Proactive & Reactive
Aggressors
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Content
Preface 1
4
Preface 2
5
Chapter 1:
Project Introduction
Chapter 2:
Conceptual Framework
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Assessment and Research Design
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Characteristics of the Research
Research Design
Targets of the Research
Research Procedure
Assessment Tools
VI.
Research Results
Proactive Aggressors
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Chapter 5:
Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and
Related Theories
Preparation for the Treatment Group
Contents of Proactive Aggressor Treatment Group
Case Studies
Effectiveness
Reactive Aggressors
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
2
The Previously Defined Concept of Bullying
The Internationally Agreed Definition of Bullying and
Aggression
Types of Aggressors
Types of Victims
Forms of Aggressive Behavior
Related Theories
Counseling Strategies
Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and
Related Theories
Preparation for the Treatment Group
Contents of Reactive Aggressor Treatment Group
Case Studies
Effectiveness
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Content
Chapter 6:
Aggressive Victims
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Chapter 7:
Passive Victims
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Chapter 8:
Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and
Related Theories
Preparation for the Treatment Group
Contents of Passive Victim Treatment Group
Case Studies
Effectiveness
Practical Tips
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Chapter 9:
Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and
Related Theories
Preparation for the Treatment Group
Contents of Aggressive Victim Treatment Group
Case Studies
Effectiveness
Formation of the Treatment Group
Theoretical Application
Workers’ Qualities
Basic Skills in Leading the Group
Counseling Techniques
Cooperation among Workers
Crisis Intervention
Cooperation with School and Teachers
Arrangement of the Venue
DVD User Guide
I.
II.
III.
Part I: Handlings of Aggressors and Victims
Part II: Responses in Different Scenarios
Part III: Case Studies
Chapter 10: Appendices
I.
II.
III.
Content of Appendices
Quantitative Assessment Tools
Qualitative Assessment Tools
Chapter 11: References
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Preface 1
Preface 1
In a highly modernize city like Hong Kong, younger generations have their focuses mainly on the latest fashion
trends, pop songs, celebrities and hot topics on the internet. However, their communication skills and interpersonal
relationships are getting poorer at the same time. Incidents about bullying in primary or secondary schools, both
inside and outside the campus, are common and come in various forms. Although many articles in the educational
field have discussed the problem of bullying in school, there is insufficient publication in providing practical solutions
and preventive measures of bullying on campus. The Project CARE: Children and Adolescents at Risk Education
Practical Manual, written by Dr. Annis Fung Lai-chu, is undoubtedly a useful tool and reference material for all the
frontline educators, social workers, counselors and parents. I hereby strongly recommend this manual to everyone
who would like to achieve campus harmony and bring smiles to the classroom.
Dr. Alex Kwan Yui Huen
Head & Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies
City University of Hong Kong
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Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
Preface 2
Preface 2
I still find it hard to believe that “Project Care”, which ran from September 2006 to August 2011, has finally come to
an end. The project reflected the mission that God gave me. According to the Bible, “Not by might nor by power, but
by my Spirit.” I don’t think I have any extraordinary talents or ability; however, it is through my humble self that God
achieves his orders and events.
Looking back to 10 years ago, it was quite difficult for me to follow a direction that I had never anticipated taking. I
took a part-time doctoral degree at the University of Hong Kong, although I had no clues about my research field
at that time – I just knew that God wished to give blessing to the needy through me. To my surprise, while praying,
God talked to me personally, giving me several words: ‘Intervention for Aggression Children in Hong Kong’. I then
phoned my supervising professor – Dr. Tsang Sandra K.M. (Head and Associate Professor at the Department of
Social Work and Social Administration). When I informed her of this research field, she immediately asked how I
had come across it. She was surprised that I had such a similar idea as hers.
I then started to serve in an NGO and became involved in a range of systematic research. This not only helped
the NGO to develop its professional counseling service, it was also beneficial to children with emotional difficulties
and aggressive behavior. At the same time, it helped me to finish my Ph.D. thesis. It was exactly as the Bible
states: “And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called
according to his purpose”. As a result, I finished my course and fulfilled all the requirements within a recordbreaking three and a half years. The City University of Hong Kong then employed me as an Assistant Professor. “For
whoever exalts himself will be humbled, and whoever humbles himself will be exalted.”
Another NGO immediately sought to collaborate with me. In 2005, we implemented services and conducted
research on teenagers with aggressive behavior in four secondary schools, and the results were fascinating
and encouraging. Thus, I drafted a detailed proposal to the Quality Education Fund so that more schools could
participate, and more students received help and blessing.
Project CARE: Children and Adolescents at Risk Education (C.A.R.E.) started in September 2006, with $1.4 million
funded by the Quality Education Fund to provide an all-round service in ten secondary schools. Surprisingly, more
than a hundred schools were interested in signing up, 10-times more than we could provide for. Once again I
applied for the Quality Education Fund. This time the funding was doubled and we were able to extend the project
for a further two years, until August 2008.
“Unless the LORD builds the house, its builders labor in vain. Unless the LORD watches over the city, the
watchmen stand guard in vain.” The Bible is telling the truth. In 2008, to mark the 10-year anniversary of the Quality
Education Fund, the council selected 20 outstanding projects from over 7000, and mine was one of them. We were
given a further $6 million in funding and our project was extended from secondary schools to primary schools.
We were able to serve 10 secondary schools and primary schools each year. Time flies, and after five years, the
project has served approximately 1300 students, 200 parents, and 500 teachers and social workers. As the project
provided training to the whole school, around 40 thousand students and their families have benefitted overall.
Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
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Preface 2
A brief summary of the results and contributions of the project are summarized below.
(1) Re-define the traditional definition of bullying: advocating violence is not the same as bullying, which has a
plan and a purpose. Those who bully others gain spiritual, material, and linguistic benefits via their aggressive
behavior.
(2) Classify the aggressors and the victims: there are proactive aggressors (the really bullies) and reactive
aggressors (often misunderstood as the bully). We need to help victims using the correct approach – cognitive
behavior therapy – to identify their irrational thinking, dispute it, and re-build their positive thinking.
(3) Develop a scientific assessment tool so that we can recognize different types of aggressors and victims and
improve social workers’ and teachers’ understanding.
(4) Release the first worldwide cognitive behavior therapy 10-session treatment program using specific teaching
materials developed for each type of aggressors and victims, complete with worksheets and DVD. The details
are listed in Chapter 4-7.
(5) Include real case studies of each of the four types of aggressors and victims. Instructions on how to use the
teaching materials, and an interpretation of the contents of session 1-10, are described in Chapter 4-7. Social
workers and related staff should find the materials easy to follow.
(6) Create a peer-counseling program to help manage school violence. Train older students as “student
ambassadors” to develop active and trustful relationships with younger students, establish a positive and
healthy model for them, and ensure they have someone’s support and care.
(7) To strengthen the application of this material for frontline workers, our project has conducted over 200
workshops and talks across Hong Kong. Thousands of teachers, social workers, parents, and the public have
participated in these workshops.
(8) To fulfill the needs of the students, the materials have been distributed to the participating schools, and the
participants in the talks and workshops.
(9) The project advocates harmony and care in the school culture and has organized press releases, public forums,
Internet forums, and interschool drama competitions to promote these values.
(10) This is a cross-boundary project involving sharing with, for instance, Macau, mainland China, Singapore,
Japan, Spain, Poland, the United States, Uruguay, England, and Finland. The research findings have been
published in international journals so that people in different locations can participate and follow the program.
This shows that the project comprehensively covers different levels, systems, roles, and districts, and the
effectiveness of the groups is demonstrated through quantitative and qualitative scientific research. The results
are fascinating and encouraging and have been published in SSCI. This also demonstrates that the project has
international acknowledgement and makes a worldwide contribution, all of which originated from Jesus Christ,
without whose help I would not have gained such fruitful results. There has been much hardship over the past 10
years and my friends and co-workers have encouraged me not to work so hard and spare more time for myself.
However, I am grateful that the past 10 years have been so rich and wonderful and that I was able to sacrifice my
young and energetic years for God.
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Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
Preface 2
Witnessing the students who participated in this project, it is as the Bible says: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he
is a new creation; the old has gone, the new has come!” There is nothing compared to the cycle of life.
Finally, I thank God for choosing me to taste the best and most amazing fruit in life. Starting with my resistance
against taking the Ph.D. degree to accepting the order of God, the whole process has exceeded my expectations.
According to the Bible: “No eye has seen, no ear has heard, no mind has conceived what God has prepared for
those who love him.” I hope you are willing to contribute, and let God take charge and lead your life so that you may
live more amazingly and fruitfully.
Dr. FUNG, Lai Chu Annis
Assistant Professor of the Department of Applied Social Studies,
City University of Hong Kong
Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
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Chapter 1: Project
Introduction
Introduct
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Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
Chapter 1
Project Introduction
Chapter 1: Project Introduction
Project CARE (Children and Adolescents at Risk in Education) has been operating for four years and is now its
final year. The project aims to assess schoolchildren, teachers, and parents using an ecological model to identify
potential high-risk aggressors and victims who are most in need of intervention. The intervention consists of a
10-session group-treatment model based on Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and is designed specifically for
proactive and reactive aggressors, and aggressive and passive victims.
A rigorous experimental design, consisting of pretest, posttest, and three-month, six-month, one-year, and two-year
follow-up studies with a well-validated structure and scientific assessment are adopted. The students are randomly
assigned to either the experimental or control group, and are repeatedly measured across multiple time-points. The
data are collected from multiple sources, namely student self-report and parent and teacher ratings, using reliable
scales and standardized structured interviews.
Quantitative and qualitative assessment tools with high reliability and validity are adopted to evaluate the outcome
effectiveness of each treatment group for specific subtypes of aggressors and victims of student aggression. As far
as we are aware, this is the first scientific study to assess the treatment of both proactive and reactive aggressors
and aggressive and passive victims using two-year longitudinal data.
The data are collected from multiple sources, involving students, teachers, and parents, thus minimizing the
problem of the biased assessment of aggressors based on a single perspective. The study adopts a mixed-methods
approach, including both quantitative and qualitative data, using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
and Nvivo to provide rigorous data and content analyses. The evaluations of the outcome effectiveness of each
group intervention are therefore comprehensive and convincing.
Chapter Reviews
Chapter 1 (Project Introduction) introduces the background toof Project CARE and the research and assessment
methodology. Chapter 2 (Conceptual Framework) explains the fundamental concepts and theories that appear
throughout this manual: the definitions of bullying, forms of aggressive behavior, subtypes of aggressors (reactive
and proactive aggressors), subtypes of victims (aggressive and passive victims), the theoretical analyses, and
the counseling strategies. Specifically, the family background and the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social
characteristics of the four types of aggressors and victims are described. The negative effects of aggression and
peer victimization are also discussed.
In Chapter 3 (Assessment and Research Design), the research design and process are introduced, including the
procedures for screening, pre-testing, and post-testing of students and their respective teachers and parents. The
assessment tools employed in the questionnaires and qualitative interviews are described in detail.
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Chapter 1
Project Introduction
Chapters 4 to 7 outline the treatment groups pertaining to the four types of aggressors and victims, thus providing a
model for other social workers and counselors to replicate the interventions. These chapters describe the treatment
plans and objectives, together with the application of CBT and related theories (such as the Social Information
Processing Model, Social Learning Theory, and Attribution Theory) in the 10-session treatment group. The session
plans include details of the activities in each group session, including the duration, materials needed, objectives
and underlying principles, procedures, and in-session and homework assignments for participants. Advice for social
workers/counselors, and case studies and case analyses from our social workers, are also provided.
Chapter 8 (Practical Tips) discusses general counseling techniques, crisis intervention, and how to ensure
cooperation among key social workers, co-social workers, serving schools, and teachers. Chapter 9 (DVD User
Guide) introduces the two accompanying DVDs that present the various scenarios. Teachers, social workers/
counselors, and parents may watch these discs as supplements while reading the manual. Both the quantitative
(questionnaires) and qualitative (interviews) scales can be found in Chapter 10 (Appendices). Finally, all references
are listed in chapter 11 (References).
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Chapter 1
Project Introduction
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Chapter 2: Conceptual
Framework
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework
The definition of bullying adopted by our project is quite different from the definition previously suggested by local
scholars, educators, and social workers. This manual will therefore begin by outlining the previous definition of the
concept of bullying and aggression, followed by the latest, internationally agreed definition adopted by this project.
This manual will also emphasize the characteristics of two types of aggressors and victims, their cognitive style,
and the causes of aggressive behavior.
I. The Previously Defined Concept of Bullying
The conceptualizations of bullying suggested by various scholars, educators, and social workers in the past were
oversimplified. Specifically, these conceptualizations defined all cases of school bullying based on just two roles:
bullies and victims. This leads to the misconception that all people with aggressive behavior are bullies. It is
important to recognize that some forms of aggressive behavior are a behavioral response that may be triggered
by anxiety, anger, and impulsivity. This type of behavior is different from the repeated, intentional, and instrumental
aggressive behavior that is real bullying. To avoid such confusion and to ensure more specific and effective
treatment, we must first clarify the concept and definition of bullying and aggression.
A review of previous research suggests that scholars share different views of bullying. These include imbalanced
power between aggressors and victims (Craig & Pepler, 1997; Twemlow, Sacco, & Williams, 1996; Smokowski &
Kopasz, 2005); aggression towards those who are weak (Glew, Rivara, & Feudtner, 2000; Pepler, Jiang, Craig, &
Connolly, 2008; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005; Vreeman & Carroll, 2007); and being unable to fight back (Besag,
1989; Olweus, 1991; Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Ruan, Simons-Morton, & Scheidt, 2001; Popoola, 2005; Vreeman
& Carroll, 2007). Furthermore, various authors tends to agree that single or non-repetitive aggressive behavior
is not bullying (Glew, Fan, Katon, Rivara & Kernic, 2005; Olweus, 1991; Randall, 1997), and only those who are
repeatedly exposed over time to negative actions on the part of one or more aggressors are considered to be
victims of bullying.
II. The Internationally Agreed Definition of Bullying and Aggression
Because the meaning of bullying and aggression are completely different (Glew, Fan, Katon, Rivara & Kernic, 2005;
Olweus, 1991; Randall, 1997), they should not be considered the same thing.
The author agrees with the idea that aggression is different from bullying. Recently, scholars tried to understand the
definition of bullying and aggression. Crick & Dodge (1994, 1996) suggested the definition of proactive aggressor
and reactive aggressor. This categorization is supported by several international and local research studies
(Arsenio, Adams, & Gold, 2009; Hubbard, Smithmyer, Ramsden, Parker, Flanagan, Dearing, Relyea, & Simons,
2002; Fung, Raine, & Gao, 2009; Phillips & Lochman, 2003; Vitaro, Brendgen, & Tremblay, 2002). In addition, the
results of the present project found that this categorization is not only suitable for children in Hong Kong but also
in mainland China, Uruguay, and other Spanish countries. Research has also shown that proactive and reactive
aggression among children in Uruguay and Spanish countries is higher than in Hong Kong and mainland China.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
III. Types of Aggressors
1. Proactive Aggressors
Characteristics
Pure proactive aggressors are relatively rare; in fact they may be psychopaths, and as such are at risk of
committing severe crimes (e.g., homicide, robbery, and delinquency) in future (Munoz, Frick, Kimonis,& Aucoin,
2008; Bas & Kabasakal, 2010). Proactive aggressors believe they gain benefits, such as power and control over
others, from their aggressive behavior. Therefore, instrumental goals and motivations lie behind their aggression
(Dodge, 1991). Proactive aggressors are calm and rational (Crick & Dodge, 1996; Roland & Idsoe, 2001) and
are typical bullies. They have a strong desire to control others, are often egocentric and lack empathy for their
victims (Wong & Lo, 2002; Olweus, 1978, 1994). Proactive aggressors are also linked with callous/unemotional
traits, which in turn are associated with anti-social behavior, thus further implying psychopathy (Fite, Stoppelbein &
Greening, 2009).
Some studies indicate that proactive aggressors are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. They will
undermine school regulations and discipline, have poor conduct, and use their intelligence to engage in
inappropriate behavior to obtain benefits (Crick & Dodge, 1996). They are also described as “intelligent” because
they tend to have superior verbal abilities, leadership qualities, a sense of humor, and good communication skills,
but are not associated with peer victimization and rejection (Arsenio, Adams & Gold, 2009; Poulin & Boivin, 2000a,
2000b). Furthermore, proactive aggressors are skillful at hiding their aggressive behavior. They will plan and select
an appropriate time and venue to execute their aggressive behavior and act like different people when in front of
authority figures and victims (McAdam & Schmidt, 2007).
Blair (2004) believes proactive aggressive behavior is a result of a collapse in personal moral socialization. Other
studies have also found that the instrumental aggression of proactive aggressors stems from disrupted core moral
values. Although aggression helps them to acquire tangible rewards, they also obtain positive emotional outcomes
from enacting aggression (Arsenio, Adams & Gold, 2009). Aversive conditioning and instrumental conditioning are
the two processes that are important for moral socialization (Fowles & Kochanska, 2000). The amygdala is crucially
implicated in these two conditioning processes (Davis, 2000; LeDoux, 1998). The literature has established that the
construct of psychopathy is broadly related to proactive aggression (Cornell, Warren, Hawk, Stafford, Oram, & Pine,
1996) and psychopathy is caused by dysfunction of the amygdala (Blair, 2001; Patrick, 1994). Therefore, proactive
aggressive behavior may also be closely related to amygdala dysfunction.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Basic Concept
Bandura’s (1973) Social Learning Theory may be used as the basis for analyzing proactive aggressive behavior
(please see “Related Theories” later in this chapter for details). The theory proposes that aggressive behavior is
learned by imitating others (such as family members). The benefits that are gained from aggression provide an
incentive for the aggressor to imitate and repeat such behavior (Bandura, 1973). Proactive aggressors are also
found to be associated with disrupted Social Information Processing (SIP) (Crick & Dodge, 1996; Dodge & Coie,
1987) (please see “Related Theories” later in this chapter for details). The SIP model advocates that children’s
reasoning about social events and the behavior of others is based on several important steps: encoding and
interpreting the behavior, then generating, selecting, and enacting responses to the behavior. However, proactive
aggressors show distorted social-cognitive reasoning when they try to generate and select appropriate responses
to perceived social events. They tend to adopt instrumental aggression as a means to acquire rewards from others
(Crick & Dodge, 1996; Arsenio, Adams & Gold, 2009).
Family Background
The family background of proactive aggressors is usually more complicated. Their parents also have a tendency
toward aggression, and some of them are proactive aggressors themselves. They do not care properly for their
children and may even reject them. The role of the father is weak, as he seldom plays a role in parenting. The
mother often neglects to teach her children, adopts an indulgent approach (Curtuer-Smith, 2000), and spends
very little time with them. Such parents are very tolerant of their children’s aggression, and even ‘normalize’ it
(McNamara & McNamara, 1997), which encourages and fosters their children’s aggressive behavior. Xu, Farver,
and Zhang (2009) found that indulgent parenting is associated only with proactive aggression. Over-protectiveness
or indulgent parenting may reinforce children’s proactive aggression.
Other studies have also found inconsistency between the parenting styles of a proactive aggressor’s father and
mother (Carney & Merrell, 2001). The parents are emotionally unstable and often scold and beat their children
when they become agitated. As a result, their children learn to react with violent behavior (Robert, 2000), which
may then evolve into a means of obtaining benefits. The habit and belief of using violence and aggression to meet
goals has been passed into the next generation.
Our study found that in comparison with students from single-parent and nuclear families, students from
stepfamilies score higher on the proactive aggression index. The same study revealed that stepmothers in
remarried families have lower self-efficacy in relation to parental discipline than parents from other family structures.
Most proactive aggressors experience low levels of discipline and monitoring at home (Poulin & Boivin, 2000).
Discipline is an important aspect of parental monitoring (Dishion & McMahon, 1998). Therefore, if parents have low
self-efficacy in disciplining their children, the children are more likely to exhibit proactive aggressive behavior.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Negative Effects
A number of studies have found that proactive aggressors are linked with delinquent behavior and attention
problems (Scarpa, Haden & Tanaka, 2010); a third of proactive aggressors have attention deficit disorder, 12.5%
suffer from depression, and a further 12.5% have oppositional conduct disorder. Most proactive aggressors have
personality defects (Kumpulainen, Rasanen, & Puura, 2001), which make them think that aggressive behavior is an
appropriate way to handle interpersonal relationships (Andreou, 2001). Proactive aggressors are also more likely
to be involved in drug abuse, which is more acute than in reactive aggressors, and reactive and passive victims
(Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpela, & Rimpela, 2000). Adolescents who show aggressive behavior are more likely to commit
a crime before the age of 30 (Roberts, 2000). Furthermore, a longitudinal study found that proactive aggressive
adolescents are more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior and psychopathic features in adulthood, such as violence,
interpersonal manipulation, callous affect, and risky and harmful use of alcohol. (Fite, Raine, Stouthamer-Loeber,
Loeber & Pardini, 2009). In other words, proactive aggression that emerges during adolescence may have
persistent negative effects on psychological and behavioral development. Furthermore, an earlier study (Cornell,
Warren, Hawk, Stafford, Oram, & Pine, 1996) pointed out that proactive aggressors share some similarities with
psychopaths, and psychopaths have a greater chance of committing murder compared with the “normal” population
(Egger, 2002; Eronen, 1995; Firestone, Bradford, Greenberg, Larose, & Curry, 1998; Geberth, Vernon, & Turco,
1997; Gacono, Meloy, Sheppard, & Speth, 1995; Hickey, 1997; Kelleher & Kelleher, 1998; Schurman-Kauflin, 2000;
Yarvis, 1995).
Case Study
Mike (a pseudonym) is a student who is repeating Form 1. His parents are separated and he lives with his father
and his father’s girlfriend. He often threatens and even hits his weaker classmates at school. He likes to linger
around the housing estates after school and often goes home late at night.
In the therapy group meeting, Mike shared his experience of bullying. Once, he and his friends (around 10 people
in total) met a boy he didn’t like at the basketball court. Mike invited the boy to play basketball. During the match,
Mike intentionally kicked the boy’s leg very hard, leaving him in a lot of pain and feeling angry. He then gathered
his friends around and threatened the boy, convincing him that accidents in a basketball match are normal. Mike
shared that he became very excited and felt a sense of accomplishment when he saw how frightened the boy was.
He believed that his behavior could cause someone he didn’t like to be afraid of him.
From the case above, we see that Mike first assessed the surrounding environment, such as the number of people
in his own gang and in the other party, and the venue of the incident (for example, it is common for people to
collide on a basketball court, so when Mike attacked his victim, it would be easy to convince others that it was just
a normal accident). He then objectively analyzed whether there was any advantage to be gained from attacking
or bullying the victim and, after thinking rationally, selected his method of aggression. Mike also assessed the risk
of his aggressive action, trying to create a plausible explanation so that he could defend himself if others found
out. Finally, Mike determined the most effective means of aggression and exercised his ‘authority’ to convince the
victim and his peers of his strength. From this incident, it is clear that Mike lacked empathy toward other people and
showed little emotional response.
Mike has a clear, keen mind and acts cautiously, hence it is difficult for him to be discovered and punished. He acts
behind the scenes, coordinates organized groups, and plans and organizes the bullying to achieve authority. He is
considered a typical proactive aggressor.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
2. Reactive Aggressors
Characteristics
When reactive aggressors receive and encode social information, they tend to pay selective attention to aggressive
cues and ignore the context. They have a hostile attributional bias and often perceive their peers’ ambiguous
behavior as aggressive and harmful to them (Pettit, Polaha, & Mize, 2001). Due to such cognitive distortions,
reactive aggressors take more risks in their daily lives and tend to be out of control and disrupt their classes.
Reactive aggressors usually lack confidence, are very sensitive to and suspicious of their surroundings, and lack
social and problem-solving skills (Anderson, 1989, Mynard & Joseph, 1997).
Reactive aggressors take part in other kinds of deviant behavior, such as smoking and drinking (Nansel et al.,
2001). They have poor problem-solving skills and tend to attribute their problems to external factors without taking
responsibility for the consequences (Andreou, 2001). Reactive aggressors’ social problem-solving skills are
limited and they tend to use aggression as a mean to solve social conflicts because they regard aggression as
the easiest way to act (Arsenio, Adams & Gold, 2009). Their academic achievements are lower than average, and
they detest the restrictive and disciplinary environment of school (Nansel et al., 2001). They also tend to internalize
problems(please see “Attribution Theory” later in this chapter for details); and reactive aggression is positively
related to depression and suicidal behavior (Fite, Stoppelbein, & Greening, 2009).
Most reactive aggressors suffer from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Reactive aggressors
have poor emotional regulation (Xu, & Zhang, 2007). In a meta-analytic study comparing reactive and proactive
aggressors, reactive aggressors were found to have increased emotional dysregulation and ADHD symptoms,
whereas proactive aggressors had no problems in this respect (Card & Little, 2006). Reactive aggressors often
disturb and annoy their classmates during lessons (Carney & Merrell, 2001). Their peers are aware that they may
become easily agitated and fly into a rage, which makes it difficult for reactive aggressors to establish relationships
and friendships with others (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). Reactive aggressors have poor verbal abilities (Arsenio,
Adams, & Gold, 2009), thus teachers often think they cause trouble for no reason because they seem to use
violence with no plausible explanation. Consequently, they are often blamed and punished, making it even harder
for them to gain trust and receive support from teachers. Nevertheless, unlike proactive aggressors, the moral
reasoning of reactive aggressors does not differ from ordinary students (Arsenio, Adams, & Gold, 2009).
Several research studies have indicated that reactive aggression is associated with activity in the orbital frontal
cortex (Blair, 2004). Goyer, Andreason, Semple, Clayton, King, Compton-Toth, Schulz, and Cohen (1994) found that
the cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the orbital frontal cortex of people with reactive aggressive behavior is lower than in
non-aggressors. The orbital frontal cortex is responsible for determining the value of rewards. If a reward does not
match the expectation, it will induce frustration. Reactive aggression is generally triggered by a setback or failure
of expectations. According to Blair (2004), when there is an expectation setback, the orbital frontal cortex induces
neural activity in the sub-cortical system, which controls reactive-aggressive behavior, and causes depression and
frustration. In contrast, the orbital frontal cortex will suppress neural activity in the system if expectations are met.
Another biological indicator of reactive aggression is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA- axis). The
HPA-axis is responsible for neurophysiological reactions during stressful experiences. For example, it causes an
increase in the heart rate, reduces digestive activity, transforms glucose into energy, and so on. Studies have found
that an overactive HPA-axis response is linked to reactive aggression (Lopez-Duran, Olson, Hajal, Felt, & Vazquez,
2010). In other words, the basal and aroused neuropsychological response of reactive aggressors is higher than in
normal people. They display strong and vigorous emotional reflexes during stressful events. For example, their face
will turn red, they sweat more, their heart rate increases, and their hands tremble.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Basic Concept
One of the earliest theories of reactive aggressive behavior was the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Berkowitz,
1963; Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), which simply states that when someone experiences failure
or encounters something out of his/her expectations, it will provoke anger that will lead to further violent actions.
Therefore, reactive aggressive behavior is driven by outraged emotion. Reactive aggressors respond to perceived
events with cognitive distortion, which leads to an acute response (Pulkkinen, 1996; Salmivalli & Nieminen, 2002).
Buss and Perry (1992) referred to reactive aggressors as ineffectual aggressors. They are easily affected by
their own anger and anxiety when interacting with their peers, and often cause arguments with others. Reactive
aggressive behavior can also be explained by the SIP model (please see “Related Theories” later in this chapter
for details). In contrast to proactive aggressors, reactive aggressors usually have a hostile attributional bias
according to the SIP Model. They also have attention problems, which lead them to attend selectively to information
that seems hostile or threatening. The distorted encoding and interpreting processes lead to misinterpretation
and hostile attributions toward neutral stimuli. Hence, they use aggression as a way of protecting themselves
from perceived threats (Dodge & Crick, 1990; Arsenio, Adams, & Gold, 2009). Studies have shown that reactive
aggression is positively related to impulsivity, whereas proactive aggression is negatively related (Morrow, Hubbard,
McAuliffe, Rubin, & Dearing, 2006). Impulsivity is frequently reported to be a predictive trait for reactive aggressors
(Dodge & Coie, 1987; Dodge & Crick, 1990; Raine et al., 2006).
Family Background
The parents of reactive aggressors tend to use harsh punishments and some may even use abusive disciplinary
methods (Bowers, Smith, & Binney, 1994; Xu, Farver & Zhang, 2009). Children who have experienced physical or
verbal abuse from a parent may be insecure and hypervigilant toward threatening social cues. In some cases, the
parents employ extreme parenting styles, with one parent being completely non-interfering and the other extremely
strict. Most reactive aggressors come from families in which they receive little love and are not properly taken
care of, which makes them defensive and build barriers against the outside world and they gradually develop their
hostile mode of thinking.
This study found that students from single-parent and remarried families score higher on the reactive aggressive
index than intact families. These children are more likely to receive physical punishment from their parents (Fagan,
2005; Smith & Thornberry, 1995), and often experience corporal punishment (Dodge et al., 1997). Therefore,
reactive aggressive children are more likely to be found in single-parent and remarried families.
Negative Effects
Reactive aggressors often think they are not worthy – they have very low self-esteem and a poor self-image
(O’Moore & Kirkham, 2001). Their interpersonal relations are poor due to their disrupted social information
processing and inappropriate aggressive behavior (Seah & Ang, 2008). Studies show that the overall self-image
of reactive aggressors is lower than that of proactive aggressors, and is the lowest among all the other nonaggressors (O’Moore & Kirkham, 2001). Twenty one and a half percent of reactive aggressors are diagnosed with
oppositional conduct disorder, 17.7% with depression, and 17.7% with attention deficit disorder. The percentage of
reactive aggressors with oppositional conduct disorder and depression is higher than that of proactive aggressors.
When reactive aggressive adolescents enter adulthood, negative emotionality (i.e. anxiety) is more likely to appear.
Furthermore, reactive aggressors are prone to using illegal drugs as adults (Fite, Raine, Stouthamer-Loeber,
Loeber, & Pardini, 2009).
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Case Study
Duncan (a pseudonym) is an eight year-old boy who suffers from his father’s coercive parenting style. His father
beats him up whenever he does not do well at work or loses money gambling. What worsens the situation is that
Duncan also receives limited care from his mother. Duncan grew up with little sense of security, love, and family
warmth. He lives under contradiction and fear, which makes him often defensive and on guard against the world. As
a result, he has developed a hostile attributional bias toward the world around him.
In the treatment group, Duncan revealed that he had once hurt himself by accident and had some scars on his
arm. A few days after the accident, he saw some classmates chatting and laughing in a corner of the classroom.
He believed they were talking about his scars and became agitated and angry. He went up to them and hit them
without asking why they were laughing. Duncan also revealed that he had been told off and beaten several times at
home without any reason, thus he had become sensitive, agitated, and hostile in response to his parents’ criticism.
From what Duncan shared, it is clear that he has low confidence and low self-esteem, is sensitive and hostile
towards his surroundings despite there being no real threat, and lacks social and problem-solving skills. Due to
his past experience of being told off and beaten without any reason at home, he has developed a self-defensive
response: to protect himself, he feels he has to verbally or physically attack others before they can do the same to
him. Duncan’s case reveals the characteristics of a typical reactive aggressor.
Conclusion
When reactive aggressors encounter conflicts with their spouses during adulthood, it is more likely that they will
react with violence. They also tend to use harsh discipline (such as corporal punishment) on their own children. As
the problem of domestic violence has become more acute in recent years, it would help to provide more appropriate
counseling strategies for those who use violence, if their aggressive behavior can be identified.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
IV. Types of Victims
1. Aggressive Victims
Characteristics
Aggressive victims appear to have both high neuroticism and psychoticism, which are characteristics associated
with victims and bullies, respectively (Mynard & Joseph, 1997). Researchers have compared the anxiety levels
among bullies, victims, and bully-victims (aggressive victims). Some found that aggressive victims had the highest
levels of anxiety (Duncan, 1999), whereas others found that they were more anxious than bullies but not as anxious
as victims (Craig, 1998). Aggressive victims lack self-regulation (Schwartz, Proctor, & Chien, 2001) and are more
easily provoked in comparison with proactive aggressors. If the situation continues to aggravate them, the cognitive
structure of aggressive victims becomes distorted, resulting in bias and misinterpretation. Such victims may
gradually become reactive aggressors.
