2.21
29.5
4:34
Best results girls
13.4
6.5
25.2
29.1
4.22
12.4
2.49
2.67
2.88
29.8
4:52
5 kg
7.5 kg
10 kg
2.72
2.72
2.93
32.4
5:58
QUAD
Best results
1 kg
22.8
10.3
xxx
xxx
3.96
60
13.7
Test sheet
Wheelchair tennis fitness test
Name:
date:
Birthday:
Tennis club:
Test
Racket hand:
Kind of disability:
How many years wheelchair tennis:
Before wheelchair tennis what kind of sport?
Current ITF or National ranking
National
ITF
Last half year: How many times tennis per week?
How many times fitness per week?
Test
1. attempt
2. attempt
3. attempt
4. attempt
5.attempt
m
m
m
m
m
baseline – net
dash
sec
sec
medicine ball
toss
m
m
m
right
kg
right
kg
left
kg
sec
sec
kg
sec
kg
sec
sec
sec
Tennis ball toss
grip strength
T-turns
resistance dash
5-point fan run
1 km
kg
sec
min
61
left
kg
11. Conclusions
To play wheelchair tennis at a high level requires mobility, speed, endurance,
power, strength and flexibility. The development of these physiological
factors should be systematic and regular part of the training. Besides the
specific training of these factors on and off court so called cross training as
wheelchair basketball, training with hand cycles, catch ball etc. can be
included in the training program.
It is hoped that this chapter helps coaches and players understand the
importance of training of physiological factors and get some ideas to make the
fitness training in wheelchair tennis more systematic based sport scientific
findings and practical experiences.
“On the court you should be an animal. This is only possible with fitness and
confidence. When you are fit, you are concentrated. You make fewer errors,
which make you successfully. Fitness and confidence are as important as a
good forehand in tennis.” Nick Bolletieri.
Note: The author would like to thank the wheelchair players Shingo Kunieda,
Satoshi Saita, Yoshinobu Fujimoto, Takashi Sanada, Tomomi Miyama as well
the Tennis Training Center in Kashiwa/Japan for their assistance.
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In: ITF wheelchair tennis coaches review; issue 7, February
2003.
5 Horst Guentzel: Physical components in wheelchair tennis – Report about
TTC fitness test
62
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6 Bal Moore/Randy Snow: Wheelchair Tennis Myth to Reality,
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7 Manfred Grosser/Stephan Starischka/Elke Zimmermann:
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9 Tudor O. Bompa: Theory and Methodology of Training – The Key to Athletic
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10 Bradley A. Parks: Tennis in a Wheelchair, USTA 1997, 26.
11 T. Jeff Chandler/W. Britt Chandler: Training Principles
In: Strength and Conditioning for Tennis, ITF 2003, 59 – 65.
12 Donald Chu: Increasing Power in Tennis
In: Strength and Conditioning for Tennis, ITF 2003, 137 - 139.
13 Yagesh Bhambhani: Physiology
In: Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science - The
Paralympic Athlete,
IOC Medical Commission Publication 2011, 54 -55,
Whiley-Blackwell UK.
14 Alex Ferrauti, Karl Weber, Peter R. Wright:
Endurance: Basic, Semi-specific and Tennis-specific
In: Strength and Conditioning for Tennis, ITF 2003, 93 – 111.
15 Volker Pechtl: The basis and methods of flexibility training
In Dietrich Harre (ed.): Trainingslehre,
Sportverlag Berlin 1982.
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