Aggressive victims tend to collect more offensive weapons or toys than passive victims, and also have more
frequent quarrels and fights with others. Some of them instantly react with violence, so are often mistaken as
aggressors and are punished. Although they are victims of bullying, they are less accepted by and receive less
sympathy from their peers and teachers. They are the most unwelcomed and have the highest chance of being
excluded from their peers among all four types of aggressors and victims (Schwartz, 2000). Aggressive victims
often have very low self-esteem and believe themselves to be less attractive or important than others (O’Moore &
Kirkham, 2001). They are often over-anxious and unhappy in comparison with others (O’Moore & Kirkham, 2001),
and are more depressed and report more physical symptoms of anxiety (Swearer, Song, Cary, Eagle & Mickelson,
2001). They are also the most functionally disturbed compared with aggressors, passive victims, and uninvolved
children (Schwartz, Proctor & Chien, 2001), are easily provoked (Haynie et al., 2001), and have lower school
achievement (Wolke, Woods, Bloomfield, & Karstadt, 2000).
Basic Concept
Studies indicate that when a child has been attacked, there is an equal chance that they will become an aggressive
victim or a passive victim (Perry, Kusel, & Perry, 1998). Brockenbrough, Cornell & Loper (2002) showed that
about 30% of bullied junior high school students possess aggressive tendencies, use violence as revenge
against bullying, and become aggressive victims. Because they are bullied or hurt by others, aggressive victims
appear highly anxious and nervous, and often have thoughts of revenge (Olweus, 1995; Schwartz, Dodge, Pettit,
& Bates, 1997). In Eslea’s (2004) study with a Chinese sample, aggressive victims were more likely to be left
alone during playtimes and had fewer friends, particular in secondary rather than primary school. They also tend
to make external attributions (i.e., blaming external factors such as teachers, victims, or even luck) rather than
internal attributions (i.e. blaming internal factors – themselves), indicating that they are unable to accept their own
responsibilities (Georgiou, & Stavrinides, 2008).
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Family Background
The parents of aggressive victims have a similar parenting style to those of reactive aggressors; the difference
is that one parent may over-protect the child while the other adopts a non-interfering approach or is indifferent.
The children of such parents fail to become independent and are unable to protect themselves from harm in a
proper manner (Bowers, Smith, & Binney, 1994). The family patterns of aggressive victims are also found to be
inconsistent in their discipline, show poor parental monitoring (Schwartz, Dodge, Pettite, & Bates, 1997), and adopt
destructive problem-solving strategies (Stevens, De Bourdeaudhuji, & Van Oost, 2002).
Studies indicate that the parents of aggressive girls only tend to give advice to their daughters the first time they
seek help, but not subsequently, suggesting that their daughters often receive no help (Laura, Irma, Ritva-Liisa, &
Liisa, 1998). The lack of response from their parents causes them to develop insecure attachment relationships.
In this type of relationship, the parents’ attitude toward their children is often unpredictable and their advice is
ambiguous. In the absence of appreciation and recognition from parents, these children lack self-confidence and
are often suspicious of others. It is not easy for them to establish trusting relationships with others.
Negative Effects
Aggressive victims miss more school than their peers (Song, Swearer, Paulk, Eagle, & Cary, 2000), they are more
vulnerable to long-term dysfunction than bullies and victims (Hilton, Anngela-Cole, & Wakita, 2010), and engage
in high-risk-behavior such as smoking and drinking (NICHD, 2001). Aggressive victims lack confidence in their
surroundings, others, and even themselves. They have a strong sense of unease, high levels of anxiety, and may
also have psychosomatic symptoms. They may have eating disorders (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2000) and are at risk
of depression, anxiety, and other psychiatric disorders (Cary, Swearer, Song, Haye, & Sohn, 2001), delinquent
behavior (Haynie et al., 2001), and even suicidal ideation (Klomek, Marrocco, Kleinman, Schonfeld, & Gould,
2007). A longitudinal study found that many aggressive victims suffer from psychological and psychiatric symptoms
as adults (Kumpulainen & Rasanen, 2000).
Case Study
Kenneth (a pseudonym), a Form 1 student in a boys’ school, is short and skinny. His classmates are always
laughing at him and calling him ‘doggie’ in front of the class. They slap him hard on his arms and head, and draw on
his books for no reason. It is clear that Kenneth has always been physically and verbally bullied. When sharing his
experience of being bullied, he became very angry and revealed his non-trusting attitude towards others.
Once, when Kenneth told his teacher that he was being bullied in class, his teacher claimed not to have noticed
it. Kenneth thought the teacher must have seen what happened because he sat at the front of the class, but the
teacher chose to ignore his complaint. In the therapy group meeting, Kenneth thought that as long as there was a
classmate making fun of him, the rest of his classmates would follow suit and look down on him. He stated that only
those who were seriously ill could be trusted because they were unable to harm him.
Kenneth revealed in a group meeting that he had once he convinced his friend to join him in beating up a classmate
who had bullied them at school. He believed the only way to stop the classmate from bullying him was to beat him,
even at the risk of getting a demerit. “The teacher took action only when I exaggerated the incident. It didn’t matter
even if I got three demerits, as long as the classmate got at least one as well,” said Kenneth. However, Kenneth
eventually gave up on his revenge when his friend was not brave enough to go along with him. This reflects
Kenneth’s own lack of self-confidence.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Nevertheless, Kenneth considers conduct to be very important because good conduct reflects on his own character.
He also considers integrity to be more important than academic performance. He does not want his poor conduct
to have any negative effects on his future. Kenneth’s experience demonstrates his tendency to retaliate against
people who bully him. He believes that only violence can solve his problems, but at the same time he worries about
his lack of ability. Moreover, Kenneth also sees morality as very important. Thus, when he encounters a bullying
situation, he often struggles between the ideological impulse to comply with moral principles, and taking revenge
with violence. He is highly confused and conflicted.
2. Passive Victims
Characteristics
McNamara and McNamara (1997) point out that passive victims are usually short and slightly built. Their physical
fitness and performance in sports is poor, so they are not strong enough to resist stronger aggressors (McNamara
& McNamara, 1997). When they are attacked, they usually cry and withdraw from the crowd. Their academic
performance in primary school is generally not too bad. However, by the time they are in high school they will skip
class regularly and avoid going to school to avoid being persecuted by bullies, thus leading to poor academic
performance (Olweus, 1993).
The personality of passive victims is quiet, cautious, anxious, insecure, submissive, and highly sensitive (e.g.
Olweus, 1993, Schwartz, Dodge, & Coie, 1993). They usually lack communication skills and have alienated
interpersonal relationships (Glew, Rivara, & Feudtner, 2000). They talk very little and lack assertiveness (Schwartz
et al., 1993). They usually hang around alone at school (Olweus, 1993), and their relationships with teachers and
social workers are closer than with their peers. A study revealed that passive victims have fewer self-reported
behavioural/emotional problems, higher self-reported self-control skills, and more teacher-rated positive behaviour
than proactive and reactive aggressors (Ronen, Rahav, & Moldawsky, 2007). The findings we have discussed so
far indicate that passive victims have poor relationships with their peers due to their poor interpersonal skills, but
they have better relationships with their teachers because they behave positively (at least from their teachers’
perspective). However, the findings of different studies are not always consistent due to differences in their
methodology. Most studies find that passive victims are anxious and sensitive (see the following section for more
negative effects), whereas others claim that they have fewer emotional problems.
Some gender differences have been found regarding passive victims. A study with students from 4th to 6th grade
found that the prevalence of male passive victims increased with age but no such tendency was found for female
passive victims (Hanish & Guerra, 2004). In grade 4, passive victims were significantly more likely to be girls, but
they became increasingly less aggressive and less victimized than their male counterparts (Hanish & Guerra,
2004). The good news was that only 25% of passive victims in grade 4 remained passive victims in grade 6 (Hanish
& Guerra, 2004), indicating that most of them were no longer victimized by their peers, at least not at a significant
level. We speculate that this may be because they physically develop and/or learn more basic communication skills
as they grow older.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Basic Concept
Passive victims have very poor coping skills, see their own existence as unimportant, often think that people bully
them because they have no advantage or merit, and always blame themselves (Carney & Merell, 2001). They tend
to feel inferior, unattractive, and lonely at school, crave approval, and interact with the bully ineffectively even when
they have been humiliated (Hilton, Anngela-Cole & Wakita, 2010). They tend to take the blame for the unfortunate
things that happen to them and internalize them as their own responsibility (internal attribution) (Boxer & Tisak,
2003) (please see “Related Theories” later in this chapter for details). They believe they are the cause of their own
misfortune and do not have the ability to control situations, which contributes to their tendency to withdraw.
Family Background
In general, the parents of passive victims tend to over-protect or pamper their children (McNamara & McNamara,
1997). When they know their children are feeling anxious and insecure, such parents will shelter their children
and prevent them from having to confront any difficulties or problems; they teach their children to shy away from
difficulties and fail to teach them problem-solving and conflict-management skills (McNamara & McNamara,
1997). Such children, therefore, never learn from experience and never grow up. When they encounter conflicts
or interpersonal relationship problems at school, they do not know how to behave other than to escape. This overprotective parenting style emerges particularly among male passive victims and interferes with the acquisition and
development of problem-solving, negotiation, and conflict-resolution skills (Hilton, Anngela-Cole, & Wakita, 2010).
Even when overprotected children do learn such skills, they are reluctant to apply them (Hoover et al., 2003) and
are thus unable to separate from the parent (usually the mother) and have difficulties with autonomy and identity
formation (Kameguchi & Murphy-Shigematsu, 2001).
There are also gender differences in terms of children’s sensitivity to family background (Hilton, Anngela-Cole, &
Wakita, 2010); in other words, boys and girls respond to and are affected by family characteristics in different ways.
In western countries, female passive victims encounter considerable parental negativity and hostility and are given
little autonomy (Rican, Klicperova, & Koucka, 1993), and have poor relationship with their mothers (Rigby, 1993). In
contrast, male passive victims have an intensely close mother-son relationship (Ladd & Ladd, 1998; Olweus, 1980),
but a poor father-son relationship (Rican et al., 1993; Olweus, 1980).
Negative Effects
Passive victims have been reported to suffer from persistent internalizing disorders, such as eating disorders (Bond,
Carlin, Thomas, Rubin & Patton, 2001) and attention deficit disorder (Kumpulainen, Rasanen, & Puura, 2001).
They have a constant fear of being bullied that prevents them from concentrating and they become absentminded.
Psychosomatic symptoms, such as headaches and stomach aches, appear whenever they have to go to school.
They cannot sleep at night (McNamara & McNamara, 1997) and even have suicidal thoughts (Olweus, 1993:
Sugimori, 1998, Gumpel, 2008). In terms of the long-term effects, male passive victims find it hard to get along with
females when they enter adulthood and often encounter obstacles in sexual relationships (Gilmartin, 1987). They
are also at risk of mental health problems when they enter adulthood (Parker & Asher, 1987). When they become
parents, they will over-protect their own children and repeat the vicious cycle so that their children will in turn
become passive victims (McNamara & McNamara, 1997).
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Case Study
Daniel (a pseudonym) is a silent, skinny boy who wears glasses. He is the only child from a middle class family.
Daniel’s parents do not allow him to do household chores, as they worry that he will be too tired to attend school
and complete class assignments. His mother even helps him to pack his school bag according to his class
timetable. As a result, Daniel is very dependent on his parents.
Daniel has regularly been bullied by a group of three classmates. They call him nicknames, tease him, grab his
class assignments and glasses, and sometimes beat him up. He is so scared of them that he often skips classes
and is afraid to attend school. During class, he is constantly anxious and sensitive to his surroundings, checking if
his classmates are approaching even when the teacher is present. He once revealed that he was always the first to
run out of the classroom at the beginning of recess and would hide himself in a corner so that his classmates could
not find him and bully him. We could tell that Daniel had little sense of security and tended to withdraw from people
and escape from problems in response to bullying.
In the treatment group, Daniel revealed that he had been forced by a group of three classmates to talk with a
female classmate after school one day. They grabbed his school bag and glasses and told him they would not give
them back unless he talked with the girl and asked for her phone number. When the workers asked him why he did
not report the event to a teacher, he said that they bullied him because he did not dare to talk to girls at school. We
could see that Daniel believed that it was his own fault that he was bullied. In addition, we knew that Daniel was
passive and lacked self-esteem and communication skills because he avoided talking with girls.
Conclusion
If adolescents experience being bullied without appropriate treatment, it may leave an indelible impression on their
development. Passive victims may become Hikikomori/reclusive adolescents, and aggressive victims may even
become aggressors themselves.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Types
Cognitive
Emotional
Behavioral
Social
Proactive
• Uses violence to show
confidence and strength
• Calm
• Bullies those who
are weak
• Gangs up with peers
Aggressor
• Goal oriented, acts to
attain personal benefits
• Rational
• Lacks empathy
• Intentional
• Confident
• Overestimates his/her
own ability
• Forms gangs with
other proactive
aggressors
• Good at arguing
• Becomes the leader
of gangs
• Very impulsive
• Impatient
• Isolated and rejected
• Hot-tempered
• Overactive
• Unable
to control
emotions
• Obstinate
• Unwelcomed by
peers
• Underestimates
consequences
Reactive
Aggressor
• Experiences cognitive
distortion
• Weak problem-solving
skills
• Sensitive to external
stimulus, has poor
concentration
• Timid, lacks
confidence
• Aggressive
tendencies
• Poor social skills
• Poor communication
skills
• Blames others easily
• Low self-esteem
Aggressive
Victim
• Cynical
• Retaliatory
• Treated unfairly by
others
• Negatively perceived by
teachers
Passive
Victim
• Has a negative,
unfavorable view of the
outside world
• Negative and
pessimistic
• Obsessed by past
experiences of being
bullied
• Experiences
deep rage
• Helplessness
• Recalcitrant
• Wants to fight
back but worries
about lack of
ability
• Anxious
• Untrusting of
others
• Confused and
contradictory
• Experiences
moral conflict
• Panicky
• Adopts drastic
methods to
protect him/
herself
• Helpless
• Passive
• Upset
• Hides him/herself
• Miserable
• Quiet
• Depressed
• Lacks motivation
• Inferior
• Blames others for not
helping him/her
• Not able to express
his/her desires
• Poor social and
communication skills
• Impulsive, will gang
up with peers who
have a common
interest
• Lack of trust in people
• Avoids contact with
others
• Often alone
• Unpleasant and
unattractive
appearance
• Introvert and silent
• Self-soothing as fail to
protect oneself
• Feels looked down on
by others
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
V. Forms of Aggressive Behavior
Aggression can be classified into five categories, namely physical, verbal, and relational aggression (Beale, 2001;
Hanish & Guerra, 2000; Pepler, Craig, Ziegler, & Charach, 1994; Popoola, 2005; Smokowski &Kopasz, 2005),
sexual aggression (Krahe, 2001), and cyberbullying (Willard, 2006).
1. Physical Aggression
Physical aggression includes punching, kicking, throwing objects, tearing and ripping clothes, and even
attacking others and their possessions. This type of aggression usually elicits the most concern from teachers,
parents, and the community. Physical aggression is predominantly used by males.
2. Verbal Aggression
Verbal aggression includes using offensive language to hurt or humiliate others, or somebody they respect.
Name-calling, making fun of others, and using abusive language or sarcasm to insult others are also forms
of verbal aggression. Verbal aggression usually happens instantaneously, making it difficult to intervene and
resolve the situation. However, the harm done to the victims is no less than that caused by physical aggression.
Aggressors of this type may be male or female.
3. Relational Aggression
Relational aggression focuses on social relationships by creating a network of negativity around particular
victims on various occasions. Relational aggressors intend to harm their victims by spreading vicious rumors
about them, isolating and boycotting them, excluding them from certain groups, and damaging other’s opinions
of and relationships with them. This type of aggression is especially prevalent in females.
4. Sexual Aggression
Sexual aggression includes a range of unwanted attention in the form of sexual harassment, obscene phone
calls, and staring, which causes discomfort to the victims. More serious sexual aggression includes the use or
threat of violence, or exploitation of the victim’s inability to resist sexual activities, such as petting, kissing, or
even oral sex or sexual intercourse.
5. Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying involves sending or posting harmful material or engaging in other forms of social aggression using
the Internet or other digital technologies.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Cyberbullying can take different forms (Willard, 2006):
i) Harassment
Repeatedly sending nasty, mean, and insulting messages.
ii) Denigration
“Dissing” someone online. Sending or posting gossip or rumors about a person to damage his or her reputation
or friendships.
iii) Impersonation
Pretending to be someone else and sending or posting material to get that person in trouble or danger, or to
damage that person’s reputation or friendships.
iv) Outing
Sharing someone’s secrets or embarrassing information or images online.
v) Trickery
Talking someone into revealing secrets or embarrassing information, then sharing it online.
vi) Exclusion
Intentionally and cruelly excluding someone from an online group.
In 2011, Project CARE administered a questionnaire on cyberbullying among 1,818 seventh to eleventh grade
students (mean age: 13.13) across four high schools in Hong Kong. The results revealed that 32.1% (N=584) of the
respondents have cyberbullied others in various ways (e.g., denigrating and excluding others). The results suggest
that males are more likely to engage in cyberbullying behavior than females.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
The causes of aggressive behavior vary. We can take the factors identified in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) Ecological
Approach to analyze the causes as follows.
i)
Individual: Physiological and psychological development, the relationship between personal experience and
cognitive structure, social skills, and problem-solving skills.
ii)
Family: Parenting model, parent-child relationships, conflict management methods, family history of crime,
domestic violence, neglect and abuse.
iii) School: The school-based culture, reward and punishment system, regional sub-culture, the execution of school
regulations, teacher-student relationships, the philosophy of the school and its implementation, discipline and
counseling coordination, home-school cooperation, and the background and social status of other students.
iv) Environment: Media exaggeration, gender roles, economic status, and community characteristics and
development (Howard, Horne, & Jolliff, 2001; Pianta, 1999; Swearer & Doll, 2001).
Rather than focusing exclusively on the children involved, researchers increasingly take family, peer, school, and
community factors into account (Nickerson, Mele, & Princiotta, 2008). The role of parents has drawn particular
attention, as parents are the primary agents of socialization for their children (Nickerson et al., 2008).
The above factors are used as the key criteria in the selection and evaluation of group members. The questionnaire
and interview questions are also designed to achieve an objective and accurate selection of interviewees, including
students, parents, and teachers.
According to research studies, individual and family factors have the most profound effects on the aggressive
behavior of children and youths (Crockenberg & Langrock, 2001; Dodge, 2002; Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey,
1989). Thus, we use individual and family factors as the basis for explaining the characteristics of aggressors
and victims and investigate how bullying affects their development. We also include case studies, taken from our
experiences of the past year, to analyze the characteristics of proactive aggressors and aggressive victims.
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Conceptual Framework
VI. Related Theories
1. Social Information Processing Model
The Social Information Processing (SIP) model (Crick & Dodge, 1996; Dodge & Coie, 1987; Pettit, Polaha, &
Mize, 2001; Arsenio, Adams, & Gold, 2009) provides an insightful explanation of the behavioral development of
various types of aggressors and victims. The model suggests that people follow a five-step cognitive process when
receiving messages and cues from the outside world and that appropriate action will be taken in return:
i)
Encoding of social cues (e.g., image, sound);
ii)
Interpretation of social cues;
iii) Searching for a response;
iv) Deciding on a response; and
v) Behavioral enactment.
2. Social Learning Theory
Social Learning theory, proposed by American psychologist Albert Bandura (1986, 1999), posits that people learn
from one another via observation, imitation, and modeling. Behavior is formed through continuous reciprocal
interactions between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. For example, children learn social etiquette
and rules by observing their parents and teachers. In addition to learning specific types of behavior, they absorb
the underlying values and outlook on life that underpins their parents’ and teachers’ behavior, which represents the
process of socialization.
The following are the necessary conditions for effective modeling.
i)
Attention: the attraction to interesting and novel things. Various factors increase or decrease the amount of
attention paid, including distinctiveness, affective level, prevalence, complexity, and the functional value of
particular behavior. Personal characteristics, such as sensory capacity, arousal level, and perceptual set, also
affect the level of attention.
ii)
Retention: remembering what you have paid attention to, which involves symbolic coding, mental images,
symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal.
iii) Reproduction: the ability to reproduce the behavior includes physical capabilities and self-observation.
iv) Motivation: there needs to be a reason to imitate, which may include incentives or imagined incentives, such
as the benefits or penalties associated with the newly learned behavior. If the learned behavior brings positive
feedback, it will encourage the formation of a new behavior.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
3. Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory (Heider, 1958) explains how people interpret their own and others’ behavior. The theory states
that an individual will attempt to interpret and determine the causes of an event, with questions such as “Why me?”
or “Why is this happening?” Weiner (1995) categorized attribution into the following three categories.
i) The source of attribution
- Internal Locus of Control: the belief that things happen primarily because of one＇s own characteristics
and behavior, therefore the individual is responsible for his/her own actions and the consequences of these
actions. The factors influencing internal/dispositional explanations include personality traits, motives, and
attitudes.
- External Locus of Control: the belief that events are caused by external factors such as other people or
environmental factors, therefore the individual is not responsible for his/her actions or the consequences of
these actions. The factors influencing external/situational explanations include external pressures, social
norms, peer pressure, environmental accidents, and random events.
ii) Stability of attribution
- Stable Cause: the cause of the event does not change over time.
- Unstable Cause: the cause of event changes over time.
iii) Controllability of attribution
- Controllable by the person: the cause of the event is under the individual＇s control.
- Uncontrollable by the person: the cause of an event is out of the individual＇s control.
Researchers have found that children’s ability to develop attributional inferences emerges around the preschool
stage, when they begin to perceive causality in other people’s behavior. Boxer and Tisak (2003) point out that
aggressors and victims use both internal and external explanations for their behavior. As children grow up, their
attributions tend to change from external to internal (Boxer & Tisak, 2003), but there is less research studying the
attributional tendency of adolescents. This project utilizes attribution theory to analyze the behavioral responses of
reactive aggressors, aggressive victims, and passive victims.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
4. Freud’s Concept of Anxiety
(Much of the following regarding the id, ego, and superego comes from George & Christiani, 1990.)
In Sigmund Freud’s topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with reality. At
the same time, the ego has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. The id seeks to fulfill
all wants, needs, and impulses, while the superego tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and moral manner.
When the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of reality, and our own moral standards,
we feel anxious. According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid; it acts as a
signal to the ego that things are not right. According to the Freudian theory of anxiety, there are three main types
of anxiety: neurotic anxiety, reality anxiety, and moral anxiety (Hall, 1955). People’s inner conflicts arise from these
three types of anxiety (George & Cristiani, 1990; Hall, 1955):
i)
Neurotic anxiety results from fear that the id will become out of control and cause the individual to do something
for which they will be punished. According to Freud’ s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id is made up
of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. The id operates on the
pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs.
ii)
Reality anxiety is caused by real dangers in the external world. For example, a person might fear being bitten
if they encounter a menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this type of anxiety is to avoid the
threatening object.
iii) Moral anxiety is fear of the conscience. In other words, people with strong superegos feel guilty when they do
something that violates the moral code.
5. Cognitive Theory of Anxiety
Beck (1985, 1999) pointed out that anxiety occurs when problems arise during information processing (cognitive
level). Over-anxious individuals focus only on the exaggerated threat of an incident, and underestimate their own
capacity for resilience. Aggressive victims are likely to be biased in the way they process and interpret information
when they are on guard. They tend only to perceive threatening messages and ignore other information, which
biases them toward incorrect conclusions. Humans’ innate reaction to the anxiety generated by such cognitive
biases is the fight-or-flight response (Cannon, 1915).
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
6. Transformation of Types of Aggressors and Victims
It should be reiterated here that reactive and proactive aggressors are only conceptual categories and are not
mutually exclusive. In reality, they do not occur on their own nor represent extreme cases. Rather, in the research
process, it is common to find the two types combining to make up a reactive-proactive aggressor. The various types
of aggressors and victims have different experiences of bullying that may bring about changes in their thoughts,
and these changes can lead to transformations that may turn a victim into an aggressor.
i) Aggressive Victim  Reactive Aggressor
If aggressive victims continue to be bullied without receiving help or intervention from others, they will conclude that
others have bad intentions, lose confidence and hope in others, and use more violence. Successful experiences of
using violence help them to rationalize their aggressive behavior. Thereafter, they will use violence as the only way
to protect themselves.
ii) Reactive Aggressor  Proactive Aggressor
Some reactive aggressors will either become accomplices of proactive aggressors and obey their instructions, or
become their victims. In the process, they may find that using intelligence is a better way to protect themselves
compared with responding impulsively. Not only is there less chance of being punished, but they also appear more
convincing to others, thus achieving their goal. In this way, they learn to gain benefits by using threats or violence,
and so turn into proactive aggressors.
7. Conclusion
Because aggressors and victims may change, teachers and social workers must pay close attention to them. If they
can identify the type of aggressor or victim and take the right measures, appropriate intervention can be carried
out, focusing on the irrational biases of aggressors and victims. Moreover, if the transformation of aggressors and
victims can be halted, the school environment will become more peaceful and harmonious.
Proactive
Aggressor
32
Reactive
Aggressor
Aggressive
Victim
Project C.A.R.E - Children and Adolescents at Risk Educcation
Passive
Victim
Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
VII. Counseling Strategies
1. Background
A number of programs have been developed for the prevention of bullying in school, such as Peacebuilders,
the Olweus Bully Prevention Program, PATHS (Providing Alternative Thinking Strategies), RCCP (Resolving
Conflict Creativity Program), and Second STEP. (Newman-Carlson & Horne, 2004; Stevens, Bourdeaudhuij, &
Oost, 2001). However, there have been no prior studies on interventions for the four subtypes of aggressors and
victims specifically. Therefore, Project C.A.R.E. developed a 10-session Cognitive Behavioral Therapy counseling
group intervention for specific subtypes of reactive aggressive (Fung, 2007; Fung, revised manuscript), proactive
aggressive (Fung, 2008; Fung, Gerstein, Chan, & Hutchison, under review), passive victimized (Fung, 2007; Fung,
under review-a), and aggressive victimized (Fung, 2008; Fung, under review-b) adolescents, with the aim to reduce
their levels of aggression and victimization. The outcome effectiveness has been scientifically evaluated using
quantitative and qualitative measures with different sources of data (student self-report, parent and teacher ratings)
across multiple time-points in a 2-year longitudinal study.
The encouraging results of the evidence-based evaluation were largely supported by a previous study. Glancy and
Saini (2005) suggest that small-group therapy rather is more effective in reducing students’ aggressive behavior
than individual counseling and family therapy. The small-group approach not only encourages participants to share
their personal experiences, but also helps to generate sympathetic responses from other group members. More
specifically, participants can learn from other group members’ experiences, absorb what is useful, and self-reflect to
achieve personal growth.
To prevent a labeling effect, our promotional materials in school emphasize leadership training and critical thinking.
All group members are encouraged to participate in a positive manner in the activities. Prior to the commencement
of the school term, teachers are required to attend workshops organized by the project team. All teachers are
briefed on the project contents and implementation process to ensure they do not label participating students, and
at the same time take the initiative to encourage students who join the project. All selected aggressors and victims
are carefully assessed to ensure they meet the clinical criteria. Each group consists of nine members and is led by
two social workers.
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Past research has found that using cognitive-behavioral therapy as the theoretical framework for the aggressor
and victim group is far more effective than other types of therapy, such as psychodynamic theory, behaviorism, and
cognitive theory (Kazdin, 1987, 1995; Lochman, 1990; Lochman & Wells, 1996; McMahon & Wells, 1989; SouthamGerow & Kendall, 2000). Moreover, the author has previously employed cognitive-behavioral therapy in designing
the content of group therapy and found it to be very effective in reducing children’s aggressive behavior (Fung,
2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, revision, under review-b; Fung, Gerstein, Chan, & Hutchison, under review; Fung,
Raine, & Gao, 2009; Fung & Tsang, 2006; Fung & Tsang, 2007; Fung & Wong, 2007; Fung, Wong & Chak, 2007;
Fung, Wong, & Wong, 2004). For this reason, cognitive-behavioral therapy is used as the framework for the group
therapy in this project.
Different forms of cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy have been developed since the 1960s,
such as Aaron T. Beck’s (1976) Cognitive Therapy, Albert Ellis’s (1956) Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy, and
Donald Meichenbaum’s (1987) Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Based on the characteristics and past experiences
of two types of aggressors and victims, this project applies a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapies in the
counseling group.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
3. Albert Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
In ancient Greece, the Stoic philosopher Epictetus said that “People are not disturbed by things, but by the view
they take of them.” It was not until the mid-twentieth century that western psychologists systematically transformed
this philosophy into psychological therapy. Albert Ellis was one of the most influential founders of cognitivebehavioral therapy in the twentieth century (Ellis, 1962).
Ellis (1956) believed that humans have the capability to think and to self-evaluate through reflection and selftalking. Hence, people who have rational beliefs live logical and happy lives. In contrast, people with irrational
beliefs experience negative emotions and behavior. Researchers have utilized this concept in therapy programs
for adolescent aggressive behavior (Guerra, Huesmann, Tolan, Van Acker, & Eron, 1995; Huesmann & Guerra,
1997; Lochman & Dodge, 1994; Quiggle, Garber, Panak, & Dodge, 1992; Rabiner, Lenhart, & Lochman, 1990).
DiGiuseppe and Kelter (2006) reviewed outcome studies and articles related to the effectiveness of REBT and
concluded that REBT is a well-suited treatment for aggressive children. Moreover, due to the psycho-educational
nature of REBT, it is applicable in educational settings, and can also be applied to the family system of aggressive
children, particularly parents. For these reasons, REBT is adopted as our major theoretical framework.
Through the A-B-C model, we can understand the cognitive processes behind the aggressive behavior of students.
Anticipated
event
Belief
Consequence
When an event (A) happens, the individual’s beliefs (B) about it will lead to different consequences (C), including
behavioral responses and emotional responses (Ellis, 1977). When a student holds an irrational belief it will lead to
negative consequences. The following are examples and explanations of various types of aggressors and victims’
irrational beliefs and their negative consequences:
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Event (A): I was knocked down by a classmate during recess.
Student with a rational belief:
Belief (B):
“He was just being careless.”
Consequence (C):
It’s not a big deal. Get up and return to the classroom as though nothing has happened.
Proactive aggressor with an irrational belief:
Belief (B):
“I have to let others know that I’m not that weak and I have the power.”
Consequence (C):
Threaten the classmate and ask for compensation.
Reactive aggressor with an irrational belief:
Belief (B):
“I was picked on and knocked down deliberately.”
Consequence (C):
Become angry, run after the classmate and punch him.
Aggressive victim with an irrational belief:
Belief (B):
“Why pick on me and not other classmates? It’s his fault, and I have to retaliate and let
him know that he is wrong.”
Consequence (C):
Stare at the classmate angrily, and curse him quietly.
Passive victim with an irrational belief:
Belief (B):
“It was entirely my fault, I’m too stupid and too slow.”
Consequence (C):
Leave hastily for fear of being hit again.
From the above examples, we can see that the individuals’ beliefs directly affect their emotional and behavioral
consequences. Because aggressors and victims have cognitive distortions, their irrational beliefs cause deviant
behavior and negative emotions.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Ellis (1977) discovered 12 types of irrational beliefs that cause deviations in people’s thinking, resulting in emotional
distress and the emergence of negative behavior. The 12 irrational beliefs are introduced as follows, although
interpretation of the irrational beliefs in counseling groups will vary in accordance with the characteristics of the two
aggressors and victims.
i)
It is essential that people must be loved by significant others for almost everything they do.
ii)
Certain acts are awful or wicked, and people who perform such acts should be severely punished.
iii)
It is horrible when things are not the way we like them to be.
iv)
Human misery is invariably externally caused and is forced on us by outside people and events.
v)
If something is or may be dangerous or frightening it is natural to be terribly upset and endlessly obsess
about it.
vi)
It is easier to avoid than to face life’s difficulties and self-responsibilities.
vii) We need something fundamentally other or stronger or greater than ourselves on which to rely.
viii) We should be thoroughly competent, intelligent, and successful in all possible respects.
ix)
Because something once strongly affected our life, it will affect it indefinitely.
x)
We must have certain and perfect control over things.
xi)
Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction.
xii) We have virtually no control over our emotions and we cannot help feeling disturbed about things.
These irrational beliefs reflect individuals’ personal values and views on life. If people’s lives do not match what
they believe (i.e. their beliefs are irrational), they will doubt their own self-worth, become emotionally distressed,
and may do something to harm themselves or others. Workers will introduce the twelve irrational beliefs described
by Ellis in the counseling groups. Group members gain a better understanding of the irrational beliefs underlying
their behavior and emotional distress.
4. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Beck’s (1995) Cognitive Therapy (CT) also provides a clear and specific theoretical framework to help workers
assess group members’ core beliefs, intermediary schemas, and automatic thoughts. The following cognitive
concept table provides an illustration using the example of a reactive aggressor.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
Core Belief
Helpless/
Disliked by others
Intermediary Schemas
Attitude: Incompetence is unacceptable
Rule: I must not show my weakness
Assumption: I am useless if I am bullied
Automatic Thoughts
I was being picked on and made fun of.
Scenario
Played
volleyball with
classmates during recess
and was hit by the ball.
Emotional
Response
Furious, angry.
Behavioral
Response
Rush up to the
classmate. Yell, hit him
and throw the ball at him.
The cognitive model explains the emotional and behavioral responses that arise from people’s automatic thoughts.
Automatic thoughts are the product of the individual’s deep-rooted core belief and intermediary schemas. Automatic
thoughts are more easily detected in comparison with the core belief and intermediary schemas.
A person’s core belief can be divided into feeling “helpless” and “disliked by others”. These two core beliefs
influence the intermediary schemas (including attitudes, rules, and assumptions). For example, the “Helpless” core
belief produces the following intermediary schemas: attitude – incompetence is unacceptable; rule – I must not
show my weakness; and assumption – I am bullied because I am useless.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
In a cognitive process, the automatic thoughts that trigger cognitive distortions are shaped by core beliefs and
intermediary schemas. The various cognitive distortions have been categorized into the following thinking errors
(Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979; Beck, 1995, Burns, 1980).
i) Overgeneralizing:
Placing exaggerated importance on a single negative experience, to the point where you see it as a sign of a neverending pattern of negative events that you expect to face in the near future.
ii) Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the positives:
Exaggerating negative issues or events and downplaying your own, or other people’s, strengths and assets, or
positive events and situations that you have experienced.
iii) Black-and-white thinking:
Seeing things in extreme terms. Situations or circumstances are interpreted as either good or bad, all or nothing,
positive or negative. There is no middle/common ground, everything is seen as black or white.
iv) Catastrophizing:
Exaggerating the importance of things, especially negative situations. You make a big issue out of one negative
experience and imagine terrible consequences.
v) Mental Filtering:
Picking out a single negative detail from an unpleasant experience, and then dwelling exclusively on this negative
detail. That is, you ignore the bigger picture and ‘filter out’ any positive aspects of the event.
vi) Personalization:
Taking responsibility or inappropriately blaming yourself for the cause of a negative experience which often may be
beyond your own control.
vii) Labeling/Mislabeling:
This thinking error involves an extreme form of overgeneralization. You tend to attach a negative label to yourself or
others on the basis of one negative experience.
5. Disputing Irrational Beliefs
Steps to help aggressors and victims dispute their irrational beliefs are as follows:
i)
Help group members to understand irrational beliefs through the use of case studies;
ii)
Probe members about the causes of irrational beliefs and the various effects they have on health, emotional,
and social domains;
iii) Challenge the deviant thoughts underlying irrational beliefs – the process consists of Detect, Discriminate, and
Debate;
iv) Broaden group members’ thinking and encourage them to develop rational beliefs; and
v) Encourage group members to apply their new rational beliefs and positive behavior in daily life so that they
experience different emotions and behavior.
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Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework
The design of the treatment groups is based on cognitive-behavioral therapy. The details of the ten group sessions
for the subtypes of aggressors and victims are listed in Chapter 4 (proactive aggressors), Chapter 5 (reactive
aggressors), Chapter 6 (aggressive victims), and Chapter 7 (passive victims), with worksheets included. Each of
the four chatpers begins with a specific theoretical analysis of the subtype of aggressor or victim, using the theories
introduced earlier in this chapter. Each chapter also includes a real-life case study to illustrate the corresponding
characteristics of the subtype of aggressor or victim. The progress of each group is presented in six phases to allow
readers to gain a better understanding of the entire process. The behavioral and emotional changes in aggressors
and victims at each stage are also illustrated through the case studies. Please see the table below for the related
characters in each chapter.
Characters in the Case Studies
Type of treatment group
Character
Key Worker /Co-Worker
Proactive Aggressor
Wei
Ms Chung/Ms Wu
Reactive Aggressor
Wai
Ms Chung/Ms Wu
Aggressive Victim
Kin
Ms Chan/Ms Wu
Passive Victim
Man
Ms Chan/Ms Wu
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Chapter 3:
Assessment and
Research Design
De
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
Chapter 3: Assessment and Research Design
I. Characteristics of the Research
The main characteristics of the research, based on objective and scientific planning and stringent research
methods, are outlined below.
1. An Ecological Model
Project Care adopted an experimental design within an ecological model. We invited students, parents, and
teachers to participate in seminars, workshops, treatment groups, and professional consultation.
2. International Assessment Tools
We referred to international and local articles and research studies to select highly valid and reliable assessment
tools. The pretest-posttest design employed these high-standard international assessment tools to identify the four
subtypes of aggressors and victims.
3. Objective Data
The research analysis was not influenced by the researchers’ personal opinions and values but was based on
objective data. The screening and assessment of students relied on both quantitative and qualitative research.
Using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) to analyze the quantitative data, and content analysis for
the qualitative data, facilitated the presentation of reliable and convincing research results from the project.
4. International Consultation
The research was carried out under the consultation of Professor Adrian Raine from the University of Pennsylvania
to ensure the project met international standards for evaluating the effectiveness of the project. From the design
and implementation of the project to its evaluation, the project team members discussed the project with serving
schoolteachers and reported regularly to the school on its progress.
5. Representative Results
Representative research results must be generalizable – that is, they should be applicable to students in different
schools. The 50 secondary schools (from the academic years 2006 to 2011) selected to participate in this project
were situated across Hong Kong and across different school bandings, with similar male-to-female ratios, ages of
school, students’ family backgrounds, and social status. The research results are robust and representative, with a
sample size of around 26,000 (at the screening stage).
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
II. Research Design
Using an experimental design, this study aimed to verify the effectiveness of therapeutic counseling groups (i.e.,
treatment groups) for the four subtypes of aggressors and victims, namely proactive aggressors and reactive
aggressors, and aggressive victims and passive victims, by comparing the effects of the treatment groups and
control groups.
The treatment groups, based on cognitive-behavioral therapy, were specifically designed for the four types of
aggressors and victims with different objectives. We aimed to reduce the bullying behavior of the proactive
aggressors, enhance their empathy, and encourage them to utilize their talents in more appropriate and rightful
ways to attain a sense of achievement and well-being. For reactive aggressors, the treatment group was designed
to reduce their violent behavior and impulsivity, to learn to manage own emotions and express themselves better, to
enhance communication skills and build up harmonious relationship with others. For aggressive victims, we aimed
to help them understand their inner conflicts and not to struggle with the discrepancies between interpersonal
relationships and self-value, and thus enhance their relationship with peers. For passive victims, we aimed to
enhance their self-confidence, self-image, positive thinking, assertiveness, and interpersonal skills to increase their
confidence in getting along with others.
The control groups were designed to enhance general learning. The content was not aimed at reducing aggressive
behavior, or improving self-expression or emotional control. The selected students were randomly assigned to
either the treatment group or the control group.
According to the ecological model, people’s cognition, behavior, and emotional development are affected by the
surrounding environment, such as family, school, and society (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The concept of triangulation
was therefore used in this research – that is, the effect of the treatment groups on members was assessed through
the parents, teachers, and members themselves, to maintain a multi-dimensional and accurate assessment of the
effectiveness of the treatment group.
This research adopted a mixed-mode research design, using both quantitative and qualitative research to assess
the performance of members before and after the treatment group. The quantitative research was conducted
through questionnaires that included scales for measuring the cognition, behavior, and emotions of the four
subtypes of aggressors and victims. Pre-tests and post-tests were conducted to enable comparison of members’
performance before and after the group. Meanwhile, structured interviews were used for conducting qualitative
research. This was a longitudinal study and members were followed up as long as two years after completing the
treatment groups to identify the long-term effects of the treatment groups.
III. Targets of the Research
1. Students
The first part of the study utilized quantitative research. Through the self-expression questionnaire, suitable
students were screened to identify different subtypes of aggressors and victims to participate in the treatment
group. Participants were classified into four subtypes: reactive aggressors, proactive aggressors, aggressive
victims, and passive victims. A further questionnaire was administered to obtain a full picture of their cognition,
behavior, and emotions.
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
The second part of the study utilized qualitative research. The subtypes of aggressors and victims were interviewed
individually. Qualitative research allows us a better understanding of how students perceive and respond to the
hypothetical scenarios and provides us with more complex information than can be gained from quantitative
research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). A narrative approach was used in the hypothetical scenarios so that participants
could reflect their feelings and thoughts without being reminded of their personal painful experiences. As Connelly
and Clandinin (1990) said, “Humans are storytelling organisms who, individually and socially, lead storied lives.
The study of narrative, therefore, is the study of the ways humans experience the world” (p. 2). Research workers
should focus not only on student’s narrative detail, but also on understanding how they reason and interpret outside
events (Anderson, 1989; Osborne, 1990; Toolan, 1988).
2. Teachers
Teachers play a key role in observing students’ behavior in school. A number of studies suggest that teachers
classify students’ rebellious behavior into two common categories, reactive aggression and proactive aggression
(Dodge & Coie, 1987). In the early stage of adolescence, proactive aggressors anticipate that violence will
bring them power and benefits (Smithmyer, Hubbard, & Simons, 2000), so they tend to commit illegal behavior
(Brendgen, Vitaro, Tremblay, & Lavoie, 2001; Vitaro, Gendreau, Tremblay, & Oligny, 1998). Reactive aggressors,
meanwhile, have hostile attributional biases ( Hubbard, Dodge, Cillessen, Coie, & Schwartz, 2001) and deficits
in solving interpersonal problems (Dodge, Lochman, Harnish, Bates, & Pettit, 1997). These disruptive forms of
behavior are reflected in the violation of school rules in school or classrooms. Thus, teachers can provide important
information to enable researchers to make objective assessments.
Teachers’ assessment of students’ behavior was also carried out using quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quantitative questionnaires included the “index of proactive and reactive aggression” and “behavior in class”. The
interviews with teachers revealed students’ thoughts, emotions, and other behavior in class. Students’ experience
of victimization and proactive and reactive aggression in school were also covered in the interview.
3. Parents
Research studies have revealed that parents play an important role in the socialization of their children, and also
affect their children’s emotional and psychological development (Denham, Zoller, & Couchoud, 1994; Dunn &
Brown, 1994; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Murphy, 1996). Therefore, parents must be included as a source of assessment.
Parents mainly provided us with information regarding their children’s emotions and behavior at home or outside the
classroom. Additional demographic information was also collected. Only the parents of children selected through
the screening process were asked to complete the questionnaires and individual interviews.
Parents completed questionnaires to assess their children’s behavior and emotions, and the relationships and
communication between children and parents. Parents were interviewed to understand their parenting style, family
history, the student’s development, emotional and behavioral changes, etc.
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
IV. Research Procedure
Screening: Grade seven to grade nine students
(Quantitative Research)
Pre-tests: Selected students, corresponding teachers & parents
(Quantitative and Qualitative Research)
Treatment group & control group: Selected students
Post-tests: Selected students, corresponding teachers & parents
(Quantitative and Qualitative Research)
Figure 1. Research Procedure
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
1. Screening
The screening questionnaires were administered to all grade seven to grade nine students in fifty secondary
schools who agreed to participate in this project during the academic years 2006 to 2011. The screening
questionnaire consisted of various self-rating scales that aimed to assess the thoughts, behavior, and emotions of
the students. Potential proactive aggressors, reactive aggressors, aggressive victims, and passive victims were
then selected to attend the pretests.
The screening process adopted the following criteria to classify the four subtypes of aggressors and victims.
Subtypes of Aggressors and
Victims
The Reactive and Proactive Aggression
Questionnaire (RPQ)
Proactive Aggressors
The students with the top-30 scores on
the proactive aggression index+
Below the clinical score*
Reactive Aggressors
The students with the top-30 scores on
the reactive aggression index+
Below the clinical score*
Aggressive Victims
The students with the top-30 scores on
the reactive aggression index+
Equal to/higher than the clinical score*
Below the mean score of total RPQ
Equal to/higher than the clinical
score*, and the students with the top30 scores on PVQ
Passive Victims
Peer Victimization Questionnaire
(PVQ)
+ If students scored in the top 30 for both proactive and reactive aggression, they were classified according to
whichever score was highest.
* The clinical score for both females and males is 45.
Following the screening, all selected students and their corresponding parents and teachers were invited to attend
the pre-test.
2. Pre-tests
To evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment group, we collected information about the targeted students
immediately before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the treatment. Sixty students (two out of the four subtypes of
aggressors and victims) were selected to attend the pre-tests in each academic year.
Pre-test questionnaires and individual structured interviews were administered to the selected students and their
corresponding parents and teachers. For each student, one of his/her parents, and his/her class teacher were
invited to attend the pre-test to provide us with more comprehensive information about the targeted student.
If both of the student’s parents insisted on attending the pre-test, they completed the questionnaire and interviews
together.
The class teacher was invited to attend the pre-test, as we believe they are the most familiar with students’
thoughts, behavior, and emotions. Some teachers had to complete several pre-tests if more than one student in his/
her class was selected to participate in a group.
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Chapter 3
Assessment and Research Design
3. Treatment Group and Control Group
First, around 26,000 students from 50 secondary schools completed the self-report questionnaire and we then
screened out 1,500 potential high-risk students to attend the individual structured interview of the assessment
procedure. Finally, we targeted around 1,000 of the highest-risk students to be randomly assigned to the treatment
or control groups.
Both the treatment group and the control group consisted of ten sessions. Please refer to Chapters 4 to 7 for
details of the treatment groups. The content of the control group was designed to enhance group members’ general
learning and did not include any content related to aggression and victimization.
4. Post-tests
This was a longitudinal study with assessments at multiple time-points. Members of both the treatment groups
and control groups completed a post-test questionnaire during the final session of the group. Individual structured
interviews with group members were scheduled no later than one week after the final session of the group.
Similarly, the same parents and class teachers who completed the pre-tests were scheduled to attend the post-test,
consisting of an individual structured interview and parent-rating and teacher-rating questionnaire, no later than one
week after the final session of the group.
The group members, parents, and class teachers who completed the pre-tests were also invited to complete threemonth, one-year, and two-year post-test questionnaires, to follow-up on the group members after the groups ended.
V. Assessment Tools
1. Quantitative Research and Questionnaires
Quantitative Questionnaire Checklist: Proactive Aggressors
Post-test/three-month/one-year/
two-year follow-up
Screening Questionnaire
Pre-test
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Youth Self-Report
• Aggression Questionnaire
• The Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Youth Self-Report
• Aggression Questionnaire
Teachers
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
– Teacher Rating Scale
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Teacher Rating Scale
Parents
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
– Parent Rating Scale
• Child Disclosure
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Parent Rating Scale
• Child Disclosure
Students
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Quantitative Questionnaire Checklist: Reactive Aggressors
Screening Questionnaire
Post-test/three-month/oneyear/ two-year follow-up
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Youth Self-Report
• Anger Self-Report
• The Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Youth Self-Report
• Anger Self-Report
Teachers
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Teacher Rating Scale
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Teacher Rating Scale
Parents
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Parent Rating Scale
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Parent Rating Scale
Students
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
Pre-test
Quantitative Questionnaire Checklist : Aggressive Victims
Post-test/three-month/one-year/
two-year follow-up
Screening Questionnaire
Pre-tests
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Youth Self-Report
• State-Trait Anger
Expression Inventory
• School Psychosocial
Climate Scale
• The Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist – Youth
Self-Report
• State-Trait Anger Expression
Inventory
• School Psychosocial Climate
Scale
Teachers
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
– Teacher Rating Scale
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Teacher Rating Scale
• Peer Victimization Questionnaire
Parents
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
– Parent Rating Scale
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Parent Version
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire –
Parent Rating Scale
Students
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Quantitative Questionnaire Checklist: Passive Victims
Post-test/ three-month/one-year/
two-year follow up
Screening Questionnaire
Pre-tests
• Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist
– Youth Self-Report
• The Reactive and Proactive
Aggression Questionnaire
• Peer Victimization Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist – Youth
Self-Report
Teachers
• Child Behavior Checklist
– Teacher Report Form
• Peer Victimization
Questionnaire
• Child Behavior Checklist –
Teacher Report Form
• Peer Victimization Questionnaire
Parents
• Child Behavior Checklist
– Parent Version
• Child Behavior Checklist – Parent
Version
Students
Students
i) Child Behavior Checklist – Youth Self-Report (CBCL – YSR; Achenbach, 1991) (No appendix due to
copyright)
This checklist is widely used to assess eight types of internal and external behavior in young people. Students
rate themselves on a three-point scale from zero (inaccurate) to two (very accurate). Item scores are summed
to create a subscale score for each checklist. Among the eight subscales, Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/
Depressed, Attention Problem, and Delinquent Behavior are used to assess proactive aggressors, and
Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, and Attention Problem subscales are used to assess aggressive
victims. The Aggressive Behavior subscale measures students’ aggressiveness, with higher scores indicating
more severe aggressive behavior. The Anxious/Depressed subscale measures the level of anxiety and
depression, with higher scores indicating higher levels of anxiety and depression. The Attention Problem
subscale measures students’ level of concentration, with higher scores indicating greater difficulty in maintaining
concentration. Finally, the Delinquent Behavior subscale measures the frequency of students’ delinquent
behavior, with higher scores indicating higher frequency.
Research by the Education Bureau has demonstrated the validity and reliability of this checklist. The checklist
maintains structural validity with different groups (EMB, 2003) and related concurrent validity with the ECBI
(Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory) and PSI (Parenting Stress Index – short form) for measuring the behavioral
problems of students. The alpha (α) coefficients for the subscales in this research are 0.87 for Aggressive
Behavior, 0.88 for Anxious/Depressed, 0.77 for Attention Problem and 0.74 for Delinquent Behavior.
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ii) Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ; Raine, Dodge,
Reynolds, 2006) (See Appendix 1)
Loeber, Gatzke-Kopp, Lynam, &
This questionnaire is used to measure students’ ‘Reactive Aggression’ and ‘Proactive Aggression’. The design of
the items in this questionnaire makes reference to the teacher rating scales on reactive and proactive aggression
(Brown, Atkins, Osborne, & Milnamow, 1996 Dodge & Coie, 1987) and the conceptual and theoretical literature
(Barratt, 1991; Dodge & Coie, 1987; Meloy, 1988; Vitiello et al., 1990). Following the concept of reactive and
proactive aggression, in addition to physical and verbal aggression, the questionnaire also includes items to
measure aggression arising from motivation and the environment. Examples include, “had fights with others to
show who was on top”, “yelled at others when they have annoyed you”. Students rate each item on a three-point
scale from zero (never) to two (always). The total score represents the ‘Overall Aggression Index’. There are
also two sub-scales: the Reactive Aggression Index and the Proactive Aggression Index.
As this questionnaire was translated from English, the Chinese version was tested in Hong Kong in 2006 with
1430 Form 1 to Form 3 participants from four schools in different districts and of different bandings. The α
coefficients obtained from this sample were 0.88 (Overall Aggression Index), 0.82 (Reactive Aggression Index),
and 0.87 (Proactive Aggression Index). In this research, they are 0.82 (Reactive Aggression Index), 0.88
(Proactive Aggression Index), and 0.88 (Overall Aggression Index).
iii) Aggression Questionnaire (Buss, & Perry, 1992) (No appendix due to copyright)
This questionnaire measures different forms of aggression in students. It contains two subscales – Physical
Aggression and Verbal Aggression. The design of the items makes reference to the Buss-Durkee Hostility
Inventory, (Buss & Durkee, 1957) which was designed by Buss & Perry themselves. Students rate themselves
according to each description on a five-point scale from one (very inappropriate) to five (very appropriate). The α
coefficients obtained in this research are 0.78 (Physical Aggression) and 0.46 (Verbal Aggression).
iv) Peer Victimization Questionnaire (PVQ; Lopez, 1997) (See Appendix 2)
The ‘Peer Victimization Questionnaire’ is widely used to measure the form and severity of bullying of students.
The questionnaire constitutes three subscales: Verbal Bullying, Physical Bullying, and Social Bullying. Students
score the items according to how often they encounter each bullying incident, on a five-point scale from one
(never) to five (always). The α coefficient obtained in this research is 0.94.
v) State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI; Spielberger, 1991) (No appendix due to copyright)
The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory is used to measure students’ experiences and expressions of anger.
State-Anger and Trait-Anger measure the different dimensions of anger experience. State-Anger assesses
the students’ level of anger at a particular time. Trait-Anger is further divided into two subscales – Anger
Temperament and Anger Reaction. Anger Temperament measures the extent of students’ anger when they are
not stimulated, and Anger Reaction assesses the extent of anger when they are stimulated. Because StateAnger is not particularly relevant to this research, only Trait-Anger is utilized in the pre-tests and post-tests of the
aggressive victims. Students evaluate the frequency of each item on a four-point scale from one (almost never)
to four (almost every day).
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The STAXI contains three subscales to measure students’ expressions of anger, namely Anger-out, Anger-in,
and Anger Control. Anger-out assesses the tendency of students to vent their anger on other people or nonliving things through aggression. Anger-in measures the frequency with which students suppress their anger,
and Anger Control assesses the effort students make to control their anger. Students evaluate how often
each item occurs to them on a four-point scale from one (almost never) to four (almost every day). The ‘Anger
Expression’ index is then calculated by combining the three subscale scores, with higher scores indicating that
students tend to deal with their anger by suppressing and/or venting. The formula for calculating the ‘Anger
Expression Index’ is:
Anger Expression = Anger-out + Anger-in - Anger Control + 16.
The α coefficients obtained in this research are 0.77 (Trait-Anger), 0.71 (Anger Temperament), 0.66 (Anger
Reaction), 0.71 (Anger-in), 0.63 (Anger-out) and 0.86 (Anger Control).
vi) Anger Self-Report (ASR; Zelin, 1972) (See Appendix 3)
This questionnaire was used to measure student’s awareness of their anger, their behavior and reaction towards
anger, and their feelings of guilt about their responses. All these elements are related to aggression.
vii) School Psychosocial Climate Scale (Gottfredson, 1984) (No appendix due to copyright)
This scale assesses how students describe their school environments. Three modified student self-rating scales
were used in this research, namely Safety, Fairness of Rules, and Clarity of Rules. Safety measures how safe
students perceive their schools to be by evaluating how often each item occurs to them on a four-point scale
from one (never) to four (always). Higher scores indicate that students feel less safe in school.
Fairness of Rules assesses the school’s level of fairness, and Clarity of Rules measures the level of clarity of
school rules. Students give a rating to each item on a five-point scale from one (very inappropriate) to five (very
appropriate). Higher scores indicate that students feel the school is fair and they are clear about the school
rules. The α coefficients obtained in this research are 0.83 (Safety), 0.83 (Fairness of Rules), and 0.47 (Clarity
of Rules).
Teachers
i) Child Behavior Checklist – Teacher Report Form (CBCL – TRF; Achenbach, 1991) (No appendix due to
copyright)
This checklist is used to assess eight types of students’ internal and external behavior from the teachers’
perspectives. Four of the subscales were selected for use in this research: Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/
Depressed, Attention Problem, and Delinquent Behavior. Higher scores indicate a higher tendency in that
particular area. Teachers rate the student’s behavior on a three-point scale from zero (inaccurate) to two (very
accurate). The summed subscale scores for the four checklists represent students’ proactive aggression.
Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, and Attention Problem are used to assess whether the students are
aggressive victims. The α coefficients obtained in this research are 0.97 (Aggressive Behavior), 0.92 (Anxious/
Depressed), 0.94 (Attention Problem) and 0.83 (Delinquent Behavior).
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ii) Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire – Teacher Rating Scale (RPQ; Raine et al., 2006) (See
Appendix 4)
The Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire – Teacher Rating Scale was derived from the same
questionnaire as completed by students. The items correspond to those in the student questionnaire and are
used to assess whether teachers perceive students as reactive or proactive aggressors. The scale is also useful
in further understanding the proactive and reactive aggressiveness of students. Teachers score each item on
a three-point scale from zero (never) to two (always). The α coefficients obtained in this research are 0.95
(Reactive Aggression Index), 0.91 (Proactive Aggression Index), and 0.96 (Overall Aggression Index).
iii) Peer Victimization Questionnaire (PVQ; Lopez, 1997) (See Appendix 5)
This questionnaire is a multi-dimensional behavioral evaluation. It includes 21 items to measure how frequently
students are bullied physically (e.g., “broke or destroyed his/her things”), verbally (e.g., “said things to put him/
her down”), and by social isolation (e.g., “did not invite him/her to parties, dances, social events, etc”). Teachers
rate each item on a five-point scale according to how frequently the events have occurred to the student in the
past three months, from one (never) to five (always). The total score for the 21 items represents the ‘Overall
Victimization Index’ of the student. The scores can also be used to calculate the rating of three different types
of victimization: physical (six items), verbal (eight items), and social isolation (seven items). This was originally
a self-report scale that was adapted for use with teachers for the purposes of this research. However, because
the questionnaire only describes cases of bullying that occur on campus, this assessment can only be applied to
campus bullying. The α coefficient obtained in this research is 0.94.
Parents
i) Child Behavior Checklist – Parent Version (CBCL – Parent Version; Achenbach, 1991) (No appendix due
to copyright)
This checklist is used to assess eight types of students’ internal and external behavior from the parents’
perspectives. Four of the subscales were selected for use in this research: Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/
Depressed, Attention Problem, and Delinquent Behavior. Higher scores on a particular subscale reflect a higher
tendency in that particular area. Similar to the questionnaires for students and teachers, the four subscales
were used to measure the proactive aggressiveness of students. Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed
and Attention Problem assessed whether the students are aggressive victims. Parents provide a rating for their
child’s behavior in relation to each item on a three-point scale from zero (inaccurate) to two (very accurate).
The total scores obtained for the respective subscales constitute the students’ assessment in that area. The α
coefficients obtained in this research are 0.92 (Aggressive Behavior), 0.91 (Anxious/Depressed), 0.86 (Attention
Problem), and 0.75 (Delinquent Behavior).
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ii) Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire – Parent Rating Scale (RPQ; Raine et al., 2006) (See
Appendix 6)
The Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire – Parent Rating Scale is derived from the same
questionnaire as completed by students. The items correspond to those in the student questionnaire and
are used to assess whether students belong to the reactive or proactive aggressors’ group, from the parents’
perspectives. It also helps in further understanding the proactive and reactive aggressiveness of students.
Parents score each item on a three-point scale from zero (never) to two (always). The α coefficients obtained
in this research are 0.86 (Reactive Aggression Index), 0.85 (Proactive Aggression Index), and 0.88 (Overall
Aggression Index).
iii) Child Disclosure (Stattin, & Kerr, 2000) (See Appendix 7)
The Child Disclosure questionnaire assesses whether students willingly tell their parents about their actions.
Although there are student and parent versions of this questionnaire, only the parent version was used in this
research. The items in the questionnaire include, “needed to have your permission to stay out late on a weekday
evening”, and “kept a lot of secrets from you about what he/she did during his/her free time”. Parents rate each
item on a five-point scale from one (never) to five (always). Higher scores indicate that students are more willing
to share their actions with their parents. The α coefficient obtained in this research is 0.83.
2. Qualitative Research and Questionnaires
Qualitative Questionnaire Checklist: Proactive Aggressors:
Pre-tests
Students
Proactive Aggressors – Student Qualitative
Study
Teachers
Proactive Aggressors – Teacher Qualitative
Study
Parents
Proactive Aggressors – Parent Qualitative
Study
Post-test
Proactive Aggressors – Student Qualitative
Study
Qualitative Questionnaire Checklist: Reactive Aggressors:
Pre-tests
Post-test
Students
Anger Response Inventories
Anger Response Inventories
Teachers
Reactive Aggressor – Teacher Qualitative
Study
Parents
Reactive Aggressor – Parent Qualitative Study
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Qualitative Questionnaire Checklist: Aggressive Victims
Pre-tests
Students
Aggressive Victims – Student Qualitative
Study
Teachers
Aggressive Victims – Teacher Qualitative
Study
Parents
Aggressive Victims – Parent Qualitative Study
Post-test
Aggressive Victims – Student Qualitative Study
Qualitative Questionnaire Checklist: Passive Victims
Pre-tests
Students
Passive Victims – Student Qualitative Study
Teachers
Passive Victims – Teacher Qualitative Study
Parents
Passive Victims – Parent Qualitative Study
Post-test
Passive Victims – Student Qualitative Study
Qualitative Questionnaire
Students
i) Proactive Aggressors – Student Qualitative Study (See Appendix 8)
The interviews asked students about their responses to five scenario questions designed by the project
researchers. The five scenarios involved issues such as the distribution of benefits, temptations of benefits,
bullying, and other problems or arguments encountered on campus. Students’ responses to the different
scenarios, and the reasons behind them, allowed interviewers to identify the characteristics of proactive
aggressors, such as self-centeredness, lack of empathy, use of aggression in problem solving, and
rationalization of aggression.
ii) Reactive Aggressors – Student Qualitative Study (See Appendix 9)
This qualitative questionnaire was based on Tangney, Wagner, Marschall and Gramzow’s (1991) Anger
Response Inventory (ARI). The questionnaire originally comprised 23 scenarios designed to reflect common
situations that may induce anger in individuals. Students are asked to read and imagine themselves in each
scenario, and then rate how they would be likely to react in that situation. The ARI measures a number of
different responses to each scenario. First, students are asked to rate their anger arousal for that scenario.
They are then asked to indicate their intentions and indicate their actual behavioral and cognitive responses.
Intentions are assessed by asking students what they would feel like doing, while actual responses are assessed
by asking what they would do in reality. Finally, the ARI also assesses the perceived long-term consequences
for the self, the target, and their relationship. The ARI thus provides a comprehensive framework for assessing
anger responses. Only two scenarios, one for female students and the other for male students, were modified
(e.g., by changing “brother” to “classmate”) and used in our interviews.
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iii) Aggressive Victims – Student Qualitative Study (See Appendix 10)
During the pre- and post-test structured interviews, students answered three scenario questions. The first
scenario was obtained from the Home Interview with Child (Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990), which was originally
designed to measure students’ attributions and aggressive responses in hypothetical scenarios. It was modified
in this research to create an appropriate assessment tool to understand aggressive victims. The second scenario
was obtained from a study on children’s social information processing (Camodeca, Goossens, Schuengel, &
Terwogt, 2003). The project researcher designed the third scenario in accordance with the characteristics of
aggressive victims. The first and second scenarios depict neutral interpersonal relationship settings, whereas
the third involves an incident of campus bullying. Students’ responses and the reasons behind them allowed
interviewers to assess whether students were aggressive victims by identifying characteristics such as hostile
attribution, angry responses, and rationalization of their own aggression when facing bullying.
iv) Passive Victims – Student Qualitative Study (See Appendix 11)
Students were asked to respond to four hypothetical scenarios derived from the Home Interview with Child
(Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990), which was originally designed to measure students’ attributions and aggressive
responses in hypothetical scenarios. It was modified in this research to create an appropriate assessment
tool to understand passive victims. Students’ responses and the reasons behind them allowed interviewers to
assess whether students were passive victims by identifying characteristics such as internal attribution, social
withdrawal, anxious responses, and self-blaming.
Teachers
i) Proactive Aggressors – Teacher Qualitative Study (See Appendix 12)
In the interviews with the teachers of proactive aggressors, teachers first stated their own understanding of
proactive aggression and described the state of campus bullying in their school. They then went into an in-depth
discussion about the various conditions and characteristics of the group members. The topics for discussion
included students’ school life (e.g., academic attainment, popularity), students’ behavior (e.g., whether they
deliberately made things difficult for teachers, showed proactive aggressive behavior), their own approach
to handling bullying incidents, students’ relationships with their parents (e.g., parenting models), and their
expectations of the treatment group.
ii) Reactive Aggressors – Teacher Qualitative Study (See Appendix 13)
In the interviews with the teachers of reactive victims, each teacher stated their own understanding of reactive
victims and described the state of campus bullying in their school before discussing the students’ condition. The
topics for discussion included students’ school life (e.g., academic attainment, popularity), students’ behavior
(e.g., reactive aggressive behavior), their own approach to handling bullying incidents, students’ relationships
with their parents (e.g., parenting models), and their expectations of the treatment group.
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iii) Aggressive Victims –Teacher Qualitative Study (See Appendix 14)
In the interviews with the teachers of aggressive victims, each teacher stated their own understanding of
aggressive victims and described the state of campus bullying in their school before discussing the students’
condition. The topics for discussion included students’ school life (e.g., academic attainment, popularity),
victimization (e.g., whether they were being bullied, and their response towards being bullied), their own
approach to handling bullying incidents, students’ relationships with their parents (e.g,. parenting models), and
their expectations of the treatment group.
iv) Passive Victims –Teacher Qualitative Study (See Appendix 15)
In the interviews with the teachers of passive victims, each teacher stated their own understanding of passive
victims and described the state of campus bullying in their school before discussing the students’ condition. The
topics for discussion included the students’ school life (e.g., academic attainment, popularity), victimization (e.g.,
whether they were being bullied, and their response towards being bullied), their own approach to handling
bullying incidents, students’ relationships with their parents (e.g., parenting models), and their expectations of
the treatment group.
Parents
Parents were interviewed to gain an understanding of their relationships with their children, the interactions among
family members, parenting models, and so on, and thus explore how the family environment might affect children’s
aggression or victimization. In addition, the parents’ own understanding of their children helped interviewers to
understand students’ peer relationships and behavior in school.
i) Proactive Aggressors – Parent Qualitative Study (See Appendix 16)
The interviews with the parents of proactive aggressors included the following topics: background information
(e.g., which family members the child lived with), the parent’s understanding of their child (e.g., whether they
misbehaved at home to obtain benefits), the parental relationship (e.g., conflicts with the child), their parenting
approach (e.g., the number of hours spent communicating with the child), and the child’s relationship with their
siblings (e.g., whether they bullied their brothers and sisters).
ii) Reactive Aggressors – Parent Qualitative Study (See Appendix 17)
The interviews with the parents of reactive aggressors included the following topics: background information
(e.g., which family members the child lived with), the parent’s understanding of their child (e.g., whether they lost
their temper easily), the parental relationship (e.g., conflicts with the child), their parenting approach (e.g., the
number of hours spent communicating with the child), and the child’s relationship with their siblings (e.g. whether
they were aggressive towards their brothers and sisters).
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iii) Aggressive Victims – Parent Qualitative Study (See Appendix 18)
The interviews with the parents of aggressive victims included the following topics: background information
(e.g., which family members the child lived with), the parent’s understanding of their child (e.g., whether they
became angry easily), the parental relationship (e.g., conflicts with the child), their parenting approach (e.g., how
they punished negative behavior), the child’s relationship with their siblings (e.g., whether they were aggressive
towards their brothers and sisters), and school life (e.g., any conflicts with teachers).
iv) Passive Victims – Parent Qualitative Study (See Appendix 19)
The interviews with the parents of passive victims included the following topics: background information (e.g.,
which family members the child lived with), the parent’s understanding of their child (e.g. whether they frequently
withdrew from other people), the parental relationship (e.g., how often they communicated with the child), the
parenting approach (e.g., how they punished negative behavior), the child’s relationship with their siblings (e.g.,
whether their brothers and sisters were aggressive towards them), and school life (e.g. whether they were close
to their teachers).
VI. Research Results
1. Demographic results
Table 1 presents the demographic information for the aggressors and victims.
A total of 23,171 students from the 50 participating schools completed the screening questionnaires. Among them,
691 students were identified as proactive aggressors, 3,688 students as reactive aggressors, 810 students as
aggressive victims, and 1,669 as passive victims.
Table 1. Number of students classified as aggressors and victims
Total number of
participants
Proactive
Aggressor
Reactive
Aggressor
Aggressive
Victim
Passive Victim
Others
23,171
(100%)
691
(3.0%)
3,668
(15.8%)
810
(3.5%)
1,669
(7.2%)
16,333
(70.5%)
2. Quantitative Research Results
Please refer to Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 for the pre- and post-test quantitative results for the ‘Proactive Aggressors
Group’, ‘Reactive Aggressors Group’, ‘Aggressive Victims Group’ and ‘Passive Victims Group’, respectively.
To make the results simpler to follow, the results of the screening questionnaire are presented under ‘pre-tests’.
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3. Proactive Aggressors
Table 2. Proactive aggressors: Pre-test – post-test results for the student self-rating scales
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid Sample Size#
Mean Difference+
t-value
CBCL – Aggressive Behavior
61
5.51
4.68**
CBCL– Attention Problem
61
2.21
3.93**
CBCL–Delinquent Behavior
61
2.51
4.02**
RPQ – Proactive Aggression
61
2.57
2.85**
Aggression Questionnaire –
Physical Aggression
61
3.39
3.87**
Aggression Questionnaire –
Verbal Aggression
61
1.05
2.05*
# Valid sample size: The number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests.
+A positive mean difference represents a decrease in the mean score at post-test and a negative difference
represents an increase in the mean score at post-test.
*p<0.05, **p<0.01
The results show various degrees of change in proactive aggressors’ self-reported behavior following the
completion of the treatment groups. Compared with their behavior before the treatment, group members showed
a significant decline in self-reported aggressive behavior (t(60) = 4.68, p< .01), attention problems (t(60) = 3.93,
p< .01), delinquent behavior (t(60) = 4.02, p<.01), proactive aggression (t(60) = 2.85, p< .01), physical aggression
(t(60) = 3.87, p< .01), and verbal aggression (t(60) = 2.05, p< .05).
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Table 3. Reactive aggressors: Pre-test – post-test results for the student self-rating scales
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid Sample Size#
Mean Difference+
t-value
ASR - Condemnation of anger
43
1.72
6.38**
CBCL - Aggressive behavior
47
4.83
10.52***
RPQ - Reactive aggression
41
2.65
26.67***
# Valid sample size: The number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests
+ A positive mean difference represents a decrease in the mean score at post-test and a negative difference
represents an increase in the mean score at post-test.
**p<0.01, ***p<0.001
The results reveal a significant change in reactive aggressors’ behavior following their participation in the treatment
group. There was a significant decrease in the severity of aggressive behavior (t(46) = 10.52, p< .001) and reactive
aggression (t(40)=26.67, p<.001). Specifically, the mean scores on the two indexes were 4.83 and 2.65 points lower
on the post-test, respectively, than on the pre-test. There was also a decline in condemnation of anger (t(42) = 6.38,
p<.01), which demonstrates the effectiveness of the treatment group for reactive aggressors.
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Table 4. Aggressive victims: Pre-test – post-test results for the student self-rating scales
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid Sample Size#
Mean Difference+
t-value
CBCL – Anxious/Depressed
67
2.51
3.29**
RPQ – Reactive Aggression Index
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1.95
3.65**
PVQ - Peer Victimization Index
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5.32
2.66**
STAXI – Anger Reaction
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6.17
3.00**
STAXI – Anger-in
67
1.39
2.66**
STAXI – Anger Control
66
-1.26
-2.00*
School Psychosocial Climate Scale - Safety
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2.39
3.89**
# Valid sample size: The number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests.
+A positive mean difference represents a decrease in the mean score at post-test and a negative difference
represents an increase in the mean score at post-test.
*p<0.05, **p<0.01
The treatment groups also had a significant effect on the aggressive victims. Compared with the pre-treatment
self-report ratings, there was a considerable decline in group members’ anxiety (t(66) = 3.29, p<.01) and peer
victimization (t(62) = 2.66, p<.01). The reactive aggression of the group members declined considerably (t(65) =
3.65, p<.01), which suggests that they were less prone to using aggression in response to bullying. Members’ anger
reaction (t(65) = 3.00, p<.01) and anger-in indices (t(66) = 2.66, p<.01) were also significantly lower on the posttest, suggesting they were less angry in the face of criticism and provocation. The significant increase in their anger
control index (t(65)= -2.00, p<.05) indicates that they tended to put more effort into controlling their own anger.
Finally, there was a decline in depressed emotion caused by anger (t(66) = 3.29, p<.01) and their sense of safety
towards their schools also increased (t(65) = 3.89, p<.01) by the end of the treatment.
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Table 5. Passive victims: Pre-test – post-test results for the student self-rating scales
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid Sample Size#
Mean Difference+
t-value
CBCL – Anxious/Depressed
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4.09
22.33***
PVQ - Peer Victimization Index
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7.28
110.82***
PVQ – Physical Bullying
71
1.30
53.95***
PVQ – Verbal Bullying
70
3.18
53.95***
PVQ - Social Bullying
71
3.18
111.30***
# Valid sample size: The number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests.
+A positive mean difference represents a decrease in the mean score at post-test and a negative difference
represents an increase in the mean score at post-test.
***p<0.001
The results in Table 5 suggest a clear change in passive victims following the treatment group. The peer
victimization index decreased by 7.28 (t(67) = 110.82, p<.001). There was also a significant decrease in anxiety/
depression (t(68) = 22.33, p<.001), physical bullying (t(70) = 53.95, p<.001), verbal bullying (t(69) = 53.95, p<.001),
and social bullying (t(70) = 111.30, p<.001). Hence, the results indicate that the treatment group was effective in
helping passive victims.
4. Limitations
1. A number of students had withdrawn from school by the time of the three-month follow-up, thus the corresponding
data could not be collected from these students.
2. Some teachers indicated in the post-test that they had been away from school for teacher training courses while
the treatment groups were in progress. Therefore, they were unable to understand fully the group members’
behavioral and emotional changes, resulting in a loss of data.
3. It was very difficult to collect parent questionnaires and make appointments for parent interviews. Thus, the data
from some parents could not be collected.
5. Conclusion
The results clearly demonstrate the efficacy of the treatment groups for the four subtypes of aggressors and victims.
The various students’ self-rating scales show reductions in aggressive behavior, anxiety, peer victimization, and so
on. These findings confirm that the project can effectively improve the behavior and well-being of various types of
aggressors and victims through cognitive-behavioral therapy.
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Proactive Aggressors
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Chapter 4 : Treatment Group–Proactive Aggressors
I. Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Related Theories
1. Social Information Processing Model (Please refer to Chapter 2)
Proactive aggressors demonstrate cognitive distortions in relation to the last three steps of social information
processing. These distortions comprise errors in interpretation and judgment. The third step involves evaluating the
potential benefits of an action and calculating its cost effectiveness before making a final decision on the course of
action. Proactive aggressors tend to focus excessively on personal gain, ignoring moral concerns, consequences,
and the feelings of others.
The fourth step involves decision-making based on previous successful experiences. Proactive aggressors are
certain that aggressive behavior demonstrates their strength and builds their self-confidence. At the same time, they
are convinced that aggressive behavior is an effective way to resolve interpersonal conflicts and the best possible
means to achievingtheir goals and obtaining benefits. Hence, proactive aggressors tend to useaggressive behavior
as a problem-solving strategy.
2. Social Learning Theory (Please refer to Chapter 2)
Most scholars are guided mainly by social learning theory in understanding the behavior of proactive aggressors.
Studies have shown that proactive aggressive behavior is a learned behavior and the role models of these
aggressors also demonstrate aggressive behavior (Boxer & Tisak, 2003). Parents of proactive aggressors may
be proactive aggressors themselves. Aggressive behavior is encouraged in the family as the means to resolving
conflicts and achieving personal goals. Coercive parenting might also foster proactive aggression in children
because they learn how to dominate others by aggression (Vitaro, Barker, Boivin, Brendgen & Tremblay, 2006).
At a very young age, proactive aggressors learn from their parents and close relatives that aggressive behaviors
such as threats or scams bring benefits. Most proactive aggressors are very smart. After several attempts and by
observing others’ reactions, they master the strategies that are favorable to them, and at the same time, learn to
guard against the possible adverse factors. Frequent benefits or exculpatory experiences will reinforce their belief
that proactive aggressive behavior is the most effective meansof attaining personal goals. Social learning theory
suggests that aggressive behavior is a learned behavior; thus it also suggests that it is possible to unlearn such
behavior, relearn an alternative behavior and thoughts, and establish a whole new set of personal values.
3. Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (Please refer to Chapter 2 for cognitive behavioral therapy)
Workers have integrated Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (CT)as wells as Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(REBT)in treatment groups for proactive aggressors. Beck’s CT provides a clear and specific theoretical framework
to help workers assess group members’ core beliefs, automatic thoughts, and social schemas. Therefore,
workers can employ Beck’s CT in case assessment. Ellis’ REBTis based on a model that links the following:(A)
activatingevent, (B) belief, and (C) consequence, i.e., behavioral and emotional responses, with (A) being filtered
through (B), leading to (C). Beck specifically pointed out 12 basic irrational beliefs and their associated negative
emotional reactions. Workers therefore employ Ellis’ ABC concept with rational emotive behavior therapy in
treatment groups for its clear-cut explanations and approach to behavior modification.
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Please refer to the table below for application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in designing a group
treatment program.
Session
Application of CBT
Program Objective
1
Establish a treatment
relationship of mutual
respect.
Proactive aggressors have sharp and clear minds; they act
cautiously and seldom reveal their beliefs to others. Thus, it is
particularly important for workers to establish a relationship of
mutual respect with individual group members. Mutual respect in
the relationship can decrease members’ wariness of workers and
increase their sense of belonging to the group.
2
Examine group members’
family of origin.
According to Bandura’s social learning theory (1986, 1999),
proactive aggressive behavior is learned by imitating and
modeling others. Skinner (1953) believed that the benefit gained
from aggressive behavior becomes the aggressors’ incentive
to copy and repeat the behaviors. Therefore, exploring each
group member’s family of origin can help workers understand
the objectives and incentives behind the members’aggressive
behaviors. Workers can thereby accurately and comprehensively
assessgroup members.
3
Identify group members’
behavioral responses.
Proactive aggressors think rationallyabout their aggressive
behaviors. They carefully calculate the feasibility of such
behaviors and the risks involved, and they consider the strategies
needed to obtain the expected benefits (Crick & Dodge, 1994).
The process of identifying the behaviors of group members
(including the behavioral responses that have been considered
and practiced and the effectiveness of the behaviors) helps
workers comprehensively assess group members’ aggressive
behaviors and the chain of beliefs supporting these behaviors.
4
Identify group members’
emotional responses.
Proactive aggressors are callously unemotional. They lack
empathy towards others; they focus only on the event and
whether it will generate personal benefits. They seldom express
their own feelings. Therefore workers must enrich group
members’ understanding of emotion and help them identify their
suppressed emotions.
5
Educate group members
about the ABC Model of
cognitive behavioral therapy.
With the use of Ellis’s ABC concept, and through group discussion
and role-playing, team members are able to project their own
ideas so that workers can understand the precise irrational
beliefsheld by proactive aggressors.
Identify members’ irrational
beliefs.
6
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Create the kind of internal
pressure that will motivate
group members to make
changes.
Proactive aggressors tend to see the consequences of their
aggressive behavior in a positive light (Poulin & Boivin, 2000)
and will ignore the negative results. Through role playing,
group members come to objectively understand the serious
consequences of their behaviors.
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Discriminate and debate
group members’ irrational
beliefs.
Introduce fair, reasonable, and rightful conceptsthat will allow
members to recognize the unreasonableness of their irrational
beliefs. Common beliefs of proactive aggressors are expressed
as follows: “It is horrible when things are not the way I like them to
be”, “I should be thoroughly competent, intelligent, and successful
in all possible respects”, and” I must have certain and perfect
control over things”. Rectify group members’ irrational beliefs
through the concepts introduced.
8
Formulate a new and ffective
set of rational beliefs with
a new set of feelings and
behaviors.
Construct a new and effective set of rational beliefs with a new
set of feelings and behaviors through debate and practice.
9
Skill training: empathy
training
Proactive aggressors lack empathy towards victims or often
misunderstand their victims. Real-life victims of bullying are
invited to convey their feelings surrounding such incidents to
impress group members with the consequences of aggressive
behavior.
10
Termination and relapse
prevention
Review changes in the beliefs and behaviors of membersand
offer praiseto consolidate the members’ success.
II. Preparation for the Treatment Group
Each member will undergoa pre-participation interview prior to joining the treatment group. Responses to the
questionnaire used and to the interviewer will reflect the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional characteristics of
themember. Therefore, workers are advised to review the members’ responses and interview participants carefully
to gain insight into their characteristics and to provide targeted counseling accordingly.
1. Questionnaire
Below is asample set of clinical scoresbased on a pre-treatment interview. Workers can analyze scoresin terms of
cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components. We refer to the group member as “Wai”.
Behavioral Component
Score
Aggression
Proactive aggression
Reactive aggression
Delinquent behavior
(total possible score: 38)
(total possible score: 24)
(total possible score: 22)
(total possible score: 22)
23
18
3
15
Wai’s “aggressive behavior” index is23, which ishigher than the clinical index. The score for “proactive aggressive
behavior” is18, and that 3 “reactive aggressive behavior” is 3, implying that Wai isa proactive aggressor. Proactive
aggressors tend to show increased delinquent behavior in general, and Wai’s “delinquent behavior” index is 15
(clinical index formales is 8 and for females is 7), which is characteristic of proactive aggressors.
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Cognitive and Emotional Component
Imagination
(total possible
score: 35)
Score
12
Empathic
concern
Perspective
taking
Personal
distress
(total possible
(total possible
(total possible
score: 35)
score: 35)
score: 35)
10
13
17
Empathy
(total possible
score: 140)
52
Proactive aggressors are calm, rational, and lacking in empathy towards others. Wai’s “empathy index” is 52. In the
cognitive aspect, the data indicate that Wai has difficulty “putting herself in others’ shoes” (her “perspective taking”
scoreislow). In the emotional aspect, Wai’s “empathic concern” and “imagination” indices are also low, implying
that it is rather difficult for her to identify with others and to demonstrate compassion and warmth towards others.
Workers can first help Wai pay more attention to her own feelings and then, at a later stage, identify with others’
emotions and beliefs.
2. Interview
Waiis asked about some possible scenarios at school, including violent or aggressive situations and some
ambiguous bullying situations. Participantssuch as Wai are asked to view themselves as the main character and to
imagine their behaviors and emotions in response to a particular situation:
(I) The following is a violent or aggressive situation:
If you see the following situation during recess…
1.
2.
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Workers ask participants to describe and explain what has happened in the above two pictures.
Waibelieves the two students in the picture are fighting to seize power. They started with verbal insults, which were
followed by physical attack. Because the person on the winning side would become a peer leader, he intentionally
chose to provoke the other on the basketball court during recess so thatother students would witness the loser’s
defeat. Wai’s description shows her strength in assessing and utilizing the surrounding environment to her benefit
(for example,by choosing the time during which the most witnesses would be present), and her ability to use the
power gained to make people afraid of her.
However, Wai also thinks they were foolish to fight openly against each other, as they could easily be caught and
punished by teachers. Instead, she claims that she would have snatched the student to the back alley, with the
help of her friends, and beat him up there. She believes the back alley would be isolated and that she would not
be caught so easily by teachers. We can see Wai has a sharp and clear mind. She would have acted cautiously
and perceived herself to be much smarter than others. She would be able to escape from the teachers’ eyes and
achieve the same result.
(II) The following is a more obvious bullying situation:
“There is a weird student, and no one in the class likes him. One day, you and a few other students lock him up
inside the toilet cubicle and drench him with water.”
When Wai was asked about her feelings regarding this hypothetical incident, she expressed a sense of triumph
and a high opinion of herself. She believes the victim should not feel unhappy. After all, heis the target of pranks
because of his own weird personality. She lacks any empathy towards him. Not only ford she not feel guilty, she
cannot identify with his feelings.
When she was further asked about how others comment on her behavior, she proclaimed thather friends admire
her and thinks she is smart because they never get caught or punished for pulling pranks on others. She believes
these friends are proud to be her friends, whereas others would be afraid of her and would not dare to mess
with her. She likes and enjoys this image that others have of her. Wai’s feedback indicated that she likes to use
aggressive behavior to demonstrate her power over others. When she learned that her aggressive behavior made
others afraid of her and that they would dare not mess with her, she felt strongly that aggressive behavior was the
best way to handle interpersonal relationships.
3. Conclusion
Wai’s feedback during the interview reflected the characteristics of proactive aggressors. Such aggressors believe
that aggressive behavior is the best way to demonstrate personal power and handle interpersonal relationships.
Unlike reactive aggressors who go into a rage and attack others because they selectively receive related external
aggressive cues, proactive aggressors use aggressive behavior purposely and with premeditation to gain benefits
and power. Wai despises school rules and discipline, and she tends to undervalue the negative consequences
of her behavior, all of which are characteristics of proactive aggressors. In addition, Wai does not have many
emotional ups and downs; it is difficult for her to feel guilt, self-blame, and other negative emotions. It is even more
difficult for her to put herself into others’ shoes, and share others’ feelings and beliefs.
In Wai’s case, and in others’ cases, workers would design group activities, such as situational questions, in
accordance with the characteristics and personal experiences that come to light in the interview. Thus, in-depth
counseling treatment can be provided that istailored to the participant’s beliefs, behaviors, and emotions.
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III. Contents of Proactive Aggressor Treatment Group
(A) Session: First Session
Theme: New Beginning for Leadership – Mutual Understanding
Aims: 1. To help group members understand the aims and content of the program and identify their own roles and
goals within the group.
2. To build trust and a sense of security betweenthe worker and group members
3. To formulate a participation code.
4. To establish shared expectations.
5. To preliminarily understand and evaluate the campus life of group members.
Activity
Introduction to the Group
Duration
10 minutes
Objective
To help members understand the aims and content of the group sessions and their own roles in
the group so as to reduce their anxiety.
Procedure
1. Worker introduces himself/herself.
2. Group members get to know each other.
3. Worker briefs members on the content and objectives of the first project–leadership training:
• To understand oneself
• To understand others
• To know the mode of thinking
• To broaden thinking techniques (multi-angle thinking)
• To broaden members’ skills in getting along with others
4. Introduce the reward system: At each session, a rewardwill begiven to the participant showing
the most outstanding involvement.
5. Consult members’ for their opinions and suggestions regarding the rewards.
6. Introduce the theme of the session: Understanding one another.
Materials
Rewards
Activity
“Tell Us about Your School”
Duration
30 minutes
Concept
Because proactive aggressors lack emotion and empathy, they do not feel negative emotions
over their bullying behavior; in fact, they even have positive emotions. Worker will use different
emotion cards to stimulate members’ awareness of their emotions as well as other members’
negative emotions towards bullying (e.g. anxiety). This can shape members’ view towards
bullying.
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Objective
For workerto learn more about members’ school life and their emotions when bullying or
behaving aggressively.
Procedure
1. Distribute a pack of emotion cards (8 different colors) to group members (Group Material 1.1)
2. Worker picks a topic: showing group members one topic card (Group Material 1.2) at a time
• The topic cards contain pictures related to school life, i.e., place where bullying happens or
the people involved
3.Group members show emotioncards: Show an emotioncard representing their emotions
thatthe topic triggers them, and then share corresponding experiences of their school life with
the others.
• Worker can change the order of the activity to make it suitable. For example, worker
can select an emotion card first, then have group members share their corresponding
experiences at school
Materials
Emotion cards (Group Material 1.1),
“Tell us about your school”topic cards(Group Material 1.2)
Activity
“My Expectations of the Group”
Duration
35 minutes
Objectives
1. To have group membersexpress their personal expectations to build up common goals and
rules within the group.
2. To formulate rules by group consensus so that group activities will go smoothly.
Procedure
1. Distribute human-shaped worksheet (Class Assignment), then have participants draw a face
and characteristics that represent themselves within the human-shaped outline and write
down the expectations they have of themselves. Outside the human-shaped outline, have
participants write down their expectations of the group and others.
2. Discusshow the group can achieve these expectations and follow the rulesof participation.
3. Workerpresents words describingvarious emotionsto encourage members to discuss what
kinds of behaviors within the group will cause these emotions.This can help members follow
the rulesthey have formulated.
4. With the consensus of all group members, conclusions, expectations, and regulations will be
written down on a large piece of paper. This will encourage members to obey the rules so as
to achieve their personal goals.
Basic regulations should include:
• Respect yourself and others
• Do not hurt yourself or others
• Participate actively in group activities
• Express your opinions
Materials
Human-shaped worksheet (Class Assignment 1), Colored pens and large-size drawing paper
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Activity
Conclusion and Explanation of Homework “My Blog”
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
According to Bandura’s social learning theory (1986, 1999), proactive aggression derives from
imitating others’ behavior. The benefit gained from aggression is the incentive for the aggressor
to repeat such behaviors. Through the assignment, group members’ aggressive role models
and the benefits they want to obtain can be clarified. This in turn will help worker evaluate the
cause of group members’ aggressive behaviors. The topics can be related to daily life to reduce
members’ wariness.
Objectives
1. To conclude the session.
2. To strengthen worker’s knowledge of the group members.
3. To strengthen members’ sense of belonging to the group.
4. To cultivate participants’ habit of finishing their homework.
Procedure
1. Summarize group members’involvement and compliment them for their positive participation
in the session
2. Introduce the homework “My Blog”
3. Remind group members that they will givena small reward after finishing the homework;
thiswill increase their motivation to do the homework.
4. Present the “most outstanding performance” award to the participant who actively participated
and was most involved in the group activities.
Materials
“My Blog” (Homework Assignment) and rewards
Remarks
1. When introducing the concept of leadership training, individual members may think that they are already a
“leader” and that it is not necessary for them to join the group. Therefore, worker needs to emphasize that each
group memberhas the potential to become a leader in new areas. This will help each memberfeel respected
and help bring out the theme of the session.
2. At the beginning, the worker will use tangible items as rewardsfor participants. Before the mindset of the group
members changes, material rewards can increase their interest in participating in the group activities. However,
the worker needs to evaluate the effectiveness of the material rewards. If group members are cooperative and
stay actively involved in the group, these rewards can be reduced.
3. Worker should pay attention to and appreciate group members’ positive performances. This will help members
remain involved in the group. Worker can also change the format to add variation into the activities so that
group members can be involved in more activities.
4. At the beginning of the session, to avoid members’ temptation to use aggressive behavior to possess the
material rewards, body contact and competitive activities should be minimized or even eliminated.
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Name：____________________
First Session Group Material 1.1:
Emotion Cards
Hateful
Idle
Speechless
Scared
Hatef ul
Agitated
Agitated
Touched
Angry
Happy
Shy
Irritable
Bored
AgitatedWorried
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Pleased
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First Session Group Material 1.2:
Name：____________________
“Tell us about your school –
Topic cards”
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First Session Class Assignment:
Name：____________________
“Human-shaped Worksheet”
Inside the human-shaped outline, please draw a face and characteristics that represent you,
and write down your own expectations. Outside the human-shaped outline, please write down
your expectations of the group and others.
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First Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
My Blog
latest Blog
Date
Rule: Selected participant should write responses in his or her own
blog.
Photo
1. Who do you look up to?
2. If you could go back to a certain time, when would that be?
Your Name ____________________
3. Write down your most unforgettable experience.
Nickname _____________________
Birthday_______________________
Hobby ________________________
Wed
Thur
i.
ii.
Month
Mon Tue
4. If God gaveyou three wishes, what would you want?
Fri
Sat
Sun
iii.
5. If this were the last day of your life, what would you do?
6. Name one of your habits.
Month
Mon Tue
Wed
Thur
7. Where is your favorite place?
Fri
Sat
Sun
8. Who do you want to be with at the last moment in your life?
Feedback (1)
HAHA! You are selected; please reply as soon as possible! Thx ^0^
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(B) Session: Second Session
Theme: Desired Benefits
Aims: Incorporate the third step of SIPtheory: response search
1. To strengthen group members’ understanding of each other
2. To discover group members’ aim behind their behaviors
3. To discover the means used by group members to achieve their goals
4. To evaluate the means used by group members to achieve their goals
5. To help group members reflect on the consequences of their negative behaviors
6. To enhance group members’ self-awareness
Activity
Homework Sharing–“My Blog”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To strengthen connections and understanding among group members.
2. To developa group atmosphere.
3. To cultivate a positive sharing atmosphere.
Procedure
1.Group members’ homework sharing
• Share relaxing conversational topics (idols, hobbies, etc.)
• Then share hobbies and interests.
• Sharing points: Three of your most desired“benefits”.
2. Workercompliments and presents rewards to members who have finished their homework
and shared it with the group.
3. Introduce the theme of the session: “Desired benefits”.
Materials
Rewards and back-up homework
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Activity
Sharing on TV drama–“Men Don’t Cry”*+
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
According to the second and fourth steps of theSIP Theory by Crick & Dodge (1994), people
interpret information on the basis oftheir past experience. After understanding the information,
they will search for and choose a corresponding reaction. Proactive aggressors focus on
benefitsthat are similar to those embraced by the cunning protagonistin the drama. In discussing
the scenes of the drama, group members will project their views about “benefits”.
Objectives
To let group members know that “benefits” are modifiable. For example, apart from the obvious
benefits, relationships with family and friends can become important to the cunning protagonist.
This can broaden group members’ views on “benefits”.
Procedure
1. Playthe TV drama “Men Don’t Cry” (bullying scenes).
2. Group members discuss the scenes from”Men Don’t Cry”:
• What kind of “benefit” was sought?
• Ways to gain the “benefit”
• Who goes along with the cunning protagonistin seeking the“benefit”?
3. When a group membercomes up withone “benefit”, worker will place a sticker on him/her. The
member who receives the most stickers will receive a reward.
4. The time course ofthe cunning protagonist-Group members will discuss the 12-13-year-old
cunning protagonist:
• Expected “benefit”
• Ways to obtain “benefit”
• Where to obtain “benefit”
5. The time course of the cunning protagonist–group members discuss the 6-7-year-old cunning
protagonist:
• Expected the “benefit”
• Ways to obtainthe “benefit”
• Where to obtain the “benefit”
Materials
Relevant video parts of “Men Don’t Cry”, laptop, stickers, and small rewards
Activity
“My Story”
Duration
35 minutes
Concept
According to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1986, 1999), proactive aggression derives from
imitating others’ behaviors. Skinner (1953) thought that the “benefit” gained from aggression
causesthe aggressor to repeat such behaviors. Therefore, understanding group members’
sources of learning can help worker know why the members engage in aggressive behaviors,
their objectives, and the secondary reinforcers, and help them accurately and thoroughly assess
group members.
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Objectives
1. To help group members understand their expected “benefits” and ways they obtain them.
2. To help group members, through group discussion, understand that “benefit” is not only about
one’s own interest and is not gained exclusively by aggressive behavior.
Procedure
1. Group members choose three “benefits” and write them on a label. They then rank these
“benefits” by order of importance and stick them on the Benefit Index (Class Assignment 1).
2. Worker divides the members into groups according the similarity of their “benefits”.
Key group discussion points:
• When did you recognize these “benefits”?
• Do the “benefits” change as you are growing up?
• Where do you obtain your “benefit”?
• Who would go along with you to get the “benefit”?
• How do you get the “benefit”? (Any changes from the past to the present?)
• Why do you think the “items”you chose are “benefits”?
• Acknowledge participants’ sharing.
Materials
Benefit Index (Class Assignment), labels, and stickers
Activity
“The Ending of‘Men Don’t Cry’”**+
Duration
10 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors ignore severe consequences brought on by their aggressive behaviors
(Poulin & Boivin, 2000). Through the negative consequences and laterrejectionsuffered by the
character in the scene,group memberscan reflect upon and understand the consequences of
their behaviors.
Objectives
1. To helpgroup members reflect on the negative consequences of their bullying behaviors.
2. To help members realize what other things, apart from the perceived “benefits,” make people
feel happy and satisfied.
Procedure
1. Playthe ending of “Men Don’t Cry” and discussthe ending with group members.
2. Time course of the cunning protagonist– group members discuss the 60-year-old cunning
protagonist: Whathas become of him in terms of:
• Family
• Daily life
• Friends
• Feelings
• Health
3. Worker leads group members to discuss what they can obtain in life that will provide a
stronger sense of achievement than that provided by the “benefits” mentioned earlier.
Materials
Relevant video partsof “Men Don’t Cry”, laptops
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Activity
Conclusion and Explanationof Homework*– “What Did I Do?
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To conclude the session.
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing their homework.
Procedure
1. Conclude the session, and compliment those who have participated actively and positively.
2. Explain the homework “What did I do?”
Objectives:
• To evaluate group members’ expected “benefits” and ways to obtain them.
• To foster a positive experience for participants and let them enjoy the satisfaction.
• To help group membersreflect on the fact that positive behaviors bring satisfaction, apart
from the “benefits” gained by aggressive behavior.
3. Remind members of the possibility of receiving a small reward–to motivate them to finish the
homework.
4. Present “outstanding performance award” at the end of the session tothe participant who
showed the most progress.
Materials
“What did I do?” (Homework Assignment), rewards
+“Men Don’t Cry” is a Hong Kong TV drama about the life of a cunning protagonist. It can be replaced by different
similar dramas in other countries or regions.
*“Men Don’t Cry” Episode 3, 10/10/2007, TVB program
**“Men Don’t Cry” Episode 4, 11/10/2007, TVB program
Remarks
1. Worker can choose other episodes as long as the character has the characteristics of a proactive aggressor and
plans to use aggression/bullying behaviors to obtain “benefits”.
2. For accurate assessment of the group members, worker should distinguish the goal behind theirbehaviors and
the secondary reinforcer(s) that encourage them to continue the aggression.
3. Use the diagram and scaling question format to help group members visualize their thoughts and show them the
differences between their choices.
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Name：____________________
Second Session Class Assignment:
“Benefit” Index
Below is an example of the Benefit Index. Worker needs a large piece of drawing paper, white
labels, and star stickers to prepare for the demonstration.
E.g. Chris
Name:
Money
☆☆☆☆☆
“Benefit”1
Ability
☆☆☆☆
“Benefit”2
☆☆☆
“Benefit”3
Wisdom
Name:
Name:
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”3
“Benefit”3
Name:
Name:
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”3
“Benefit”3
Name:
Name:
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”1
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”2
“Benefit”3
“Benefit”3
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Second Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
「What did I do?」
Answer the following questions in any way you choose:
1. Last week, I (describe your behavior),so Icould get(what “benefit”?). It is because; therefore I feel happy!
2. Last week,I noticed that I (describe anotherbehavior)
; it too can make me feel satisfied!
3. Last week, I (describe your behavior)
I seldom do it, but this also gives me a sense of satisfaction!
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(C) Session: Third Session
Theme: My Action
Aims: 1. To incorporate the fourthstep of SIPtheory: Response evaluation (or decision)
2. To understand the means used by group members to reach their goals and effectiveness.
Activity
Homework Sharing – “What Did I Do?”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To help group members understand that positive behaviors can bring a sense of satisfaction.
Procedure
1. Group memberssharewhat makesthem feel satisfied.
2. Workerpraisesgroup members who engaged in positive behaviors and presents them with
rewards.
3. Worker givesrewards to group members who finished their homework.
Materials
Rewards and back-up homework
Activity
“Method: Scissors-Paper-Stone”
Duration
10 minutes
Objectives
1. Tocreate a good atmosphere and start members thinking (warm-up exercise).
2. To emphasize that reaching a goal is not just one action but a series of actions, and help
them identify the “process”, in preparation for the next activity.
Procedure
1. Choose a topic (e.g., fruit names). Have group members clap their hands threetimes, and
have the first member say the name of a fruit on the third beat. Have the next memberrepeat
the procedure without repeating the same name, and so on.Those who repeat a fruit name
orcannot add a fruit name are asked to share things they like and choose another topic.
2. At the beginning, choose a simple topic.
3. Topic focus: talk about themethods (means) members use to obtain a “benefit”; worker can
choose emotions mentioned in the group members’ homework.
• Money
• Fun
• Strength
4. When a group member talks about his/her means, the worker writes it on the whiteboard.
Then each group member selects from the list the means he/she uses most to achieve his/
her goals.
5. Introduce the theme of the session: My Way.
Materials
Whiteboard, pen, drawing paper
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Activity
“What I Want…
Duration
25 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors will think about different aggressive behaviors, calculate the risks sensibly,
and then calmly consider which way to achieve their aims (Crick & Dodge, 1994).
Objectives
For group membersto share their methods with others so that their own thoughts are reflected
and the worker is helped to understand members’ methods more accurately.
Procedure
1. Worker attaches a sheet of paper on the back of each group member. On the paper, the most
important “benefit” mentioned in last session is already written. Thus, each group member
has a different “benefit” written on his/her back.
2. Activity briefing: group members do not know which “benefit” is written on their backs. They
ask each otherabout ways to obtain the “benefit”, but they cannot use words that describe a
“benefit” and cannot repeat anyanswer already given. Group members guess the “benefit” on
their backs according to others’ answers.
3. Each group memberisgiven a worksheet “Method Sharing” (Class Assignment 1.1) and
invites other group members to write down their means of getting“benefits”on the back of the
worksheet alongside their names.
4. Any group member who collects seven methods and names will receive a reward.
5. Background music is used to start and stop the activity. Group members will leave their seats
to begin the activity when the music starts and stop the activity once the music stops.
6. After collecting seven methods, each group member can complete the “benefit” sheet that
was attached on their back.
7. Members reveal the answers.
8. If any group member cannot figure out their “benefit” on the basis of others’ answers, he/she
can fill in their own method to get the “benefit” in the last column of the sheet.
Materials
Adhesive tape, “Method Sharing” worksheet (Class Assignment 1.1), lively music
Activity
“Method Evaluation”
Duration
25 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors think about different means (aggressive behaviors) and calculate the risks
involved in obtaining the desired “benefit”. Through the worksheet, the methods considered by
the group members can be assessed as well as the effectiveness of the method used and other
methods. Therefore, group members’ aggression and their consideration in carrying out different
actions can be thoroughly assessed.
Objectives
To help group members assess the effectiveness of their methods for obtaining a “benefit” and
to raise their awareness of other appropriate methods
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Procedure
1. Each group member is given three sheets of white paper. Of the seven methods provided by
other group members, each member chooses one of the best and writes it on a white label.
Then he/shesticksthe label on the Method Evaluation worksheet (Class Assignment 1.2).
2. Degree of effectiveness of “Method Evaluation”. Group members place labels of different
colors as an index: red labels if theyhave thought about the method (the greater the frequency
of thinking about the method, the more the red labels,); green labels if they have used this
method (the greater the frequency of using the method, the more green labels); star labels for
the effectiveness of the method.
3. After completing the worksheet, group members will share the most effective method marked
on the table. If the method has been provided by other group members, worker will say their
names and give them rewards.
Sharing key points:
• The most effective method
• The most common method
• If the most common method cannot be used, what is the second choice?
Materials
Method Evaluation table (Class Assignment 1.2), white labels, red labels, green labels, star
labels, pen
Activity
Conclusion and Class Assignment Debriefing – “My Logbook”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To conclude the session.
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing their homework.
Procedure
1. Conclude by acknowledging group members’ participation and compliment those who
participated actively and positively.
2. Homework debriefing “My Logbook”.
Objective: To evaluate under what circumstances the emotions listed in the homework will be
aroused (especially in proactive aggressors).
3. Remind group members that they will receive a reward after finishing the homework.
4. Present“most outstanding performance” awardsto those who were most involved in the
session.
Materials
“My Logbook” (Homework Assignment) and rewards
Remarks
Worker can make greater use of the “Method Evaluation” worksheet. For example, group members may have
thought of some “risky” methods for achieving their goals, methods that they believe are effective but that they
have never used in real life. This means that group members will consider other factors as well, factors that can be
possible reinforcers to encourage them to engage in positive behaviors.
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Name：____________________
Third Session Class Assignment 1.1:
Method Sharing
Methods (methods used to obtain “benefit”)
Told by (Groupmate’s name)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Self
8
The “benefit” written on the paper that is stuck on my back is:_____
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Name：____________________
Third Session Class Assignment 1.2:
Method Evaluation
Below is an example of method evaluation. When preparing the table, workers should use a
large piece of drawing paper, white labels and star stickers.
E.g.:
Chris: Money
Index forhow much
you’vethought
aboutthis idea
Index for how
much you’ve
used this method
1. Do not return
the borrowed
money
●●●●
(red)
○○○○
(green)
☆☆☆☆☆
2. Deceive your
classmates
●●●●
○○○○
☆☆☆☆
3. Go to work
●●
Index for
effective-ness
of the method
☆
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Third Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
“My Logbook”
What happened to make you feel… (last week)
Loneliness
Satisfaction
Frustration
Relaxation
Fear
Security
Remorse
(Please circle the deepest emotions you felt during the past week.)
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(D) Session: Fourth Session
Topic: My Emotions and Events
Aims: 1. To evaluate the possible emotions suppressed by group members
2. To studythedifferent emotions experienced by individual group members under different circumstances
3. To bring out the main theme: Different emotions may be triggered by the same incident because individuals
have their own points of view.
Activity
Assignment Sharing – “Talent Show”
Duration
45 minutes
Concept
Because proactive aggressors are unemotional and lack empathy, they focus on the incident and
the benefit and do not know how to express their feelings. By sharing their feelings in response
to different incidents, group members will be stimulated to understand their own emotions.
Objectives
1. To enhance group members’ understanding of their own emotions.
2. To help group members understand that different incidents will trigger different emotions
because individuals have different thoughts.
Procedure
1. Each group memberwill select a frequently experience demotion and then act it out.
2. Lots are drawn (lots 1-8) to determine the performance order. The most outstanding
performance will be rewarded to encourage group members’ involvement.
3. When each group member is performing, worker will writedown theeventportrayed on a large
piece of drawing paper.
4. After each performance, other group members will rate the performance according to whether
the performercould clearly and vividly portray the incidentand his/her feelings. Worker will
record the members’ scores.
5. Group members imagine what emotion they would experience if they encountered the same
incident and then write it down on an emotion card (Group Material 1.1)
6. Group members share their emotions and views regardingthe incident.
7. The performer disclosesthe incident and emotions he/she was trying to portray.
Debriefing:
During any incident, different people will have different emotions because they have different
points of view.
Materials
Numbered cards for drawing lots, large sheets of drawing paper, emotion cards (Group Material
1.1), back-up assignment
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Activity
“Repressed Emotion”
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
To helpgroup members think, discover and feel their repressed emotions, and to encourage
understanding of their own emotions
Procedure
1. Divide the members into groups (fourmembersper group)
2. Each group member talks about the feeling that is “hard” to allowin daily life and the reason
for that.
3. Let other group members share their past experiences, and let group members feel the
emotions of the person involved andencouragethem to allow their “hard” feelings to appear.
4. If a group member cannot think of an incident, the other group members can share incidents
related to emotion, and then ask the group member if the “hard” feeling will be triggered when
he/she encounters a similar situation.
5. If group members claim to know or experience the “hard” feelings that other members share,
they can share their experience as well.
Materials
Pens, largesheet of drawing paper
Activity
“Uncovered Feelings”
Duration
10 minutes
Concept
Because proactive aggressors are unemotional, they may suppress their emotions. The use
ofaffective imagery can help group members explore themselves in relation to past experiences
and thus increase their self-understanding.
Objectives
To use guided affective imagery (GAI; Leuner, 1969) to help group members explore their
suppressed emotions.
Procedure
1. Each group member moves his/her chair to a place where no other group memberis present
and sits down comfortably.
2. Group members are informed that the light will be switched off and are asked to listen to the
worker carefully.
3. If group members cannot concentrate, ask them to sit down quietly to avoid disturbing others.
4. Worker switches off the light and starts the music.
5. Start GAI (refer to the content of guided affective imagery – Group Material1.2)
6. Worker compliments group members for their participation.
Materials
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GAI content (Group Material1.2) and soft music
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Activity
Conclusion and Homework Debriefing – “Reflection on My Thoughts”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To provide post-session debriefing.
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework.
Procedure
1. Appreciate group members’ participation and complement those who have exhibited positive
involvement and prosocial behavior.
2. Homework debriefing “Reflection on My Thoughts”
Objectives: To preview the ABC concept
To consolidate the session content: Understanding one’s emotions
3. Remind group members that they will receive a reward after finishing the homework.
4. Present“outstanding performance awards” to those who were most involved in the session.
Materials
“Reflection on My Thoughts” (Homework Assignment), rewards
Remarks
1. This session is a preview for the next session about the ABC concept. The workershould pay attention to their
use of words in the events and emotions. Standardized words can help group members understand the ABC
concept.
2. The workercan integrate group members’ suppressed emotions into the GAI during the second activity, which
willhelp build closer relationshipswith group members.
3. Group members need to concentrate on the GAI activity. If some group members cannot concentrate, another
worker can help them and avoid affecting others.
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Name：____________________
Fourth Session Group Material 1.1:
Emotion Cards
Frustration
Relaxation
Fear
Security
Remorse
Loneliness
Satisfaction
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Fourth Session Group Material 1.2:
Name：____________________
Guided Affective Imagery
“Overthe next 2 to 3 minutes, I hope everyone can close their eyes and listen to me. Now please close your eyes.
If you can concentrate, please listen carefully and try your best to imagine and pay attention to the images that
appear in your mind. If you cannot concentrate, please sit down quietly and relax. Please do notmake any sounds
or chat with others.”
(After everyone quiets down, start the music)
“In today’s activities, we heard about many emotions, such as satisfaction, relaxation, etc. We find some of the
emotions hard to experience. Even when we heard about others’ feelings, we were unable to experience one or
more of the same feelings. So what kind of emotion is hard for you to experience? Have you thought of why it is
hard for you to experiencethat emotion?
(Wait for a while and let the participants think back their suppressed emotions.)
“When you think back to your childhood, did that emotion arise in you? What happened at that time? If some
images appear in your mind, pay attention to them. What did you do at that time?”
(Wait for a while, and let participants think back to the past.)
“Now allow yourself to feel that emotion. Can you feel it, and what is that emotion?”
(Wait for a while.)
“When did you find it hard to feel that emotion? Where did the emotion go? Do you want it to ariseagain? When it
arises, what will you feel now? In fact, the emotion never disappears; it is always present.”
(Wait for a while.)
“In the future, you will understand more about your emotions and yourselves. Everyone did a great job today. Thisis
the first step toward understanding your emotions and yourselves. Everyone please open your eyes and return to
the group.”
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Fourth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
“Reflection on My Thoughts”
One Success
What happened?
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One Failure
What happened?
My thoughts?
My thoughts?
My feeling
My feeling
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(E) Session: Fifth Session
Theme: Understanding the ABC concept and My “Belief”
Aims:1.To helpgroup members understand the ABC concept (A=Activating Event, B=Belief and
C=Consequence),and the relationship among the three parts.
2.To evaluate group members’ irrational thoughts.
Activity
“Understand Our Emotion through Balloon Play” – Warm-up Activity
Duration
10 minutes
Objectives
1. Tocreate a goodatmosphere and highlight the theme–the ABC concept
2. To create an experience that will allowgroup members to observe the difference between
other group members’ emotional responses and their own
3. To help group members understand the ABC concept
Procedure
1. One co-worker blows upaballoon to arouse group members’ interest
2. Worker explains that he/she will stick pieces of adhesive tape on the blown-up balloon and
invite each group member to tear off one piece. Worker pays attention to members’ emotional
responses during the activity.
3. When a group member tears off a piece oftape, worker asks other group members to observe
his/her own emotion and behavior carefully (behavioral response)
4. Invite group members to share their observation and their thoughts at the time
5. Debriefing
• Discuss the emotion that arose when tearing off the tape and the reason for it
• Discussthe behavior when tearing off the tape and the reason for it
• Clarify that different emotions and behaviors are caused by different beliefs
• Bring out the theme of the session – the ABC concept
Materials
Balloons, adhesive tape
Activity
“Introducing the ABC Concept”
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
Ellis (1962) thought that “Irrational Beliefs (IBs)” will incur negative behaviors and emotions.
Becauseproactive aggressors focus on the events and benefits, they seldom think about the
thoughts that affect their behaviors; therefore, learning about their concepts will help them
understand their own beliefs.
Objectives
To help group members understand the ABC concept and the relationship among the three parts
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Procedure
1.Group members will use the ABC concept chart (Group Material 1.1) for an introduction to the
ABC concept and the relationship among the three parts
2. Use the foursuitsfound in a deck of cards to help group members understand the ABC
concept and the relationship among the three parts: the spade represents belief, which is the
most important part in the ABC concept; the heart represents emotional response; the club
represents behavioral response; and the diamond represents the least import factor–event.
This will help group members understand that behavioral responses and emotional responses
are affected by thoughts, and thoughts are of utmost importance.
3. Using the homework example, let group members distinguish the difference betweenevent,
thoughts, and behavioral response.
Materials
ABC concept Chart (Group Material 1.1), back-up homework
Activity
“Scenario – If I Were Tom, I Would…”
Duration
35 minutes
Concept
After group members have learned the ABC concept, different situations can be used to let
group members see that when the same event happens to different people, they will have
different thoughts and respond with different behaviors and emotions.
Objectives
1. To strengthen group members’ understanding of theABC concept
2. To evaluate group members’ irrational beliefs
3. To helpgroup members understand their thoughts
Procedure
1. Two workers will role-play an event (A) (Class Assignment 1.1), then provoke membersto
think: “If you were the main characterTom, how would you respond?”
2. Workers distribute class assignment worksheets and ask the group members to fill in their
behavioral and emotional responses; workers divide members into groups that share the
same behavioral responses (example, put the group members who report aggressive
behavior in the same group). Then in group discussion, each member shares his/her views
about the behavior. Have members write down their views on a piece of paper.
3. Each group will act out their behavioral responses; other groups will observe and guess and
write what behavioral responses the members are acting out.
4. Reveal the answers that are written down. Mark the members’ correct answers. Group
members share their thoughts behind their behaviors.
5. Two workers will role-play another event (A)(Class Assignment 1.2), then provoke group
members to think: “If you were the main character Tom, what would you feel?”
6. This time workers will divide group members into groups with the same emotional responses,
then repeat steps 2-4.
Debriefing:
the same incident happening to different people will result in different behavioral and emotional
responses because people have different thoughts
Materials
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Scenarios 1,2 (Class Assignments 1.1-1.2), paper and colored pens
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Activity
Conclusion and Homework Assignment Debriefing – “Application of the ABC Concept”
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
By summarizing group members’ objectives (benefit), behavior, emotions, needs, etc.,
discovered in the three previous sessions; workers can verify each participant’s irrational belief
Objectives
1. To conclude the session
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework
Procedure
1. Summarize eachgroup member’s involvement, and compliment those who have participated
positively.
2. Distribute “IrrationalBelief” labels (Group Material 1.2) and homework sheets
Introduce thoughts: according to workers’ evaluation of group members’ irrational beliefs, stick
group members’ irrational belief labels onto the homework sheet “(B)♠belief*”.Workershope that
the group memberswill use this opportunity to better understand themselves. From among the
thought labels, group memberschoosetwo others that they feel describe themselves and stick
the labels onto the homework sheet “(B)♠belief”
Homework debriefing:“Application of the ABC Concept”
Remind participants that after they finish their homework, they will receive a reward.
Present the “most outstanding performance”to the group member who has the most thorough
understanding of the ABC concept.
Materials
“Application of the ABC Concept” (Homework Assignment), “Irrational Belief” labels (Group
Material 1.2),rewards
Remarks
1. The pace should be light from one activity to the next. The different activities in this session, such as the warmup exercise, homework sharing and role-playing, are different formats that are used tostimulate group members
to learn. If the pace is too slow, the whole process may become boring, and group memberswill loseinterest in
the learning experience.
2. Workers can use daily examples that are close to the group members’ experiences so that group members can
easily grasp the ideas and become more interested in understanding the ABC concept.
3. Workers must have full grasp of the ABC concept. When group members share their experience, they may mix
up events, thoughts and behavior. Therefore, workers should distinguish the three; Later on, the groups will
resolve their irrational beliefs. Hence, group members must grasp the concept so that they can resolve their
irrational beliefs effectively.
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Name：____________________
Fifth Session Group Material 1.1:
ABC concept
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◆
♠
Event
Belief
♣
♥
Behavioral
Response
Feeling
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Fifth Session Group Material 1.2:
Name：____________________
Irrational Beliefs Labels
1. I must be loved by significant
others for almost everything I do.
2. Certain acts are awful or wicked,
and people who perform
such acts should be severely
punished.
3. It is horrible when things are not
the wayI like them to be.
4. Human misery is invariably
caused by externalforces, such
as outside people and events,
that act upon us.
5. When something is or may be
dangerous or fearsome, we
should be terribly upset and
obsess endlessly over it.
6. It is easier to avoid rather than
face life’s difficulties and our own
responsibilities.
7. We absolutely need something
stronger or greater than
ourselves on which to rely.
8. We should be thoroughly
competent, intelligent, and
successful in all possible
respects.
9. Because something once
strongly affected our life, it will
continue indefinitely to affect it.
10. We must have certain and
perfect control over things.
11. Human happiness can be
achieved by inertia and inaction.
12. We have virtually no control
over our emotions, and we
cannot help feeling disturbed
about things.
Ellis, A. (1977)
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Fifth Session Class Assignment 1.1:
Name：____________________
Scenario 1
(A)◆Activating Event
Tom's best friend hates his classmatePeter. One day, Tom and a group of his friends
come across Peter. Tom will…
(B)♠Belief
(C) ♣ Behavioral Response
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(C)♥Feeling
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Fifth Session Class Assignment 1.2:
Name：____________________
Scenario 2
(A)◆Activating Event
Tom goes to the kiosk during recess. However, when he arrives at the kiosk, he finds that he doesn’t have any
money. At that time, he sees his classmate buying food. The recesswill soon be over. Tom will…
(B)♠Belief
(C) ♣ Behavioral Response
(C)♥Feeling
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Fifth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
Application of the ABC Concept
When having a conflict with your classmate, what would you feel and how would you behave?
Whatwill beyour goal(s)?
Please write them down in the boxes below and circle the most suitable belief.
♦ Activating Event
(Ｂ)♠belief
(Ｂ)♠belief
(Ｂ)♠belief
(Ｃ)♣Behavioral response
(Ｃ)♣Behavioral response
(Ｃ)♣Behavioral response
(Ｃ)♥Emotional response
(Ｃ)♥Emotional response
(Ｃ)♥Emotional response
My goal
My goal
My goal
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(F) Session: Sixth Session
Theme: Severity
Aims: 1. To create internal pressureso thatgroup memberswill feel the urge to change and then make changes.
2. To helpgroup members reflect on the consequences of their behaviors and broaden their concept of
positive consequences.
3. To expandgroup members’ angle onevaluation.
Activity
Homework Sharing – “Severity Index”
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors tend to overvalue the consequences of their behavior (Poulin & Boivin,
2000) and ignore the negative effects. Group members’ descriptions of their behavioral
responses (homework) can be used to help them reflect upon the negative consequences of
their behaviors. As the list of negative consequences grows, there will be a snowball effect,
attacking the group members’ overblown valuation of the consequences.
Objectives
To helpgroup members reflect on the negative consequences of their behaviors and broaden
their concept of a positive outcome.
Procedure
Homework Sharing:
1. Group members take turns sharing the ABCs from their homework assignment.
2. Workers inquire about the severity of consequences of their behavioral responses,with 5
points representing the most severe.
3. Group membersare asked to list (verbally) as many different consequences as possible within
30 seconds.The consequences they list must increase in severity (second consequence
must be more severe than first consequence, and so on). Any member who succeeds in
doing this will receive a “Big Blunder” label for every (10 maximum) appropriate answer. If a
group member cannot get all 10 labels within the time limit, other group members will have 20
seconds to list further consequences in order of severity. The person who answers correctly
will receive the remaining labels.
4. Other worker will writedown the group members’ answers on the “Severity Index” (Group
Material 1.1)
5. Repeat steps 1-3 until all the group members finish sharing
Debriefing:
Everyone holds different views aboutthe seriousness of consequences and may not think about
the severity of the consequences before he/sheacts. Workers can let participants know that for
the same event, there can be different behavioral responses that lead to different consequences.
Materials
Stopwatch, Severity Index (Group Material 1.1)
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Activity
Viewing “The Road Back–Overact”*+
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
To help group members understand, through real case sharing, that “just making fun” can have
severe negative consequences.
Procedure
1. Video introduction: Video will show real life cases that will allow group membersto notice the
behaviorsof the main characterand the consequences.
2. Video broadcast
3. Key discussion points:
• Group members share the most unforgettable scene
• Discuss the severity indexof the main character
• If the main character understood the negative consequences, wouldit affect his/her
behavior?
Debriefing:
The main character may not have considered the severe consequences brought about by his/
her behavior; workers hope that this discussion will help group members reflect on the negative
consequences brought about by their behavior.
Materials
“The Road Back–Overact”, laptops
*‘The Road Back–Overact’ episode #10, RTHK
Activity
Role-Play Court Scenario
Duration
35 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors tend to focus on the benefit duringany event. They will evaluate the
consequences positively and ignore others’ feelings. By playing the roles of different characters
in bullying incidents, members will come to understand the seriousness of the consequences,
and their thoughts about aggression/bullying behavior will be enriched.
Objectives
1. To help group members widen their views about aggression/bullying behavior by acting out
various roles and evaluating the consequences from different viewpoints.
2. Tohelpgroup members understand the seriousness of real-life consequences.
Procedure
1. Activity briefing: the activity will mimic a court hearing. Each group member will play different
roles in the hearing and will need to express his/her opinion according to his/her role. After
the activity, workers will remind members that the goal of the role-playing was to speak
with respect to the role not the role-player’s own stance. There will be an “for the “best
impersonator”(decided bygroup vote) and the“most rational impersonator” (decided by
workers) to encourage group members to get involved in their roles.
2. Distribute related information**so that group members will understand the case; after group
members understand the case content, workers will assign roles and distribute related
materials (Group Materials 1.2, 1.3)
3. Rearrange the chairs to mimic a courtroom and to enhance the atmosphere, to facilitate
involvement of thegroup members.
4. Group members will draw lotsfor their turn to speak. If a speaker wants to know someone
else’s view, he/she can appoint the next speaker or draw lot to decide.
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5. When any group member puts forth an irrational belief, group members can use other roles
(except those of criminals and gangs members) to refute the belief.
6. Set a time limit.When time is up, ask group members to discard their roles and go back to
their original seats to act as jury.
7. Workers replay the video. When workers feel thatthe members understand the event from
different angles, the group members will be asked to judge whether the character in the case
is guilty and to explain the reason behind their judgment.
8. In conclusion,workers will talk about the verdict and related punishments for similar cases,
allowing group members to understand that real-life consequences can be very severe.
Materials
“The Roles’ characteristics” (Group Materials 1.2) and “The Roles” (Group Materials 1.3)
Activity
Debriefing and Homework Explanation – “Jane’s New Page”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To provide post-session debriefing
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework
Procedure
1. Summarize group members’ performance and compliment those who participated actively
and positively.
2. Explain homework“Jane’s New Page”
Objective: To let group members view an incident through different perspectives. This is the first
step toward change.
3. Remind group members that they can get a reward after finishing the homework.
4. Selectwinners of the“best performance award” and “most rational impersonator” award, and
present the awards.
Materials
“Jane’s New Page” (Homework Assignment), rewards
+“The Road Back” series was produced jointly by Hong KongCorrectionalServices and Radio Television Hong
Kong, aimed at enhancing understanding ofimprisoned and rehabilitated offendersto generate society’s acceptance
and support. This presentation can be replaced by different but similar dramas in other countries or regions.
*“The Road Back–Overact” 10th Episode, RTHK
**Due to copyright restrictions, thecase content cannot be published.
Remarks for Workers
1. After viewing the episodes, group members will be interested in knowing more about the incidents. Workers
should guide them to focus on the theme of the activity: severe consequences of their behaviors.
2. Because proactive aggressors tend to overvalue the “benefits” and ignore the negative outcomes of bullying
events, workers can use real-life cases such as those reported in newspapers to help group members
understand the seriousness the consequences.
3. Workers need to consider the roles of group members carefully. Choose roles for them that will be natural; that
is, allow them to dramatizetheir own characteristics. For example, if a memberhas shown leadership skills in
the group, let this member play judge, with the goal of enhancing his/her ability to evaluate the incident, or any
incident, from a legal angle.
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Sixth Session Group Material 1.1:
Name：____________________
Severity Index
Below is an example of the “Severity Index”.When preparing the table, workers need to use a
largepiece of paper and different stickers.
E.g.:
Negative Consequences
Chris
Behavioral
Response:
1.Scolding by
teachers
6.
Arouse a
group of
classmates to
intimidate the
classmate that
I don’t like
2.Receiving
ademerit
8.
3.Retaliation
7.
9.
10.
4.See parents
5. Mom would
feel sad
=2+5+(remedial
answer)
= Total score
=2
=5
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Name：____________________
Sixth Session Group Material 1.2:
Roles and Their Characteristic
Behaviors
Criminal
Victim
Defends his/her own behaviors
Complains about being bullied
Accomplice
Judge
Defends his/her own behaviors
Gives criminals their deserved punishment
Police
Friend
Lists objective evidence to prove that the Cares about the consequences and their
criminal’s behavior is irrational and illegal.
friend’s future
Angel
Family member
Feels that he/she must help
Feels that he/she understands the incident
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Name：____________________
Sixth Session Group Material 1.3:
Roles in a Court
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Criminal
Accomplice
Family
Judge
Police
Friend
Angel
Victim
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Sixth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
「Jane’s New Page」
Case:
(Due to copyright restriction, the newspaper content cannot be published)
I hope everyone will offer some advice to Jane, to let Jane view the incident from other angles
and avoid making the same mistake again.
If I wasa police officer, I wouldsay to Jane...
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
If I was a judge, I would say to Jane…
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
If I was an angel, I will would to Jane…
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Thank you for all of your advice.Janecan view things fromother angles and can “turnover a new leaf” in her life.
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(G) Session: Seventh Session
Theme: “The Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful Concept – Multi-Angle Thinking”
Aims: 1. To learn fair, reasonable and rightful thinking methods.
2. To increase the possibility of group members’ changing their irrational beliefs.
Activity
Assignment Sharing – “The Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful Concept”
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors ignore the negative consequences of their aggression and they lack
empathy. Theyfocus too much on their own self-interest. Hence, to target proactive aggressors’
thinking and to strengthen the possibility of building rational thoughts, the group can use “Fair”
to represent empathy, “Reasonable” to represent normal social ethic, and “Rightful” to represent
consequences.
Objectives
To instruct group members in the “fair”, “reasonable” and “rightful”model.
Procedure
Homework Sharing:
1. Group members share opinions ofJane from different angles.
2. Workers write down the key points according to the “fair”, “reasonable”, and “rightful” model of
behavior.
3. Summarize group members’ opinions and teach “fair”, “reasonable” and “rightful”(Group
Material 1.1)
• Angel represents “Fair”, which means thoughts and behaviors must show concernfor their
ownand others’ feelings.
• Police represents “Reasonable”, which means thoughts and behaviors must have objective
proof and be accepted by the general public.
• Judge represents “Rightful”, which means thoughts and behaviors must comply with rules
take consequences into account.
Materials
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Activity
“Analyze and Practice Reasonable Belief”
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
Because group members have their own sets of thoughts and seldom think from different
angles, we should refute their irrational beliefs and let them practice rational thinking.
Objectives
1. To refute irrational beliefs.
2. To practice rational thinking.
Procedure
1. Play the video. In the video, a group of students surrounds and provokes a classmate that
they hate.
2. Divide members into two groups: use the “fair”, “reasonable” and “rightful” model.
3. Distribute “The Rules of Rational Thinking” (Group Material 1.2) to reinforce group members’
understanding of rational thinking.
4. Facilitate group discussions, have members write down the discussion points on the record
form(Group Material 1.3), then report results of the discussion to the worker. Worker can give
points according to the quality and quantity of the discussion points (e.g., bonus point for
pointing out irrational belief).
Materials
Videos, Rules of Rational Thinking (Group Material1.2), record form (Group Material1.3)
Activity
“Rational Thinking Debate”
Duration
35 minutes
Concept
Through debate, group members can use rational thinking to refute others’irrational beliefs and
behaviors.Becausegroup members have their own sets of thoughts, the format of the activity is
to judge others and to refute irrational beliefs and behaviors.
Objectives
To learn to use rational thinking to refute irrational beliefs and behaviors
1. Workerintroducesthe debate.
2. Worker role-plays the debate topics:
Event–School doesn’t allow students to bring mobile phones to school. During lunch break,
Tomsees Petersneak into a corner of a corridor to use a mobile phone to contact his friends.
Then Tom and his friends approach Peter and grab his mobile phone, and with other
classmates they toss themobile phone around. Peter doesn’t make a sound because he is
afraid that his phone will get damaged. Tom reads Peter’s text messages out loud and laughs
with the other classmates. While the phone is being tossed, it is suddenly dropped on the
floor and damaged. Peter cries out loudly. Tomasks theothers,“Anyone seethis?” The others
reply“No.”Tomsaysto Peter, “You know that the school doesn’t allow students to carrymobile
phones.” Then they leave Tom and his damaged phone.
3. Worker raises the debate question: In this incident, is Tom’s way rational?
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Procedure
4. Divide members into two groups of four members each: an “irrational” group (aim is to verify
that Tom’s behavior is irrational), anda “rational” group (aim is to support Tomand verify that
Tom’s behavior is rational)
5. The four members represent fair, reasonable, rightful, and leader. The leader needs to lead
the group to refute the discussion points.
6. Members separate into theirtwo groups and sit down.
7. Procedure:
• Introduce the procedure, group division, goals, and roles
• Use 1minute for job division and 5minutes to prepare the debate points(Group Material
1.3)
• Toss a coin to decide the order of speaking
• First stage: each group speaksfor 1minute.Members speak in the following order:fair,
reasonable, and rightful.
• Each group has 3 minutes to discuss and refute theother’s points.
• Second stage: use 5 minutes for free debate, one side ask questions, and the other side
responds to the questions.
8. When the groups debate, worker needs to listen and mentally organize the related irrational
beliefs and behaviors. From the conversation, group members pick out the debatable points
and discuss them. To conclude,summarize and reframe to allow group members to discuss
the irrational points.
9. After heated discussion, each group member will know thedifferent opinions and be able to
integrate them. Have them share their own opinions and discuss whether Tom’s behavior
matches rational thinking.
10. Invite group members to vote for the member they believe deserves the“most rational
thinking” award.
Materials
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Record Form for Group Debate (Group Material 1.3)
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Activity
Debriefing and Homework Explanation – “Irrational vs. Rational Ways”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To conclude the content of the session
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework
Procedure
1. Appreciate group members’ prosocial and considerate involvement, and compliment those
who contributed positively.
2. Explain homework “Irrational vs. Rational Ways”.
• According to the worker’s assessment of the group members, in the first part of the
homework “(B) Thoughts” paste members’ irrational beliefs (Group Material 1.2 from
Session 5).
Objectives:
• To helpgroup members think back to one irrational behavior and the irrational belief giving
rise to it.
• To practice behaviors, thereby creating new expectations and helping group members
experience positive behaviors, discarding their irrational beliefs.
• Point out that the homework is very challenging; special rewards will be given to those who
finish. (This is for motivation.)
• To vote forwho in the groups should receive the ‘best performer” and “most rational
thinking” awards.
Materials
“Irrational vs. Rational” (Homework Assignment), rewards
Remarks
1. Worker makes use of the roles of judge, police and angels to connect to the rational angles so that members can
understand easily.
2. Last session will focus the consequences brought by negative behavior; this session will review the A-B-C
concept to let group members understand irrational behavior and its effect.
3. Worker can choose videos about school bullying to stimulate group members to practice rational thinking mode.
4. When helping the group members design the behavior training, the following factors should be taken into account:
• For group members, behavior training should be reachable, comprehensive and not complicated; otherwise
group members would give up easily.
• Behavior trainingis designed on the basis of behavioral response or rational thoughts. For training that
is based on behavioral response, group members can try to exercise positive, prosocial, and empathic
behaviors. For example, this week, group members could try to pay attention to classmates/friends’ merits
and compliment their friends for these merits. For training based on rational thoughts (e.g., “I can love myself,
express my opinions, and choose the life I like.”), this week, group members couldtry to find time to do things
that they like to do.
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Seventh Session Group Material 1.1:
Name：____________________
“Reasonable, Fair, and Rightful
Cards”
Rightful:
Thoughts and behavior should comply with rules and take the consequences
into account.Rightful:Thoughts and behavior should comply with rules and take
the consequences into account.
Reasonable:
Thoughts and behavior should be supported by objective evidence and
accepted by society.
Fair:
Thoughts and behavior should take other people into consideration, including
those who love us and those we love.
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Seventh Session Group Material 1.2:
Name：____________________
Rules of Rational Thinking
Rightful: Thoughts and behavior shouldcomply with rules and take the consequences
into account.
(What are the negative effects?/How bad are they?)
1.
On yourself (body/future/life)
2.
On your family (living situation/habit/communication)
3.
At school (classmates’ learning/teaching/public infrastructure)
4.
On the victim (mental health)
Reasonable: Thoughts and behavior should be supported by objective evidenceand
accepted by society.
1.
What is the rationale to support your decision to choose this thought/behavior?
2.
What objective evidence makes you think that the rationale behind your choice is correct?
3.
What objective evidence do you have to prove that the thought/behavior is correct?
Fair: Thoughts and behavior should take other people into consideration, including those
who love us and those we love.
1.
How do you feel?
2.
How do others feel? (Others are the people who are important to us: family, good friends, teachers who
love us.)
3.
What’s the difference between how you feel and how others feel? How do you feel about the difference?
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Seventh Session Group Material 1.3:
Name：____________________
“Record Form for Group Debate”
Reasonable
Fair
Righteous
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“Record Form for Group Debate”
Unreasonable
Unfair
Unrighteous
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Name：____________________
Seventh Session Homework Assignment:
“Irrational vs. Rational”
First Part:
Based on the influence of irrational thoughts, please circle abehavior that you engaged in? Then think back to the
event and your purpose.
◆Event
♣Response: Behavior
Beating/Murder/Cheating/Isolating yourself/Making
fun of another/Talking behind someone’s back/
Teaming up against another person.
♠Belief
Purpose:
Second Part:
This week, please practice a new rational behavior to achieve your ideal goals. Here are the steps:
Rational Behavior
Purpose
Achieve
New
Thought
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(H) Session: Eighth Session
Theme: The fair, reasonable, and rightful concept – Multi-angle thinking
Aims: 1. Refute irrational beliefs
2. Apply rational thinking mode
3. Construct rational thoughts and behavior
Activity
“Homework Sharing” (Homework – Second Part)
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
Ellis and Bernard(2006) pointed out that, to increase their motivation to change and to
understand their own problems,young people in therapy must learn to understand their irrational
beliefs, negative behavior, and emotional responses, and then analyze old thinking and apply
new thinking.
Objectives
To appreciategroup members’ cooperative and prosocial behaviors and positive experiences so
that they will come to understand that positive experience arises from a change in belief.
Procedure
1. Group members share the behavior they practiced.
2. Worker can lead group members to discuss the concept of behavior practice and how to use
rational thinking mode.
Sharing points:
• How to use rational thinking mode
• The difference between new and old behaviors and new and old emotions in responseto
the same event.
• The difference between new thinking and old thinking.
Materials
Back-up homework, special rewards
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Activity
Discussion on Irrational Beliefs (Assignment – Part I)
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
Rational thinking mode can be used during confrontation between group members to help
members refute irrational beliefs(Beck,1995). In the sixth and seventh sessions, group members
will come to understand the negative consequences of their behaviors and the effects onpeople
who are important to them. Hence they can refute group members’ irrational beliefs and behavior
directly.
Objectives
1. To help members refute other members’ irrational thoughts and learnan appropriate
confrontation style.
2. To apply rational thinking mode and build up rational thoughts and positive behaviors.
Procedure
1. Worker explains the activity: worker will randomly choose a group members’ homework by
drawing lots. (In reality, however, the worker will deliberately choose the most irrational belief).
The homework will be used to launch a discussion over the underlying irrational thought.
2. Separate members into two groups, a “rational group” and an “irrational group”one on either
side of the room.
3. Have the groups gather on separate sides of the room and sit down.
4. The two groups will discuss on the underlying irrational thought of the chosen homework
according to the concept of fair, reasonable, and rightful; worker writes down scores on a
summerizing table (Group Material 1.1).
5. Group members try to refute opponents’ points.
6. When group members are debating, workers need to listen for irrational beliefs and behaviors,
guide the group members’ conversation, and extract some debatable points. Then conclude
by summarizing and reframing to have group members discuss irrational points.
7. Identify irrational points in the discussion and paste them on the record form.
Materials
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Summarizing table (Group Material 1.1), adhesive tape
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Activity
Developing Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful Behavior
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
Thinking about a new behavior is easier than formulating a new thought, so start from this step
to helpmembers think about a new behavior and then anew rational belief.
Objectives
To formulate a rational belief aimed atfair, reasonable, and rightful behavior.
Procedure
1. Write down a rational behavior on adhesive tape according to an event group members’
described,and paste it on the record form(Group Material 1.1)
2. Group members describe the new rational thoughts underlying the rational behavior.
3. Workerwrites down the new thoughts on the record form.
4. Worker distributes homework andwrites down examples of fair, reasonable, and
rightfulthoughts and behaviors. He says to the members, “If the rational behaviors are
suitable for you, you can take away the adhesive tape and paste it on the homework “Behavior
Response” page.
Materials
Summarizing Table (Group Material 1.1), adhesive tape, colored pens, and homework (second
page).
Activity
Sharing and Encouragement Regarding the Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful Concept
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
Group members cannotapply new thoughts and behaviors easily; they need group members’
encouragement and assurance to strengthen and support their changes.
Objectives
To provide group members the support they need to apply new rational thoughts and behaviors.
Procedure
1. Worker divides members into groups; members with the same irrational thoughts are grouped
together.
2. Each group membershares rational thoughts, and the other group members evaluate whether
the thoughtsare indeedrational.
3. After a group member shares, the other members will write down encouraging words and
paste them intothe homework book and encourage the sharing member to apply new
thoughts.
4. Workers distribute supporting cards (Group Material 1.2)
Materials
Adhesive tape, colored pens, “supporting cards” (Group Material 1.2)
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Activity
Debriefing and Homework Explanation – Developing Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful
Behavior
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To provide post-session debriefing.
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework.
Procedure
1. Express appreciation forgroup members’ participation, and compliment members who
participated actively and positively.
2. Homework explanation “Designing fair, reasonable and rightful behavior.”
Worker will fill out the first page for each member according to his/her assessment of thegroup
member.
Objective: To reinforce, by contrasting new and old thoughts, behaviors, and consequences,
group members’ motivation to apply new thoughts and behaviors.
3. Point out that the homework is very challenging and that after finishing the homework
members will be rewarded.
4. Have members vote on who should receive the “Most Rational Member” Award
Materials
“Developing fair, reasonable, and rightful behavior” (Homework Assignment), rewards
Remarks
1. Inrefutingthe groups’ irrational beliefs, the members may feel their own thoughts being confronted or challenged;
their resulting behavior may seem unnatural and self-protective. Hence, when worker refutes the beliefs, he/she
should not disclose the individual group members’ name. This will increase the sense of security and help group
members accept changes totheir old thoughts.
2. Worker should pay attention to the group atmosphere and care about group members’ progress and emotional
changes; that is, worker needs to assess the effect that refuting members’ irrational beliefs is having on individual
members.
3. When members are not divided evenly between the two groups, worker should rearrange the groups so that
members will feel supported and not overreact when their beliefs are being refuted. For example, cluster
members together who share the emotional belief that is being refuted.
4. Group membersmay think of new behaviors, but this doesnot mean that their thoughts have changed, and they
may use different aggressive behaviors to achieve their goals. Hence, worker needs to pay extra attention to
whether group members’ thoughts have changed.
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Name：____________________
Eighth Session Group Material 1.1:
Summarizing Table
The “Summarizing Table” should look as follows:
Aim (Tips)
(B) Old Beliefs ♠
(C) Bingo=Response♣
Rational Belief
Severity Index
(A) Event ◆
(B) New Beliefs ♠
(C) Behavioral Response♣
Rational Belief
Cool Index
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Name：____________________
Eighth Session Group Material 1.2:
Supporting Card
Workers will completea supporting card for each group member that reflects the individual
character of the member. Example:
I noticed that the group most appreciates
your …
I noticed changes in your beliefs and
behaviors …
I noticed that you worry about …
I encourage you with the following words:
Your most irrational beliefs and behaviors
seemed to be …
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Eighth Session Homework Assignment:
Before filling the second homework page, look at your own irrational beliefs and behaviors.
Now you have new beliefs, and you hope to apply reasonable, logical, and right thoughts and
become a leader in new ways.
Aim (Tips)
(B) Old Beliefs ♠
(C)Bingo=Behavioral Response ♣
Rational Beliefs
Beat / Scare /
Cheat / Surround /
Isolate yourself / Pick on another /
Severity Index
Talk behind another’s back /
Glare at others
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Fair, Reasonable and Rightful
Behavior Record Form
Please record anevent or behavior for whichyou have applied rational thoughts and/or behavior.
(A) ◆Event
(A) ◆Event
(A) ◆Event
(C)♣Behavioral response
(C)♣Behavioral response
(C)♣Behavioral response
(C) ♥My feeling
(C) ♥My feeling
(C) ♥My feeling
Other’s feeling
Other’s feeling
Other’s feeling
My purpose
My purpose
My purpose
(B) ♠New thought
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(I) Session: Ninth Session
Theme: Empathy Training
Aims: 1. To learn to understand the other person’s feeling.
2. To increase pro-social behavior.
Activity
Homework Sharing – “Understanding Rational Beliefs”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To consolidate group members’ rational thoughts.
2. To strengthen the positive effect of rational thoughts.
Procedure
1. Group members sharetheir recorded events
Sharing points:
• Different consequences brought about by rational thoughts
• Positive experience brought about by rational thoughts
2. Distribute “Rational Belief Card” (Group Material 1.1); members can select thoughts suitable
to themselves from among the 12 rational thoughts.
3. Worker complimentsgroup members for their performance, and encourages them to continue
their rational thinking.
Materials
Back-up homework, “Rational BeliefCard” (Group Material 1.1)
Activity
“Knowing Emotion” – Warm-up Exercise
Duration
10 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors lack feeling. Group members’ emotional responses can be stimulated
through observation of others’ facial expressions and emotions.
Objectives
1. To create a good atmosphere and bring the group into the theme.
2. To stimulate group members’ emotional responses.
Procedure
1. Group members will each draw a card numbered between 1 and 8.
2. Each member will thendraw an emotion card. Each member will role-play the emotion named
on their card.
3. The other group members will match the played-out emotion to the group member’s number
and circle it on the answer sheet(Group Material 1.2).
4. The group member who guesses correctly most often (according to the answers from the
answer sheet) will be given a reward.
Materials
Emotion cards, number cards, answer sheet (Group Material 1.2)
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Activity
“If I Were the Victim…”
Duration
35 minutes
Concept
Proactive aggressors lack empathy and they misunderstanding their victims feelings. By being
exposed to real cases, victims can express their feelings regarding school bullying, and this will
shed light on group members’ wrong views towards the victims.
Objectives
1. To practice the thoughts of others and to understand their feelings.
2. To develop a deep understanding of the victims’ feelings.
Procedure
1. Group will watch the related video*+.
2. Worker will divide members into two groups. Ask members who have been victims of bullying
to share the feelings and thoughts they experienced.
3. After discussion, members will use worksheet (Class Assignment 1.1) to record victims’
feelings, then report to others what they have written. The member with the most points will
win.
4. Broadcast a real-life victim’s confession*.
5. Let group members’ review their own answers.
6. According to the previous group division, if group members represent important persons in
the aggressor’s life (such as parents), ask what feelings and thoughts they would have.
7. After group discussion, members will use the class assignment worksheet to jot down the
feelings and thoughts and report them to the others. The member with the most points will
win.
8. Play the video of people who are important to the aggressors, and talk about their feelings.
Debriefing:
When the main character knows others’ (victims or important persons) feelings and thoughts,
what is the effect on his/her behavior?
Materials
Related video: “If I were the victim…”, worksheet (Class Assignment 1.1)
Activity
“Incident Recall”
Duration
15 minutes
Concept
If group members can be led to think back topast events and to try to understand the events
from a different angle, their behavior will change accordingly.
Objectives
To help group members understand victims’ feelings and change their thoughts regarding
bullying behavior.
Procedure
1. Worker will use imaging technique (Leuner, 1969) to help group members feel involved in the
event and think back to how it was for the persons they bullied. Group members should write
down the situation, their feelings, and the effects (Group Material 1.4).
2. Have the members read what has been written on the worksheet (anonymously).
Materials
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“Content of Guided Imagery” (Group Material 1.3), “One event” worksheet (Group Material 1.4),
soft music
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Activity
Debriefing and Homework Explanation – “Empathy Training”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To provide post-session debriefing.
2. To cultivate group members’ habit of finishing homework.
Procedure
1. Conclude by complimenting members for positive performances.
2. Explanation of homework “Empathy Training”
Aim:
• To help group members focus not only on their self-interest but also on others’ feelings.
• To change old, aggressive behaviors.
3. Remind group members that they will receive a reward if they finish their homework.
Materials
“Empathy Training” (Homework Assignment), rewards
*Monday Report “School Bullying”, 22March 2004, TVB
+“Monday Report” is a Hong Kong news series with different topics produced by Television Broadcasts Limited
(TVB)
Remarks
1. When choosing a related video, worker can select a video that portrays an issue that group members will easily
identify with, such as triads or aggressive behavior.
2. If worker discovers group members still have irrational beliefs, the worker should continue to refute the beliefs.
3. If might be hard for group members to express their emotions, not only because they have the characteristics
of proactive aggressors but also because they (might) lack the proper words to express their emotions;
hence,worker should guide them patiently to express their emotions and teach them suitable words. This can be
done any time.
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Ninth Session Group Material 1.1:
Name：____________________
Rational Belief Cards
1. I can love myself, I canexpress
my love, and I can live the way
I want to live.
2. Everyone make mistakes. I can
accept my mistakes, correct my
mistakes, and stop myself from
making the same mistakes
again.
3. When things are not as I want, I
can work hard to change them.
If I cannot change them, I will
accept the reality.
4. I can control and change my
thoughts, behaviors, and
feelings!
5. Situations that make me
uneasyare unavoidable and
are not a big deal. I can handle
them!
6. Avoiding a problem will only
bring more trouble. We can
only live happily if we face
challenges and solveproblems.
7.I can handle things
independently, but I will ask for
help if necessary.
8. We should do our best and
accept our own weaknesses
and mistakes, enjoy the
process, and not mind whether
we win or lose.
9. I can learn from past
experience. The past will not
necessarily determine my
future.10. Thingschange, and
life is full of possibilities. I
cannot control everything, but I
can enjoy the process.
10. Thingschange,and life is full
of possibilities.I cannot control
everything, but I can enjoy the
process.
11. Being involved in the process
makes me feel satisfied.
12.When I change myexpectation,
I can handle the emotions
troubling me.
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Name：____________________
Ninth Session Group Material 1.2:
Emotion Cards
Worried
Ashamed
Afraid
Sad
Desperate
Remorseful
Helpless
Disappointed
Number Cards
1
5
2
6
3
7
4
8
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Answer Sheet
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Desperate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Helpless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Remorseful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Disappointed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Ninth Session Group Material 1.3:
Name：____________________
Contents of Guided Imagery
“During the next 2 to 3 minutes, I hope everyone can close your eyes and listen to me. Now please close your
eyes. If you can concentrate, please listen carefully and try your best to imagine and pay attention to the images
that appear in your mind. If you can’t concentrate, please sit down quietly and relax. Please don’t make any sounds
or chat with others.”
(After everyone quiets down, start playing music.)
“Now you have a relaxed time in which to recall a very impressive fragment of an event. The event would be one
during which you bullied others or took advantage of others. Does any fragment of the event appear in your mind
now? If yes, please concentrate and visualize what was happening at the moment? What were you doing at that
moment?
(Wait for a while.)
“Now, we will concentrate on the “other person”. What was his/her facial expression?
(Wait for a while.)
“Did he/she say anything?”
“What was his/her response? What was his/her feeling?”
“Now you have a piece of paper in your hand. Use this piece of paper to jot down the particular event and the effect
it had on him/her and his/her feelings. You can jot down the things that are in your mind.”
“Imagine ‘today’s you’, seeing yourself at that moment, seeing him/her at the moment, and knowing the effect on
him/her and his/her feelings.”
“Would you have anything to tell him/her? Although that particular event took place in the past, you can take this
opportunity today to tell him/her something that you want to say, if there is anything, you can tell him/her in your
heart, and you can write it down on the piece of paper.”
“It is difficult to put yourself in another’ shoes. It requires you to be very attentive and focused. For those who are
not able to do this right now, please remain silent so that other members, and you too,will have the chance to
concentrate, to experience this particular growth.”
“Alright, now, slowly come back from the past and the event to today and to the group.”
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Ninth Session Group Material 1.4:
Name：____________________
One Event
One bullying event:
Victim’s feeling:
Sadness/Worry/Fear/Pain/Helplessness/Lost/Afraid/Feeling Poor/Alone
Effecton the victim:
Knowingthe victim’s feeling, you would say to him/her:
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Name：____________________
Ninth Session Class Assignment 1.1:
If I were the victim…
If I were the victim in the event, what would I think? What I would feel?
Belief
Feeling
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If I were a person who cares about the aggressor (e.g.,parent), what would I think? How would I feel?
People who care about
the aggressor
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Belief
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Feeling
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Name：____________________
Ninth Session Homework Assignment:
Empathy Training
Choose two people you have encountered, observe them this week, and record their feelings.
Person you care about 
A classmates who is often bullied by others 
___________________
_____________________________
Date
Feeling
Feeling
When you notice their feelings, is there a difference in how you get along with them? What is the difference?
Person you care about :
A classmate who is often bullied by others :
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(J) Session: Tenth Session
Theme: Leadership Graduate Session
Aims: 1. To prevent group members’ relapsing into old irrational beliefs.
2. To strengthen group members’ knowledge and use of rational thoughts and empathy.
3. To consolidate successful experiences, to strengthen members’ confidence that they can keep on
changing
Activity
Homework Sharing – “Empathy Training”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To strengthen group members’ use of “empathy”
Procedure
1. Group members share their homework.
Key sharing points:
• Understanding victim’s feelings and the impact of their own behavior
• The positive influence of “empathy”
Materials
Back-up homework, rewards
Activity
“Gang Leader vs. New Leader”
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
Group members think that even if they can change their thoughts and behavior, the external
environment cannot be changed. This lowers their confidence. By listening to a positive role
model, and through their own experience, members can remain motivatedto change.
Objectives
1. To strengthen group members’ knowledge and use of rational thoughts.
2. To strengthen their confidence that they can change.
Procedure
1. Play the related video*
• In the video, one student bullies others; after changing his thoughts, he becomes the
leader of the class.
2. Group members discuss the change in the main character. Worker writes down related points
on the “Change Into a New Leader” (Group Material 1.1) worksheet.
3. Worker assures group members’ of their ability and his/her belief that they can become a new
leader.
Materials
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“Change Into a New Leader” (Group Material 1.1)
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Activity
“Preventing Relapse Card”
Duration
20 minutes
Concept
Group members can be prevented from relapsing into irrational beliefs or aggressive behavior if
they are reminded of their prior situation and are encouraged to continue moving forward.
Objectives
1. To helpgroup members understand how to deal with relapse.
2. To strengthen group members’ rational thinking rules
Procedure
1. Worker distributes reminder cards (Group Material 1.2)
2. Explain that thereminder card is for reminding and reviewing the rational rules, and for
choosing positive behavior, considering negative consequences, and becoming a rational
leader.
Materials
Preventing Relapse Card (Group Material 1.2)
Activity
“Turning over a New Leaf”
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
1. To help group members reflect on their own development, i.e., of their positive thoughts and
changes in their behavior.
2. To helpgroup members develop hope for their future.
Procedure
1. Worker distributes human-shaped worksheet; group members write down their improvements
over the past two months, and their future expectations and aims.
2. Group members share one by one.
Key sharing points:
• How I have changed since the first session
• Points worth appreciating and improving
Materials
Human-shaped worksheet (refer to First Session)
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Activity
Debriefing and Praise
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
1. To provide post-participation debriefing.
2. To strengthen group members’ sense of achievement.
Procedure
1. Summarize the group experience and the things learned in the ten sessions; review the
contents together.
2. Distribute the leadership certificate (Group Material 1.3), compliment group members for their
participation, and encourage them to carry on.
Materials
Leadership Certificate (Group Material 1.3), rewards
*“Monday Report–School Bullying”, 22March 2004, TVB
+“Monday Report” is a Hong Kong news series that features different topics and is produced by Television
Broadcasts Limited (TVB).
Remarks
Because this is the last session, worker needs to emphasize the abilities of a reasonable new leader. If a member
chooses to be a “gang leader”, he/she will bear responsibility for serious consequences, which would make the
people they love sad.
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Name：____________________
Tenth Session Group Material 1.1:
The “Change Into a New Leader”worksheet should look as follows:
Severity Index
Irrational Belief
Gang
Leader
Old Feeling
Irrational Belief
New
Leader
Old Behavior
New Behavior
New Feeling
Rating
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Name：____________________
Tenth Session Group Material 1.2:
“Preventing Relapse Card”
1. I can love myself, express my love, and livethe way I want to live.
Name:_______________________
2. Everyone makes mistakes. I can accept my mistakes, correct my
mistakes, and stop myselffrom making the same mistakes again.
3. When things are not as I want, I can work hard to change them. If I
cannot change them, I will accept the reality.
4. I can control and change my thoughts, behaviors, and feelings!
5. Situations that make me uneasy are unavoidable and are not a big
deal. I can handle it!
Using multi-angle thinking
pattern to solve problem
6. Avoiding a problem will only bring more trouble. We Can only live
happily if we face challenges and solve problems.
7. I can handle things independently, but I will ask for help if necessary.
Appreciating oneself, enjoying
the process
8. We shoulddo our best and accept our own weaknesses and
mistakes,enjoy the process, and not mind whether we win or lose.
9. I can learn from past experience. The past will not necessarily
determine my future.
10. Things change and life is full of possibilities, I cannot control
everything, but I can enjoy the process.
Putting oneself in others’
shoes more often
11. Being involved in the process makes me feel satisfied.
12. When I change my expectation, I can handle the emotions troubling
me.
Old Thoughts
New Thoughts
Old Behavior
Beating/ Intimidating/
Cheating/
Isolating/Blackmailing/
Glaring
New Behavior
fair,
reasonable,
rightful
Being fair: Behavior will not make the people you
love have negative feelings
Being reasonable: Reason/proof to support your
behavior that is accepted by society
Being rightful:Behavior has
positiveconsequence/effect
fair,
reasonable,
rightful
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Severity Index
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Rating
Chapter 4
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Tenth Session Group Material 1.3:
Name：____________________
Leadership Certificate
Leader:_____________
1.
Enjoyssharing
2.
Respects others
3.
Takes homework assignments seriously
4.
Is willing to change
5.
Applies reasonable beliefs
6.
Practicesreasonable behavior
7.
Considers others’ situations
(Note: each item is rated on a scale of 1 to 5 stars)
Comments:
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IV. Case Studies
In this session, some of the above-mentioned activities were selected and described in detail with concrete
real examples, provided with group process, case description and worker’s analysis in every activity. For better
understanding, the treatment group sessions will be grouped into the first meeting plus four stages: initial stage,
early mid-stage, late mid-stage, and late stage.
1. First Meeting of the Treatment Group
The following is a brief summary of the first session of the treatment group. Group members’ participation in various
activities reflects the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional characteristics of proactive aggressors. Workers are
therefore able to respond appropriately after a clear understanding of these characteristics.
First Session: “Tell Us about Your School”
Group process and the case description
“Tell us about your school” was the first formal interactive program between workers and group members. Proactive
aggressors have the abilityto assess the environment and situation before deciding on a behavior. Therefore,
proactive aggressors chose to observe the behavior of workers and other group members. They did not take the
initiative to express their views and feelings.
After warm-up, some members became more willing to share about life at school. Group members shared their
delinquent behaviors, such as smoking and fighting,when they viewed associated school pictures(for example,
the picture of the school’s public toilet). Theyoften expressed positive emotions, such as “excited” and “happy” at
mention of these incidents. They emphasized that they always manage to escape from teachers’ eyes wherever
they engage in delinquent behavior. They even take the chance to tease teachers in front of their peers, positively
reinforcing their delinquent behaviors.
Wai rarely mentioned her school life during the sessions. When other group members disclosed their delinquent
behaviors, Wai would exclaim, “I am a good student and will not get into a fight at school! Ha ha! You really are bad
students!” But from time to time, Wai would expose her knowledge of the underworld and drugs to her groupmates
during the sessions. Wai maintained a calm facial expression and repeatedly showedthe “relaxed” and “bored”
mood cards to demonstrate her emotionsin relation to various incidents.
Workers’ analysis
Workers used Ellis’ ABC concept to pry into Wai’s mind.
(A) Anticipated event:
Worker presentspictures.
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(B) Belief:
I am not just anybody;I have
strength.
(C) Behavioral response /
Consequence:
Wai reveals her knowledge
ofgangsters and drugs.
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“I am not just anybody; I have the strength” is a typical cognitive belief of proactive aggressors. Group members
believed they could showcase their strength, gain status, and achieve success by challenging authority through
delinquent behavior. Workers noticed that group members appeared to evaluatethe consequences positively and
often ignore the negative effect of their behavior.
From Wai’s interaction with workers and group members, we could see that Wai acted differently around different
people to achieve her personal goal. On one hand, Waiwould show her knowledge of the underworld and drugs
to obtain power and status within the group. On the other hand, she was cautious in front of the workers and
proclaimed “I’m a good student”. Workers used the ABC conceptto understand the beliefs behind Wai’s exploratory
behavior.
(C) Behavioral Response
(B) Belief
(A) Incident
Worker presenting pictures
Worker is trying to tempt me
and is not trustworthy. I’m not
stupid either, I need to protect
myself. I must not tell the
truth..
“I’m a good student”
(exploratory behavior)
(C) Emotional Response
Skepticism
The objective of the first group session was to establish a trusting and respectful relationship between workers and
group members.
(B1) Belief
(C1) Behavioral Response
Worker is not trustworthy
Act cautiously
(B2) Belief
(C2) Behavioral Response
The worker is trustworthy
Express oneself freely
Workerswere able to use empathytogether with a sincere attitude to encourage acceptance, respect, and
understanding within the group. For example, workers showed empathy towards members’ in their reluctance to
reveal themselves during the first session. A trusting and respectful relationship established between members
and workers seemed to reduce members’wariness of workers and group members, enhance members’ sense of
belonging, and increase their willingness to reveal themselves in front of the group.
Workers were able examine the bond between members and themselves at the end of the first session. Workers
chose to follow up with individual group member before the start of next session.
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First Session: “Group Expectation”
Group Activities: Session 1
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Proactive aggressors – 1. First meeting of the treatment group)
Group process and case description
In discussing their expectations, members expressed a desire to receive material rewards such as new video
games, online gamepoint cards, free food and beverages, and even money. Workers made it clear to members
that only small items, such as souvenirs and candies, etc., but not money or video games, would be given out as
rewards. Workers discussed appropriate expectations of the group with members and summarized the group’s
common goals and code of participation. Group members were encouraged to adhere to the code of participation
so as to achieve personal expectations.
In addition, it seemed that team members might take advantage of each other or act aggressively during group
activities. Wai noticed that one of the male members expressed his desire to have beautiful female members in the
group. She therefore took the opportunity to attack this male member with help from another female group member.
Workers’ analysis
Unlike reactive aggressors (reactive aggressors strive to achieve relational goals and they hope to improve their
interpersonal relationships through participation in the treatment group), proactive aggressors value personal
benefits and pursue instrumental goals. Knowing these cognitive characteristics of proactive aggressors, workers
were able to use material incentives to encourage members’ participation at the beginning of program and before
members changed their beliefs. Workers should assess the effectiveness of material incentives from time to time.
If group members are already very cooperative and actively involved in group activities, workers can reduce the
tangible incentives accordingly. Moreover, workers should observe and praise members’ positive performance
immediately to encourage their participation in the group. Other options such as increasing the diversity of activities
also fostered participation of group members.
Proactive aggressors have a strong need to control others. Wai requested complimentary food and beverages from
workers, and threatened not to participate in the activities otherwise. Moreover, Wai and another female member
joined together to attack a male member. All of these behaviors reflected Wai’s attempt to challenge workers and
other team members in order to assume a dominant position within the group.
In the face of the aggressive behaviors of proactive aggressors, workers not only had to deal with the behaviors,
they also needed to pay special attention and assessthe motives behind them. IN this case, workers should react
appropriately in accord with group expectations and the code of participation.
Workers must respect members and earn their respect from the very first session. For example, workers knew Wai
would use aggressive behavior to gain control within the group. Therefore, in response to members’ aggressive
behavior, workers should show respect tothem by “praising” them as young and beautiful. On the other hand,
workers should explain that they are well aware of members’ intentions to use aggressive behavior to gain control
over others, and emphasize that aggressive behavior is not acceptable in the group. Furthermore, workers should
establish authority within the group and point out that the group is not necessarily controlled by members but
rather by workers. Therefore, in discussing thegroup objectives and code of participation, workers must respond
appropriately to members’ expectations, thus establishing mutual respect within the group.
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2. Initial Stage of Group Treatment
During the initial stage of group treatment, workers explored group members’ childhood experiences through
various activities in order to understand the formation of proactive aggressors’ social cognition. Through members’
cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses, coupled with the use of Beck’s CT concept, workers were able to
assess members’ core beliefs.
Second Session: “My Story”
Group process and case description
Members chose money, intelligence, power, health, and/or friends as “benefits/freebees”. Based on members’
particular choices,workers divided them into groups for discussion. Wai chose money, intelligence, and health.
For her, intelligence is the most important benefit, followed by money, then health.When workers asked her for the
reasons, she stated, “Intelligence can bring wealth, friends, power, and status. You can enjoy all of the above if you
have good health. Intelligence can help me avoid punishment even if I break the law; therefore, intelligence is the
most important ‘benefit/freebee’ among all.” Workers then asked Wai when she first realized intelligence was the
most important benefit. Wai recalled, “I thought intelligence was important even when I was small. My kindergarten
class was boring so I decided to ditch school. But I was stupid then, I chose to wander around the school
neighborhood. I was easily discovered by my teachers and was punished. My mother spanked me when I returned
home and said I was stupid. She said I should never have admitted truancy; I could have pretended to be scared
and told the teachers that I wanted to go home instead. In that way, I could have escaped the punishment. I have
smartened up since then”. Other members were willing to share their experiences after they heard Wai’s childhood
experience.
Workers’ analysis
i) Moral Development Theory
According to Kohlberg’s (1981) theory of moral development, workers found that Wai’s moral development
remained in the “preconventional morality” phase. People who remain in this phase of moral development
focus on their own personal interest and do their utmost to avoid punishment. They also judge their behavior by
the result achieved. Wai focused only on her own personal benefit. She would use her intelligence to achieve
personal gain and escape from punishment. Wai had gradually become a proactive aggressor.
ii) Social Learning Theory
Proactive aggressive behavior is a learned behavior. Role models of proactive aggressors (such as their
parents) also tend toward aggression. Their families encourage them to use aggressive behavior to resolve
conflicts and for personal gain (Boxer &Tisak, 2003; Vitaro, Barker, Boivin, Brendgen, & Tremblay, 2006).
Workers usedthe ABC concept to understand Wai’s past experience and the beliefs behind her proactive
aggressive behavior.
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(C) Behavioral Response
(A) Anticipated event
(B) Belief
Punished by school and
mother for her truancy
I’ll get punished if I am stupid.
I have smarten up to avoid
punishment. Honesty is a
foolish behavior.
Learned to disguise guilt,
avoid responsibilities.
(C) Emotional Response
Chose not to feel.
There was not enough information for workers to assess whether Wai’s mother was a proactive aggressor and
whether she was Wai’s aggressive role model. However, for certain, Wai’s mother ignored the seriousness of her
daughter’s delinquent behavior (truancy). She also taught Wai to use her “intelligence” to escape punishment;
otherwise, Wai would be considered stupid. Wai learned proactive aggression through the social learning process.
She mastered strategies that were favorable to her and, at the same time, guarded against any possible adverse
effects.
Fourth Session: Assignment Sharing - “Talent Show”
Group Activities: Session 4
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Proactive aggressors – 2. Initial stage of the treatment group, and 3. Explanation
by Dr. Annis Fung.)
Group process and case description
Workers charted members feelings in relation toeach incident and assessed their behaviors accordingly:
Member:Incident
Wai
On
Ying
Hung
Yee
Chun
Wai: More than 10 people
surrounded me after I
kicked someone in a ball
game.
Relaxed
Lonely
Guilty
Frustrated
Frightened
Frustrated
On: Went home alone
after detention.
Relaxed
Lonely
Lonely
Rage
Lonely
Frustrated
Chun: Hit teammate’s
head with a soccer ball.
Relaxed
Guilty
Guilty
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Ying: Pulled prank on a
teacher
Relaxed
Secure
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Hung: School life
Relaxed
Secure
Relaxed
Lonely
Secure
Satisfied
Yee: Talked to friends
after school.
Relaxed
Relaxed
Relaxed
Satisfied
Secure
Satisfied
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Wai presented the same emotion in relation to different incidents. Members’ incidents did not seem to affect her
emotionally, therefore she chose “relaxed” as her emotion throughout the group activity. But at the end of the group
activity, Wai became noticeably agitated. She was dissatisfied with the behavior and explanations of Ms. Wu, the
worker.
Wai felt that Ms. Wu did not express genuine emotions during the activity, but rather made up nonsense instead.
At the beginning, Ms. Wu proclaimed that she felt “guilty” over her performance at work. Wai questioned Ms. Wu’s
explanation because she believed that being dissatisfied with work performance would only bring frustration. Thus,
she immediately opposed Ms. Wu’s guilt feeling. Ms. Wu understood that Wai was genuinely expressing her feeling
and opinion and was not purposely challenging the workers. Therefore, Ms. Wu reconsidered the incident and the
emotion she felt in response to it. Ms. Wu explained the reason that she felt guilt was that she worried whether she
would have a positive influence on the group. Wai was restored to calm after hearing Ms. Wu’s explanation. During
the remainder of the session, members were much more enthusiastic than before.
Workers’ analysis
Proactive aggressors are emotionally cold and callously unemotional. They lack empathy towards others. Without
personal experiences of negative emotion, it is very difficult for them to express their core beliefs. Workers had
observed Wai’s emotion from the beginning of Session 1 through half of Session 4 and found that she rarely had
mood swings and seldom used emotion-related words. But when Ms. Wu sincerely addressed her emotion, Wai
was no longer in different as before. Such change helped workers assess Wai’s irrational beliefs and, at the same
time, helped Wai get in touch with her true feelings.
According to the experiences described by Wai in Session 2, workers assumed Wai held a core belief of “I am not
worthy”. Wai responded withrage when she thought Ms. Wu did not respect her. Workers continued to assess Wai,
and tried to confirm her underlying core belief “I am not worthy”. Wai cognitively believed that a person would not
be respected and recognized by others if he/she were unwise and performed poorly.Wai cognitively believed a
person’s “value” is purely reflected by the result of the person’s performance. Thus, when the worker referred to her
own guilt feeling towards her job performance, Wai subjectively felt that frustration was the “appropriate” emotional
response, and therefore she assumed that the worker was not genuineand she lost respect for her. Wai projected
her core belief in her response towards the worker. The worker then gave a sincere explanation of her situation and
clarified the reason behind her guilt feeling towards her job performance. Moreover, workers restored Wai’s respect
for the group members and refuted Wai’s thought of “not being respected by others”. Wai was restored to calm
thereafter.
In addition, workers cared and valued each member as individuals, positively tearing down the self-centered and
benefit-oriented characteristics of proactive aggressors. Workers’ sincerity touched Wai. After this session, Wai
established good relationship with workers and was willing to express her feelings within the group.
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3. Early Mid-Stage of Group Treatment
This section briefly describes detection of members’ irrational beliefs during the early mid-stage of treatment.
Workers used various activities to have members learn the ABC conceptand to encourage members to use the
concept to identify the irrational beliefs behind their behaviors and emotions. Activities were also used to help
members understand the negative effect of these irrational beliefs. Workers used mainly Ellis’s 12 irrational beliefs
to illustrate the ABC concept, whereas Beck’s cognitive concept was applied to assessment of cases.
Fifth Session: “Scenario – If I were Chris, I would…”
Group process and case description
Proactive aggressors are smart. It’s fairly easy for them to grasp and understand the ABC concept. Workers used
scenarios not only to teach members the ABC concept, but also to assess members’ irrational beliefs. Workers
grouped members together with similar behavioral and emotional responses to allow them to express themselves
freely and thus foster discussion among group members.
Wai was asked to put herself in the following scenario:
“Ming wanted to get some snacks at the truck shop just before the end of the recess. He found himself without
money when he got there. He saw a classmate who had just bought the snacks that he wanted. The recess was
almost over. Ming would…”
Wai expressed that if she were Chris“I would first find out who that person is. If he/she has no one backing him/her,
I would act accordingly.” Workers asked Wai to clarify what she meant by ‘act accordingly’. She said,“I would ask
the person politely if he/she recognizes me? I believe he/she would give me the snacks voluntarily if he/she knows
me. If his/her answer is negative, he/she will be miserable! I will “season” his/her snacks so that he/she will know
who I am in the future. Ha ha!”
Workers realized that Wai’s response to the anticipated event (A) ‘Refused by others to share snacks” could help
workers and Wai understand the irrational belief behind her proactive aggressive behavior. Therefore workers used
this as a new event to ask Wai about her beliefs behind the emotional response. How Wai thought and felt during
the incident is illustrated as follows:
(C) Behavioral Response
(A) Anticipated event
Refused by other to share
snacks.
(B) Belief
I am not respected.
Ruin the other’s food so he/
she cannot enjoy it either.
(C) Emotional Response
Rage
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Workers’ analysis
Workers must have a clear understanding of the ABC concept, because members could easily mix up the event,
beliefs, and responses. Workers should help members to distinguish the differences between them. The objectives
of the group activities were to have members to debate their irrational beliefs. Therefore, members must have a
strong understanding of the concept in order to achieve the objective.
Experiencing negative emotions (such as rage, frustration) provides a good opportunity to help member identify
their own beliefs. Wai felt angry because she thought others did not respect her. A situational question,What does
not being respected by others mean?, was posed by workers to help members identify their own beliefs.
Wai believed only an unworthy person would be ignored and disrespected. Workers empathized, “A person would
feel constantfear if he/she possessed such a belief. He/she could not make a mistake at any time without thinking
others considered him/her stupid and worthless; thus, he/she dare not make a mistake.” Wai nodded her head to
show agreement. In comparison to feeling relaxed at the beginning of the session, Wai was definitely dispirited after
the workers’ comment. From Wai’s reaction, workers believed she agreed with workers assessment of her belief.
Wai realized in the group sharing session that she had been,through her aggressive behavior, forcing others to
admire her. She felt valued when otheradmired her. Thus, in choosing from among Ellis’s (1977) 12 irrational
beliefs in another activity, she selected “It is horrible when things are not the way I like them to be”, “We should be
thoroughly competent, intelligent, and successful in all possible respects”, and “We must have certain and perfect
control over things”. Wai’s choices reflected that she valued “competency” highly. She believed an incompetent
person to be stupid and unableto complete any task effectively, nor be respected by others. Such a person would
be considered worthless without others’ recognition and respect.
Beck’s (1995) cognitive concept tables provide a clear and specific theoretical framework to assist workers in
assessing members’ core beliefs, intermediary schemas, and automatic thoughts. According to the data collected
from the initial stage of the group treatment, workers were able to use cognitive concepts tables to assess Wai’s
core beliefs and intermediary schemas:
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Name: Wai
Age: 2 to14 years
Background: Wai is smart, familiar with underworld, drugs; a peer leader.
Related Childhood Information
Mother normalized Wai’s delinquent behavior. Moral development remained in the preconventional
morality phase. Her mother believed only the stupid would suffer a negative outcome after wrong doing.
Core Belief
I am unworthy
Hypothetical Situation/Belief/Rules
“I am incompetent if others do not admire me”.
“It is horrible when things are not the way I like them to be”.
“We should be thoroughly competent, intelligent, and successful in all possible respects”.
“We must have certain and perfect control over things”.
Compensation Strategies
Seize opportunities or create your own opportunities to outshine others.
Situation 1
Situation 2
Situation 3
In the hallway, Ming (Ah wei) and
a friend bumped into a classmate
who the friend hates.
Ah wei was refused by another
student (student would not share
snack).
In the washroom, met a classmate
who she hates
(Ah wei’s own experience).
Automatic Thoughts
Automatic Thoughts
Opportunities come;I will put
myself forward.
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
I am unworthy.
Refusalis the same as no respect
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
Automatic Thoughts
I’ll make that classmate disappear
to show my power over others
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
I am unworthy
I am unworthy.
Emotional Response
Uneasy
Emotional Response
Emotional Response
Uneasy, feeling inferior
Rage
Behavioral Response
- Forcefully bumped into
theclassmate
- Glared atthe classmate with a
look of disdain
- Made fun of the classmate
Behavioral Response
Behavioral Response
- Ruined other’s food so he/she
could not enjoy it either
-Ganged up with friend to threaten
the classmate
- Extorted money from the
classmate
Cognitive concept chart – Wai (Beck, 1995)
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Group Activities: Session 6
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Proactive aggressors – 4. Early mid-stage of the treatment group, and 7.
Explanation by Dr. Annis Fung)
Sixth Session: Viewing the program ‘The Road Back - Overact’*
*‘The Road Back–Overact’ episode #10, RTHK
Group process and case description
Most of the members concentrated on watching the video. Members questioned the severe consequences of the
protagonist’s behavior. Workers assured members thatthe story accurately reflected a realsituation and that they
hoped to provide an objective view to facilitate group discussion.
Workers and members discussed some of the intriguing segments of the video. It was easy for members to
comprehend the negative consequences of aggressive and bullying behaviors, such asloss of freedom and friends,
etc. Moreover, activities conducted in the initial stage of the group treatment focused on stimulating members’
emotion. Therefore, members were able to understand and were willing to express their feelings upon arrival at
the mid-stage of treatment. For example, Wai remarked that to her the most profound element of the video was the
parents’ concern, disappointment, and sadness over the protagonist.
At the end of the group sharing session, members were able to apply the ABC concept to the protagonist with
help from workers. In the process, members were able to accurately analyze the anticipated event (A), belief (B),
behavior (C), and emotion (C). Members were asked to reflect on the belief (B) behind the bullying behavior. Wai
believed that the protagonist bullied others simply because he/she wanted to prove his/her competency. Wai was
aware that she and the protagonist shared a similar belief: that they felt worthy and valued when others admired
them. We could see that Wai had started to apply the ABC concept to identify her own belief.
Workers’ analysis
Proactive aggressors tend to evaluatethe consequences of their behavior positively. Workers hoped to use a real
life story to influence members cognitively and have them understand the consequences of bullying in an objective
manner. The objective reality was that aggressive behaviors brought negative consequences. Workers used
objective reality – one must bear legal responsibilities when one has committed a crime–to create internal pressure
and to the members’ sense of urgency toward changing their beliefs and behaviors.
Although the video provided objective evidence for members to understand the consequences of bullying, members
were somewhat dissociated from the situation because it was someone else’s incident. As the group advanced
through stages of development into maturity, workers switched the approach from “dissociated” to “personalized” in
the middle stage of treatment. This meant that the activities would be used simply to facilitate discussion, and that
the focus would be placed on the process of self-exploration and self-understanding. Hence, workers made use of
members’ projection onto the protagonist and helped members understand their own beliefs and motivation behind
their bullying behavior–which was to prove their competence and worthiness.
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At the same time, the worker managed to help Wai identify her parents’ feeling as matching that of the parents in
the video and help herrealize what these feelings would have meant to her. It became important for Wai to know
her parents would be heartbroken over her bullying behavior, and thus she felt the urgency to change her view
of bullying. Workers believed that her parents’ point of view and feelings would be the positive reinforcement Wai
needed to reduce her bullying behavior.
4. Mid-Late Stage of Group Treatment
This session briefly describes the mid-late stage of the group treatment. Members would have detected their
irrational beliefs and felt the urge to change in the early mid-stage of treatment. Therefore, in the mid-late stage
of treatment, workers focus on helping members to discriminate and debate these irrational beliefs. Workers use
the fair, reasonable, and rightful concept to allow members to discriminate and debate these irrational beliefs. It is
necessary to couple debate with behavioral exercises in order to construct new rational beliefs and emotional and
behavioral responses.
Seventh Session: Assignment Sharing – “The Fair, Reasonable, and Rightful Concept”
Group process and case description
Jane was the leader of a clique, and she led the clique to bully, threaten, and blackmail another person. This was a
real-life bullying case. She had to bear the legal consequences of criminal charges in facing imprisonment. Through
role-playing in the last session, members (roles include Jane’s parents, victims, judge, etc.) were able to altertheir
views and feelings towards bullying.
Worker conceptualized members’ argument into a fair, reasonable, and rightful concept. In the aspect of “fair”,
members believed “Jane” felt guilty towards her baby (Janelearned of her pregnancy during the trial). Because
of her, the innocent child would not enjoy a normal childhood but would have to stay with the mother in jail. In
the aspect of “rightful”, big sister going to prison was definitely a negative consequence of the incident. Members
had begun to realize the negative consequences of aggressive behavior. However, it was much more difficult for
members to comprehend the “reasonable” aspect.
Workers’ analysis
Proactive aggressors tend to ignore the negative consequences of aggressive behaviors, they lack of empathy
towards others, and they focus on “benefits”. Therefore, workers used “fair” (empathy), “reasonable” (social ethics,
beliefs with objective evidence), “rightful” (consequences), as three starting points to target irrational beliefs
underlying proactive aggressive behavior. Workers used the three symbols, namely the angel, police, and judge,
coupled with the concept of rational thoughts to expand members’ cognitive potential.
We noted members’ emotional and cognitive changes through their point of view. In the initial stage, members did
not want to get in touch with their feelings. They did not express guilt or uneasiness. In the mid-stage, members
began to see things from others’ perspectives and were able to empathize with others. The cognitive change in their
beliefs allowed members to acknowledge that the consequences of their bullying behavior would in fact negatively
affect themselves and those they care about. These changes helped membersdebate their irrational beliefs.
Members shared similar “reasonable” beliefs with Jane. Members might have held these beliefs since they
were young. They subjectively thought these beliefs were “reasonable”. So it was difficult for them to interpret
“unreasonable”.
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Eighth Session: “Discussion on Irrational Beliefs” (Assignment - Part I)
Group Activities: Session 8
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Proactive aggressors – 5. Mid-late stage of the treatment group, and 7.
Explanation by Dr. Annis Fung)
Group process and case description
Workers noticed Wai was a bit hesitant. She struggled between “irrational” and “rational” groups at the beginning of
the session when she was asked to join a group. Finally, workers assigned her to the rational group.
The group came into maturity in the late mid-stage. Under an environment of mutual respect, members were
able to confront others’ irrational beliefs directly. Wai and her group considered their behaviors to be fair, as these
behaviors would not be discovered nor bring about negative consequences. They believed it was reasonable for
them to act aggressivelyif they were notliked by others. In terms of rightfulness, they thought their friends would
question their competence if they did not use aggressive behavior. Hence, they considered their aggressive
behaviors to be fair, reasonable and rightful.
The irrational group gave examplesof “famous” students at school to illustrate the reality of bearingthe negative
consequences (legal consequences) of their delinquent behaviors. The legal consequences illustrate the nonrightful aspect of aggressive behavior. Furthermore, members refuted the argument put forward by Wai’s group
on the reasonable aspect (valuing the feeling of someone you care about). They remarked that aggressors’ family
members would feel sad and disappointed over theaggressors’ behaviors. Workers wished to further strengthen
the perspective on fairness, so they introduced intervention activities to enhance the positive influence of families
members.
Workers’ analysis
Workers noticed that Wai ‘s irrational beliefs had started to waver. Workers finally assigned Wai to the rational
group in the hope that she could establish rational belief through confrontation with members (having her irrational
belief refuted directly by members).
In reality, the process of debate is not something that can be successful in a few words. During the group session
and from time to time, workers noticed that Wai cared very much about her mother’s feeling. In the process of
debate, workers hoped Wai would face the rage, disappointment, and worry of the people she cares about, then
change her behavior and irrational beliefs, starting from the aspect of fairness. Workers then used the real-life
examples, such as the protagonist from “The Road Back”, Jane, and someone members knew to illustrate the
aspect of “rightfulness” to help members construct a reasonable and objective judgment.
Members subjectively deemed their beliefs as“reasonable”. In situations like this, workers, through discussion,were
able tohelp members recall how these “reasonable” beliefs were formed so that members would understand that
the “reasonable” beliefs that they always held developed simply out of their childhood experiences, out of family
influence, or by cross referencing between friends. Workers were able to broaden members’ perspectives and
helpthem to see “reasonable” from another point of view, such as fairness, justice, or with objective evidence. In
the process, workers were able to coach members to reflect on their own exceptional experiences, such as placing
others’ feelings and interests above their own. Recalling these exceptional experiences encouraged members to
see “reasonable” from a whole new perspective.
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Wai’s new belief–“I can prove my competence through positive behavior”–is rational. It is rational because
Wai came to believe that she posseses other abilities besides bullying. She would be able to demonstrate her
worthiness in a positive manner and prove her own value publicly. Her new belief would not bring about negative
consequences, and it took into consideration the feelings of the people she cares about. Thus, Wai started to
embrace rational beliefs of her own.
During behavioral training, workers encouraged Wai to apply her abilities in a positive and proper manner.During
the past week, Wai was actively involved in a class activity. Wai’s ability was confirmed by teachers and classmates
with the compliments she received for organizing class activities. This success reinforced her rational belief. Wai
now believes she does not need classmates to admire her to prove her value. She can apply her abilities in a
positive way to be convinced of her own value and be appreciated by others.
5. Late Stage of Group Treatment
This session will describe the late stage of the group treatment. Members successfully debatedtheir irrational beliefs
during the mid-stage. In this later stage, members will use behavioral training to strengthen their rational beliefs.
Ninth Session: “Incident Recall”
Group Activities: Session 9
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Proactive aggressors – 6. Late stage of the treatment group, and 7. Explanation
by Dr. Annis Fung)
Group process and case description
Workers Applied the GAI technique to have members focuson a past bullying incident and have them identify
themselves as the victim. Workers encouraged members to review the entire incident as it developed in order for
them to form a new perspective on bullying.
Wai shared a bullying incident of hers. On one occasion, she deliberately hung around a park next to her school,
thenshe ambushed and threatened a classmate she hated. She managed to re-live the incident through application
of GAI. In the process, she saw the victim scream, continue apologizing, and begher stop. Furthermore, for the
first time, Wai began to identify the victim’s feelings of fear, and helplessness during the incident.In the process,
members realized they never had put themselves in the victims’ shoes, that they had harmed the victims, and that
theyhad impacted victims’ lives negatively.
Workers’ analysis
Proactive aggressors lack empathy towards victims, or they misunderstand their victims. From real-life events and
memories of their bullying behavior, proactive aggressors were able to comprehend their victims’ feelings and the
negative effects they had on these victims. Such practice could correct members’ perception of their victims and
help members reconstruct their feelings of empathy.
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After the debate on irrational beliefs and after practicein enhancing emotional responses, Wai’s and members’
emotional responses were noticeably enhanced. Workers encouraged Wai to share her changes with members; at
the same time Wai would serve as a good role model for the group.
Members’ behavioral and emotional responses changed from those of the past because of the changes in their
irrational beliefs. Empathy is an appropriate behavior modification practice for proactive aggressors. Behavior
modification is a method of behavior substitution by using a new, functional behavioral pattern to substitute for the
dysfunctional behavioral pattern. The proactive aggressive behaviors of members in the past were considered
dysfunctional behaviors. Empathy training allowed members to understand their emotions. Through activities,
members were able to further identify the victims’ emotions and the effectsthe bullying had on them. By the end,
members felt empathy for their victims and thereby would change their aggressive behaviors.
Tenth Session: “Turn Over a New Leaf”
Group process and case description
In the last session of the group treatment, workers once again distributed a human-shaped worksheet. Workers
asked members to write down the differences that members saw in themselves between the present and 3 months
earlier. Wai wrote the following:
Personal improvement and things learned
• To think fairly, reasonably, and rightfully
• To empathize with others, and to takethe consequences into account
• To have high expectations and goals
• Not to bully others
• Not to violate rules
• Do my best to make my mother happy, such as study harder
Workers’ analysis
Workers emphasized members’ ability to become fair, reasonable, and rightful leaders before the end of the group
treatment. We could seethat Wai fully understood the concept of rational belief, especially the aspects of fairness
and rightfulness from her self-evaluation (on the worksheet) derived. These positive changes effectively reduced
her proactive aggressive behavior. Self–evaluation helped members consolidate their successful experiences and
strengthen their confidence toward maintaining changes. In addition, the encouragement between workers and
members fostered new behaviors.
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V. Effectiveness
The table below shows results data collected from proactive aggressor treatment groups in Hong Kong secondary
schools.
Proactive aggressor treatment groups: Results of student self-reports(Pre-test–Post-test)
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid sample size#
Mean difference+
t-value
Aggressive behavior
30
3.47
2.87*
Delinquent behavior
30
2.70
4.20**
Proactive aggressive
behavior
29
3.24
3.20*
Reactive aggressive
behavior
29
2.35
2.48*
# Valid sample size: the number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests
+A positive value of mean difference represents a decrease of mean score while a negative one represents an
increase of mean score
*p<0.05**p<0.01
Aggressive behavior, delinquent behavior, proactive aggressive behavior, and reactive aggressive behavior of these
group members were all significantly reduced after the completion of the group treatment. The data indicate that
behavior of proactive aggressors improved significantlyin all aspect of behavioral performance after completion of
treatment. The group treatment proved to be effective in helping proactive aggressors.
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Chapter 5: Treatment Group – Reactive Aggressors
I. Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Related Theories
1. Social Information Processing Model (Please refer to Chapter 2)
In the first step of the Social Information Processing (SIP) model, reactive aggressors tend to receive aggressive
external cues selectively (e.g., saw classmate whispering, then laughing), and ignore their wider surroundings.
In the second step of the process, reactive aggressors often judge others’ motives in relation to their previous
experiences of bullying or teasing (e.g., Suspected fallen photo). Therefore, they perceive the scene with cognitive
and irrational distortions, which result in hostile attributional biases. Reactive aggressors often perceive threats
from the outside; they interpret their peers’ neutral behavior (for example, an unintentional put-down by others will
be interpreted as a deliberate act against them) as hostile and aggressive behavior, which will cause them harm.
2. Attribution Theory
Reactive aggressors often attribute their difficulties and problems to external factors; they choose to remain aloof,
and are unwilling to take responsibilities or bear the consequences of their actions (Andreou, 2001). Their social
skills are generally poor (Anderson, 1989; Mynard, & Joseph, 1997). Therefore, they tend to respond to social
conflicts with violent or aggressive behavior to protect themselves, or retaliate against their peers. As reactive
aggressors’ processing of social information is cognitively distorted, they can become suddenly out of control,
disturb the order of the class, and be excluded by peers.
Reactive aggressors also possess hostile attribution tendencies. They have a cognitively distorted view of
situations, and subjectively believe that the situations they face are threatening to them, or that things will not
occur as expected, which can trigger angry emotions and violence (Pulkkinen, 1996; Salmivalli & Nieminen, 2002).
Therefore, they will readily interpret others’ behavior as hostile and aggressive when encountering social problems.
Even if others’ actions are not harmful, they will retaliate physically and emotionally to protect themselves.
3. Application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (Please refer to Chapter 2 for cognitive behavioral therapy)
Workers have integrated both Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (CT) and Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(REBT) into the treatment of reactive aggressors. Ellis’s A-B-C concept and irrational beliefs are specific and clear,
and workers can utilize this concept to help members understand that their behavior and perceptions are influenced
by their beliefs. In addition, cognitive distortions are often seen in reactive aggressors’ automatic thoughts. Beck
classified cognitive distortions into the thinking errors listed below. Hence, in addition to using Beck’s CT in case
assessment, workers will also introduce thinking errors to members to help them identify the distortions in their
beliefs.
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Outline of the CBT-based Treatment Group for Reactive Aggressors:
Session
Application of CBT
Program objectives
1
Establish trust and
rapport.
Reactive aggressors are very sensitive to their surroundings, always
suspicious, lacking in self-confidence, and with low self-esteem. It is
therefore crucial to establish a relationship with reactive aggressors to help
them feel secure in the group, reduce their vigilance toward workers and
members, and increase their sense of belonging to the group.
2
Identify members’
automatic thoughts
and emotional
and behavioral
responses.
Reactive aggressors have a tendency toward hostile attributional biases.
They easily become angry, anxious, and uncomfortable around their peers
and often argue with others. Being understanding and responsive can help
members to make accurate and comprehensive assessments about their
irrational beliefs.
Educate members
about Ellis’s A-B-C
concept.
Use common and neutral campus situations to facilitate discussion. Allow
members to understand that different people will react differently to similar
events because they hold different beliefs, thus the outcomes may be quite
different.
Detect members’
irrational beliefs.
Use interpersonal conflict scenarios that are often encountered by reactive
aggressors to detect their irrational beliefs.
Identify members’
irrational beliefs.
Cognitive distortions often appear in the automatic thoughts of reactive
aggressors. These mind traps will bring out their negative behavior and
emotions. The treatment group aims to help members acknowledge these
mind traps, and thus understand their irrational beliefs.
3
4
5
6-7
Debate members’
irrational beliefs
Because reactive aggressors have rigid beliefs, they think directly and
seldom see things from other perspectives. Therefore, encouraging
members to use a multi-angled analysis approach can help them to debate
their irrational beliefs, and understand that different people have different
beliefs and opinions. Only a variety of opinions from different people can
open their minds and lead them to speculate about different possibilities,
therefore members are encouraged to consider and take others’ beliefs
into account, and to help them establish their own rational beliefs in the
subsequent activities.
8
Formulate a new
and effective rational
belief with a new set
of emotional and
behavioral responses
Members will learn to vent emotion, strengthen their ability to see things
from different perspectives, open their minds, and speculate about different
possibilities through debate, to help them establish rational beliefs and
emotional and behavioral responses.
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9
10
Behavioral
assignment:
Social skills and
assertiveness
training.
Reactive aggressors can easily get into interpersonal miscommunication
difficulties because of their lack of appropriate social skills. They feel
misunderstood and alienated. Because they are unable to relate to others,
more social problems will occur, and it becomes a vicious circle. Through
the “I-Message” behavior training, members are encouraged to express
their personal feelings and expectations, to reduce miscommunication and
conflicts with others.
Termination and
relapse prevention.
Review the group’s progress and praise members on the changes they
have made, to consolidate their successful experiences.
II. Preparation for the Treatment Group
Each group member will attend a pre-group interview prior to attending the treatment group. Questionnaire data
and interviews can reveal the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional characteristics of group members. Therefore,
workers are advised to analyze the questionnaire and the content of the pre-group interviews carefully to gain
insight into group members’ characteristics, and to provide targeted counseling accordingly.
1. Questionnaire
The clinical scores below are from Wai’s pre-group interview. Workers can analyze the scores from cognitive,
behavioral, and emotional aspects.
Behavioral Aspect:
Rating Scale
Aggressive
Behavior
(Total score: 38)
Proactive
Aggression
(Total score: 24)
Reactive
Aggression
(Total score: 22)
Delinquent
Behavior
(Total score: 22)
Score
36
4
18
10
Wai scored 36 on the “aggressive behavior” index, which is very close to the maximum and suggests that he
frequently uses aggressive behavior. Wai scored 4 for “proactive aggressive behavior” and 18 for “reactive
aggressive behavior”, implying that he was a reactive aggressor. Although delinquent behavior is also seen in
reactive aggressors, it is much less severe in comparison with proactive aggressors. Wai’s “delinquent behavior”
index was 10. Although this is higher than the clinical indicator/index (male: 8 points, female: 7 points), the score is
not particularly high in comparison with proactive aggressors. Based on the data above, Wai would be classified as
a reactive aggressor.
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Emotional Aspect:
Rating
Scale
Anger
Response
(Total: 16)
Anger
Personality
(Total: 16)
Anger Trait
(Total: 40)
Anger
Internalized
(Total: 32)
Anger
Externalized
(Total: 32)
Anger
Control
(Total: 32)
Anger
Expressed
(Total: 48)
Score
16
14
38
11
27
12
47
According to the data, Wai had very strong personality and trait anger (his scores on both indexes were virtually
at ceiling), reflecting that he was prone to anger. When he felt angry, he was rarely able to suppress his emotions
(anger internalized:11 points), and tended to express himself through aggressive behavior (anger externalized: 27
points) and venting his emotions (anger expressed: 47 points). He was also weak in controlling his anger (anger
control score = 12, where higher scores indicate better control).
2. Interviews with Students
Wai was asked about some possible campus situations in the interview, including a violent or aggressive situation,
and a neutral situation. Students were required to put themselves in the protagonist’s shoes, and to imagine their
behavior and emotions in the situation. Workers were able to learn more about the student’s cognitive distortions
through the interview.
The Following is a Violent or Aggressive Situation.
1.
2.
Workers asked students to describe and explain what happened in the above two pictures.
Wai quickly put himself into the context and imagined he was one of the students in the picture. He said the fight
started when he was playing basketball with his peers during recess and was knocked down by one of them. He
demanded an apology but was denied. Not only had the student refused to apologize to him, he even pushed him.
Wai shouted out in rage, rushed toward the student and punched him.
Wai’s response reflects his fixed mindset and his belief that others intentionally provoke and attack him. Unlike
proactive aggressors, who use aggressive behavior to gain personal benefits or power, he fought back simply
because he was extremely angry and had lost control.
Workers then asked Wai if he was ever afraid of being punished for fighting. He replied that teachers would not
listen to his explanation anyway, and he was so accustomed to being punished at school that he did not mind being
given another punishment. Wai’s comment reflects his belief that teachers are unreliable and untrustworthy. Hence,
he believed he had to resort to his own methods of solving problems. However, this only aggravates a vicious circle.
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The Following Describes a Neutral Situation.
“A group of students was gathered together looking at and discussing photos of their recent trip. They were
whispering and laughing, which caught Man’s attention. The students quietened down when they heard the endof-recess bell ringing. Man suddenly became furious and walked toward the group of students. He yelled at them,
attacked them, and ordered them to hand over the photos of him falling down.”
Workers asked Wai about the photos the students were looking at. Wai believed they were looking at photos of a
man falling down. When asked to explain Man’s reaction, Wai remarked that Man had become a laughing stock
and his reaction was to stop others from teasing him. Wai believed there was nothing wrong with Man’s reaction
because he was only using his own method to solve the problem. From the beginning, Wai interpreted the nonaggressive and neutral situation as an aversive situation with malicious teasing and aggressive behavior. Wai’s
reaction shows that he had serious cognitive distortions, and he tended to selectively perceive offensive clues.
When he heard other students whispering and laughing, he would interpret this neutral situation as aggressive
behavior. Furthermore, Wai shared the characteristics of reactive aggressors, who often rationalize aggressive
behavior and believe aggression is the only way to solve problems.
Later on, workers asked Wai how he would feel and react if he were Man. Wai remarked that he would be inflamed
with anger and would not hesitate to snatch the camera from the students. Thus, Wai would distort the situation,
become very angry, and respond with impulsive aggressive behavior.
3. Conclusion
As a reactive aggressor, Wai had a serious hostile attributional bias; he interpreted a neutral context as an
aggressive situation in which others deliberately attacked him, or intentionally embarrassed him. He often thinks
others are hostile toward him, thus he responds with anger and aggressive behavior. However, as reactive
aggressors have characteristic cognitive distortions, workers should first identify which step of their SIP has gone
wrong, then help them to open their minds and speculate about different possibilities; for instance, by helping them
to see that the situation was just an accident and not intentional, thereby reducing their anger.
Workers could design group activities based on situations that reflect the characteristics and personal experiences
mentioned in Wai’s interview. Such activities can help to develop more in-depth counseling and would be more
agreeable to Wai’s beliefs, behavior, and emotions.
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III. Content of the Reactive Aggressor Group
(A) Session: First Session
Theme: A new beginning for leadership.
Aim: 1. Building up trust and a sense of security between workers and group members.
2. Developing codes of practice and regulations together.
3. Sharing expectations about joining the group.
4. Letting participants understand the objectives and contents of these activities, and their roles and goals
Activity
Self-introduction
Duration
10 minutes
Objectives
1. Ice-breaking activities to enhance the group atmosphere.
2. Getting to know each of the group members.
Procedure
Members introduce their names and use a gesture to present themselves, then other
members repeat the gesture and name before passing on to the next one.
Activity
Number Calling
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
Concept
Procedure
1. To help members get to know one another and build up a relationship.
2. To cultivate the habit of sharing among members.
The number-calling game is another warm-up activity to enhance members’ level of
participation. It helps to enhance members’ concentration in the group because they need to
carefully listen to avoid losing the game.
1. Each member says a sequential number out loud. It can start with any member of the
group and there is no limitation on who goes next.
2. When the activity starts, each member needs to say a number out loud and cannot
repeat a number. The game is lost when two members say the same number at once, or
whoever is the last one to say a number.
3. When someone loses the game, the activity starts again and the particular member is
asked to share something about himself/herself (e.g. a hobby, food they like). When the
member finishes sharing, workers lead the other members in applauding him.
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Activity
Introduction to the Group
Duration
10 minutes
Objective
To facilitate understanding of the content, objectives, and roles of the group.
1. Introduction to group content and objectives:
Because this activity uses leadership training for promotion, the objective is for members
to learn some new techniques
• Understand thinking patterns
• Understand their own way of thinking
Procedure
• Thinking techniques (multi-angled thinking pattern)
• Control their emotions
• Learn appropriate social skills
2. Introduction to roles:
The members will act as leaders to apply the multi-angled thinking pattern techniques in
school and influence others.
Activity
My Expectations of the Group
Duration
30minutes
Objective
To share members’ personal expectations of the treatment group.
Procedure
Each member is given a “My Expectations” worksheet.
1. Participants are asked to draw their face and special features, and write down their
personal expectations of the treatment group.
2. Take a photo of each member using a Polaroid camera and attach them to the
worksheets.
3. When the worksheets are complete, the workers lead the sharing, with a focus on:
• Members’ personality traits;
• Members’ expectations and the reasons behind them; and
• The factors necessary to achieve these expectations.
1. Colored pens
Materials
2. Human-Shaped Worksheet (Class Assignment)
3. Glue stick
4. Polaroid camera and instant film
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Activity
Codes of Practice
Duration
10minutes
Objective
To set out regulations to ensure the smooth running of the group.
1. Following up on the previous activity, workers will guide members in setting out a
code of practice to “assist one another in achieving their expectations.” Once agreed
by all members, workers can write down these regulations, which should include the
appropriate behavior and attitudes for the group, on a large piece of paper.
2. Upon completion and by consensus of the group, members are asked to sign and abide
by the following basic codes of practice :
Procedure
• Not to hurt oneself or others;
• Respect oneself and others;
• Give positive feedback;
• Participate actively in group activities; and
• Appreciate and praise other members.
Materials
1. Large pieces of paper
2. Colored pens
Activity
Debriefing and Handing out the Homework: “My Personal Blog”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To debrief on the content of the group.
2. To reinforce members’ sense of belonging to the group.
3. To cultivate members’ habit of completing assignments.
4. To enhance members’ knowledge about each other.
Procedure
1. Debrief on workers’ observations of each member’s performance and show appreciation
of their positive performance.
2. Explain the “My Personal Blog” assignment.
3. Remind members that they will receive a small reward after finishing their assignment to
enhance their motivation.
Materials
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Remarks
1. All of the participants are reactive aggressors. They are likely to hold hostile attributions toward neutral events
and their impulsivity can easily lead them into conflicts with other members. Therefore, workers should divide
their tasks and cooperate closely to handle conflicts and make plans for dealing with risky situations before
starting the group.
2. Because conflicts can happen easily, it is better to avoid physical contact and competitive activities in the early
stage of the group.
3. Because members have not yet developed group coherence, they may not wish to become involved in the
activity. If members refuse to participate, workers need to encourage them to join in and allow space for them
to observe, but it should not obstruct the group process. Individual follow-up may be necessary to understand a
particular member’s situation.
4. Workers should give more compliments to members who show positive behavior. For example, when they are
polite and help others, encourage others, are willing to share their feelings and experiences, handle conflicts
calmly, and so on.
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First Session Class Assignment:
Name：____________________
Human-shaped Worksheet
If you were this picture, what would he/she be? Please draw yourself and your special
characteristics on the picture and write down your expectations of the group.
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First Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
My Personal Blog
My name is ____________________________
My nickname is _________________________
My favorite hobby/hobbies
is/are__________________________________________
My favorite food is
______________________________________________
My personality is
______________________________________________
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(B) Session: Second Session
Theme: Exploration of the five senses
Aim: 1. To enhance trust and relationships among group members.
2. To let members observe which of their senses is stronger.
3. To let members notice which senses they use to receive clues from their surroundings.
Activity
Homework Sharing: “My Personal Blog”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To enhance trust and connection among members.
2. To cultivate a positive sharing atmosphere.
1. Members share their assignments.
Sharing points:
• The same interests and hobby
Procedure
• The same personalities
• Examples that describe their personality in daily life
2. Workers need to compliment members who are willing to share and finish their assignments,
and give out prizes for encouragement.
Materials
1. Backup assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can complete
it immediately).
2. Small rewards.
Activity
Five Senses Test
Duration
10 minutes for each test
Objective
Testing which sense is the strongest among members.
Concept
Each person receives outside information that helps them to encode social cues through
the five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch). Everyone has different sensitivity in
their five senses, so different people interpret this information differently. Because reactive
aggressors usually have hostile attributions and biases in interpreting information, and often
ignore the outside environment when judging others’ intentions, they selectively interpret
social cues and tend to rely on some senses, especially vision, more than others. They will
make judgments and respond based only on what they see. Therefore, in this session we try
to understand and access how they use their five senses and help them to receive information
comprehensively using their sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. This can reduce conflict
due to biases in interpreting information.
1. Individual testing.
Procedure
2. Each member has an answer sheet and marks their own answers to the questions.
3. Explain the function and effects of our five senses in receiving information.
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Visual Test
1. Workers present pictures, some parts of which are enlarged, and ask members to guess
what it is and write down their answers.
2. Workers can also print words to describe colors such as red, orange, yellow, but using a
different color to print the words. For example, the word “yellow” printed in red, “purple”
printed in orange, and so on. We can test members’ color sensitivity by asking them to
name the color not the word.
Materials
• Five-senses answer sheet
• Pictures for visual test
• Worksheet with color words
Smell Test
1. Workers puts things with different smells on a testing paper and ask members to identify
what they are within a limited time (e.g., mosquito repellent, soya sauce, perfume).
2. Members write down their guesses on the answer sheet.
Materials
• Five-senses answer sheet
• Paper for writing down answers
Hearing Test
1. Workers play five different sounds from different objects (e.g., stirring, flushing, door
closing),and ask members to guess what the sound is and write down their answer.
2. Workers can clap their hands in different positions behind members (above, below, right,
left, and middle) and ask them to guess the correct position and record the number of
correct answers.
Materials
• Five-senses answer sheet
• Recorders
Touch Test
1. Workers put objects with different textures into a bag.
Members put their hand into the bag and guess what the object is and write down their
answers (e.g., rubber, fruit, gloves, coins, etc.).
Materials
• Five-senses answer sheet
• Different objects
• Bags
Taste Test
1. Workers prepare five soft drinks with similar color and flavor and members try to identify the
different flavors with one taste of each drink.
2. Workers change the position of the drinks and members try again to identify the drinks
using taste and write down their answers.
Materials
• Five-senses answer sheet (Class Assignment 1.1)
• Five similar flavored soft drinks
• Paper cups
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Result of FiveSenses Test
1. Check the answers and calculate scores.
2. Members share how they use their five senses in daily life.
3. Focus of the commentary:
• To emphasize the relationship between the five senses and members’ daily lives.
• To explain the effect of the five senses on receiving and interpreting outside information.
• To develop an awareness that people have different sensitivity to the five senses and
interpret information differently.
Activity
Debriefing and Handing out Homework: “Five-Senses Record”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To debrief the group content.
2. To motivate members to finish their assignment.
Procedure
1. Workers praise each members’ performance.
2. Explain the content of the home assignment: “Five Senses Record”, the objective of which
is to enhance members’ awareness of the five senses in receiving information.
3. Remind members that they will receive a small reward if they finish their assignment.
Materials
“Five-senses record” worksheet (Class Assignment 1.2)
Remarks
1. There may be competition among members in the five-senses tests, so workers should emphasize that the
testing is about individual characteristics and there is no need to compare results.
2. Workers can assess the strength of members’ five senses through their daily use of words. For example, if
members often say “I saw”, it means that their visual sense is stronger, or “I heard” means their hearing sense
is stronger; “I thought or I felt” means their touch sense is stronger.
3. Workers can emphasize that each person has different strengths among their five senses, therefore as a leader
they should use different senses to receive outside information comprehensively.
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Second Session Class Assignment 1.1:
Name：____________________
Five-Senses Answer Sheet
Please fill in your answers in the appropriate spaces below.
1. Visual Sense: What can you see?
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
2. Smell Sense: What can you smell?
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
3. Hearing Sense: What can you hear?
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
4. Touch Sense: What object can you feel?
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
5. Taste Sense: What flavor can you taste?
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
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Second Session Class Assignment 1.2:
Name：____________________
Five-senses Record
Name:_______________________________
Please record one event you came across this week:
In this event, I
Felt
Smelled
Saw
Heard
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(C) Session: Third Session
Theme: Understand the ABC concept
Aims: 1. To enhance members’ attention to their five senses.
2. To explain the ABC concept and the relationship between Activating Event (A), Belief (B), and
Consequence (C).
3. To assess members’ irrational beliefs and attributions
Activity
Homework Sharing – “Five-Senses Record”
Duration
15 minutes
Objective
To enhance members’ attention to the effect of the five senses on them.
Procedure
1. Members share their assignments.
Sharing points:
• The recorded event.
• What senses they used and how the senses affect the reception of social cues.
• If they used other senses, would they view things differently?
• Encourage members to use different senses to understand an event.
2. Give praise and rewards to members who finish their assignment and volunteer to share.
Materials
1. Back-up homework (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can complete
it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Exploring Situational Cues
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
1. Brief introduction to personal beliefs.
2. Assessing members’ irrational beliefs.
Concept
After assessing members’ patterns of receiving information, workers can help them to change
their routine responses and beliefs. Workers can also discuss some neutral situations in
school, and assess members’ patterns of irrational beliefs and hostile attributions. They will be
followed up later on in the group.
Procedure
1. Workers will describe a neutral situation in school, such as “The teacher asks you to find
her after school” or “A classmate calls your full name in the classroom”. Members are then
divided into two groups to discuss the question: If the event happened to you, what would
you think?
2. Workers can encourage members to use their five senses to find out more information and
social cues.
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Procedure
3. Members need to write down their thoughts on a large sheet of paper within ten minutes.
They get one point if they can provide a reason for their thoughts.
4. Workers can assess whether there are any biases and hostile attributions in members’
thoughts.
5. The two groups then report the results of their discussion, and workers calculate the scores
for each group and distribute rewards accordingly.
Material
1. Large sheets of drawing paper
2. Colored pens
3. Rewards
Activity
Understanding the ABC Concept
Duration
30 minutes
Objective
Enhance members’ understanding of the ABC concept
Concept
From the last activity, members will understand that different people can have different views
of the same event, which may result indifferent consequences. We introduce the ABC concept
to explain the relationship between belief and behavior, and help members to eliminate their
past reactive behavior pattern.
Procedure
1. Workers can use the last activity as an example to explain the ABC concept.
Teaching points:
• The ABC concept and its interactive relationship (give out ABC concept cards).
• In an event (A), each person has their own beliefs (B), and different beliefs will lead to
different consequences(C).
• Members need to be aware of whether or not their beliefs are rational; having rational
beliefs is the quality of a leader.
2. Workers can also encourage members to use examples from daily life to help them
understand that the concept is closely related to them and to consolidate their
understanding.
Materials
1. ABC concept cards (Group Material)
2. “My Daily ABC” worksheet (Class Assignment)
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Activity
Debriefing and Giving out the Homework: “The ABC of Events”
Duration
15 minutes
Objective
To debrief the group content.
Procedure
1. Appreciate members’ performance.
2. Explain the homework assignment “The ABC of Events”, the objective of which is to
increase understanding of the concept of ABC and apply it to daily life.
3. Remind members to finish their assignments and that they will be given a small reward to
motivate them.
Materials
“The ABC of Events” homework (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. While participating in the activity of exploring situational cues in school situations, members are asked to write
down their answers; however, some of them will relate to the process of, feelings about, or consequences
of the event. For example, in response to “The teacher asks you to find her”, they may write “troublesome”,
“disgusting”, or “hit her”, etc. However, “troublesome” and “disgusting” are feelings and “hit her” is a behavioral
consequence. Correct answers may be something along the lines of “The teacher doesn’t want him to play
football after school”, or “Something bad must have happened”. Workers need to encourage members to
distinguish between events, thoughts, feelings, and consequences.
2. This is the first activity requiring group members’ interaction and cooperation, thus workers need to be aware
of their participation and avoid certain members dominating or withdrawing from the group. Workers can show
appreciation to members who are cooperative and show pro-social behavior, to enhance the coherence of the
group and encourage appropriate interpersonal skills.
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Third Session Group Material:
Name：____________________
ABC Concept Card
A (Activating Event)
B (Beliefs)
C (Consequences)
I am the last one to receive the test paper
She wants to embarrass me
Angry, conflict with teacher
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Name：____________________
Third Session Class Assignment:
My Daily ABC
A (Activating Event)
B (Beliefs)
C (Consequences)
My friend doesn’t answer my call.
He/She is angry at me.
Angry, get into an argument.
My friend doesn’t answer my call.
He/She may be busy.
I will call later.
My friend doesn’t answer my call.
He/She doesn’t hear the call.
Doesn’t matter. I will call later.
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Third Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
The ABC of Events
Record a negative event that happened this week.
What happened? (Your A)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Your thoughts: (Your B)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Consequences, Your C (Please circle/write it down)
Emotion:
1. Sad
2. Worried
3. Disgusted
4. Frightened
5. Angry
6. Regretful
7. Embarrassed
8. Disappointed
9. Troubled
10. Unknown
Others: _______________________________________________________
Behavioral Consequences:
1. Nothing happened
2. Argument
3. Apology
4. Glowered at him/her
5. Ignored it
6. Teacher interfered
7. Hit him/her
8. Sought help
9. Scolded him/her
Others: _______________________________________________________
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(D) Session: Fourth Session
Theme: Irrational beliefs (Part 1)
Aims: 1. To enhance members’ knowledge of the ABC concept.
2. To learn about thinking traps (irrational beliefs).
3. To enhance members’ awareness of irrational beliefs.
Activity
Homework Sharing: “The ABC of Events”
Duration
5 minutes
Objective
Assess members’ understanding of the ABC concept.
Procedure
1. Workers can use the home assignment as an example to help members understand the
ABC concept clearly.
2. Sharing points:
• How to record events encountered this week using the ABC concept;
• Discuss the relationship between beliefs and consequences.
3. Workers give compliments and rewards to members who finish their assignment and
participate in the sharing.
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately).
2. Small rewards.
Activity
Watching a Video of Zidane – Reactive Emotional Response*
Duration
15 minutes
Objective
1. Enhance members’ understanding of the ABC concept.
2. Introduce irrational beliefs.
Concept
Once members have some understanding of the ABC concept, we can relate it to some
examples of aggressive behavior. Using a video about an agitated emotional response,
members can see that irrational beliefs can cause irreversible consequences.
Procedure
1. Workers show a video about reactive agitated emotion.
2. Members are divided into two groups and are given “The ABC of the protagonist”
worksheet. They can write down their analysis of the events in the video using the ABC
concept.
3. The groups will then begin sharing.
Sharing points:
• In the video, what does Zidane believe?
• Imagining you were Zidane, what did you see, hear, or feel to make you hold this
belief?
• What were the consequences for Zidane and what was his response?
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Procedure
4. Workers conclude by describing Zidane’s possible irrational beliefs and the consequences
of sending him off from the game, and introduce the eight irrational beliefs.
Materials
Related video
The ABC of the Protagonist (Class Assignment)
*This video is about a famous football star, ZinedineZidane, acting out his emotion by head-butting another football
player during the 2006 World Cup.
Activity
Learning about Irrational Beliefs(1)
Duration
15 minutes
Objective
To understand the first four irrational beliefs.
Concept
According to CBT, each person has their own thinking ability. People assess the situation
that they are facing through thinking and self-talking to become a rational and happy person.
In contrast, if they have irrational beliefs, they will have negative thoughts and behavior.
Therefore, the group uses psychological education to let members know what kinds of
irrational beliefs they have and learn to amend them.
Procedure
1. Workers will distribute “Know more about irrational beliefs (1)” to members.
2. Introduce three common cases of irrational beliefs as examples.
• Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the positives: Exaggerating negatives, and
downplaying your own, or other people’s strengths and assets, or a positive event or
situation that you have experienced.
• Black-and-white thinking: Seeing things in black and white (in extreme terms). That is,
situations or circumstances are interpreted as being good or bad, all or nothing, positive
or negative. There is no middle/common ground
• Catastrophizing: Exaggerating the importance of things, especially negative situations.
You make a big issue out of one negative experience
3. Workers ask members if they can recall holding any of the above irrational beliefs and give
some real life examples.
Materials
Irrational beliefs cards (Group Material)
Activity
Discovering Thinking Traps: Video-sharing of “Love test” (please refer to the DVD,
Part II, Scenario 13: “Love test”)
Duration
30 minutes
Objective
To learn more about irrational beliefs.
Concept
After teaching some of the concepts relating to irrational beliefs, we discuss and apply them
to some example school situations. Members reflect on themselves and others to see if they
have irrational beliefs that affect their judgment and behavior.
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1. Workers show the “Love test” video and start a discussion.
2. Members are divided into two groups to write down the possible thoughts of the character
in the video.
3. Members discuss whether the characters have irrational beliefs.
Procedure
4. Finally, workers show different endings for members to discuss.
Discussion points:
• How to distinguish if thoughts are rational.
• How individual beliefs lead to different consequences/responses.
• Do members have other beliefs and ways of handling things?
1. “Love test” video
Materials
2. Laptop
3. Projector
4. Projector Screen
Activity
Debriefing and Handing out the Homework: “Irrational Beliefs Observation Cards”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. Debrief the group content.
2. Develop the habit of finishing assignments.
Procedure
1. Debrief on members’ performance, and praise their positive behavior and manner.
2. Explain the assignment: “Irrational beliefs observation chart”, the objective of which is to
reinforce members’ attention to people who have irrational beliefs and responses.
3. Remind members to finish their assignments and that they may receive a small reward.
Materials
“Irrational beliefs observation card” worksheet. (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. Workers should let members understand that everyone can have irrational beliefs, and that we need to recognize
them to become rational leaders.
2. When sharing “ABC Events”, workers need to pay attention in case members confuse feelings, responses, and
thoughts. If members say “I am angry and want to hit him”, workers can ask them “What did he/she do to make
you hate him/her? What makes you feel so angry?”. Questions such as these help members to express their
beliefs clearly.
3. When introducing irrational beliefs, if members want to share their own experiences, workers can use them for
immediate discussion and prompt others to share similar irrational beliefs or different irrational beliefs.
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Fourth Session Class Assignment:
Name：____________________
The ABC of the Protagonist
Situation: ___________________
Please record what happened in the video.
You can see You can hear You can smell You can feel You can taste
If you were the character in the video, what would you feel?
Character’s instant
response
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Idea 1
Idea 2
Other response 1
Other response 2
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Fourth Session Group Material:
Name：____________________
Know More About Irrational
Beliefs(1)
1. Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the positives
Exaggerating negatives, and downplaying your own, or other people’s strengths and assets, or a positive
(sometimes negative) event or situation that you have experienced.
Example: (a) the homework is very difficult so I cannot do it (magnifying the negatives),
(b) not everywhere is dangerous at night (minimizing the negative).
2. Black-and-white thinking
Seeing things in black and white (in extreme terms). That is, situations or circumstances are interpreted as being
good or bad, all or nothing, positive or negative. There is no middle/common ground.
Example: my mother doesn’t believe me so she calls to check on me.
3. Catastrophizing
Exaggerating the importance of things, especially negative situations. You make a big issue out of one negative
experience.
Example: I am born to be disliked by others.
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Fourth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
“Irrational Beliefs Observation Card”
Worksheet
Please record an event that has happened to your friends/family, and try to analyze whether
there are any irrational beliefs in their thoughts and responses.
A. Event
B. Belief
Please circle possible irrational beliefs:
1. Magnifying the negatives and minimizing
the positives
2. Black-and-white thinking
3. Catastrophizing
C. Result/Response
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(E) Session: Fifth Session
Theme: Irrational Beliefs (2)
Aims: 1. To deepen members’ understanding of irrational beliefs.
2. To reinforce members’ attention to their irrational beliefs.
Activity
Homework Sharing: “Irrational Beliefs Observation Cards”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To reinforce members’ knowledge about irrational beliefs
Procedure
1. Members’ sharing.
Sharing points:
• Examples of other people’s irrational beliefs observed during the past week.
• Other members can suggest how to change the negative consequences of their
irrational beliefs.
2. Workers praise and give rewards to members who finish their assignment and are willing
to share.
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Know More about Irrational Beliefs (2)
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. Deepen members’ understanding of the first four irrational beliefs.
2. Introduce the other four irrational beliefs.
Procedure
1. Workers will distribute “Know more about irrational beliefs(2)” and use some examples for
explanation.
• Overgeneralizing: judging an event based on only one small part of the event.
• Mental Filter: Picking out a single negative detail from an unpleasant experience you
may have had, and then dwelling exclusively on this negative detail. That is, you ignore
the bigger picture and ‘filter out’ any positive aspects of the event.
• Personalization: Taking responsibility or inappropriately blaming yourself for the cause
of a negative experience which often may be beyond your own control..
• Labeling/ Mislabeling: This thinking error involves an extreme form of
overgeneralization. You tend to attach a negative label to yourself or others on the
basis of one negative experience.
2. Workers can ask members if they have any irrational beliefs, and to share their daily
examples of irrational beliefs.
Materials
“Know more about irrational beliefs(2)” (Group Material)
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Activity
Discovering Thinking Traps: Video Sharing of “Someone grabbed my potato chips”
(Please refer to the DVD, Part II, Scenario 8: “Someone grabbed my potato chips”)
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
Let members learn more about irrational beliefs and enhance their ability to identify them.
Concept
Members have already learned about the eight irrational beliefs in the above sessions. We
discuss bullying in school and interpersonal conflicts to encourage members to reflect on
how they get along with their classmates. We ask if similar incidents have happened to them
that have made them angry and affected their judgment and normal socialization.
Procedure
1. Workers show the video “ Someone grabbed my potato chips”.
2. After the video, members are given a piece of paper to write down their instant thoughts
about similar events that have happened.
3. Sharing what they have written.
Sharing points:
• Similar and different beliefs among members, and what causes the differences.
• Help members to distinguish the irrational beliefs in the discussion.
• How irrational beliefs affect personal responses and consequences.
Materials
1. Video: “ Someone grabbed my potato chips”
2. A4 paper
3. Laptop
Activity
“My Irrational Beliefs – Example from Campus Life”
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
To reinforce members’ awareness of their irrational beliefs in daily life.
Concept
After learning about the seven irrational beliefs, members can apply the theory to daily life
and reinforce their motivation to change.
Procedure
1. Workers can invite members to share their experience and discuss any irrational beliefs.
If members are more passive, workers can offer examples for discussion.
• Seeing classmates talking in secret after you enter the classroom.
• During recess, a classmate slaps you on your back.
• The teacher asks you to find her after school.
• Your mother refuses to let you have a BBQ with your classmates.
Sharing points:
• Different members have different thoughts and feelings about the same situation.
• How irrational beliefs affect our responses.
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Activity
Debriefing and Distribution of Homework: “My Irrational Beliefs Observation Chart”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To debrief the group content.
2. To cultivate members’ habit of finishing their assignments.
Procedure
1. Workers praise members’ performance.
2. Explaining homework: “My irrational beliefs observation chart”.
Objective: To encourage members to pay more attention to the events during which their
irrational beliefs arise, and their thoughts and responses to these particular events.
3. To remind members to finish their assignments and provide rewards for motivation.
Materials
“My irrational beliefs observation chart” worksheet (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. Workers can offer their own views when members share their irrational beliefs, so that members can see that
different people have different views of the same event.
2. If workers notice that members have irrational beliefs, they can use it for sharing with the group, with the
member’s permission.
3. Workers should notice whether members still confuse responses, feelings, and thoughts. For example, they may
think that adding “want” before an action will become a thought. If a member says “I want to scold him”, workers
can ask “Why do you want to scold him?”, so that we can hear their instant thoughts.
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Fifth Session Group Material:
Name：____________________
Know More About Irrational
Beliefs(2)
4. Overgeneralizing
Placing a lot of importance on one single negative experience, to the point where you see one negative experience
as being a sign for a never-ending pattern of negative events that you forecast (expect) to face in the near future.
Example: People who smoke and have tattoos must be gangsters.
5. Mental Filter
Picking out a single negative detail from an unpleasant experience you may have had, and then dwelling exclusively
on this negative detail. That is, you ignore the bigger picture and ‘filter out’ any positive aspects of the event.
Example: I must be lazy so the teacher wants to give me extra tutorial classes after school.
6. Personalization
Taking responsibility or inappropriately blaming yourself for the cause of a negative experience which often may be
beyond your own control.
Example: It’s my fault. If I knew how to resolve things, they wouldn’t fight with each other.
7. Labeling/ Mislabeling
This thinking error involves an extreme form of overgeneralization. You tend to attach a negative label to yourself or
others on the basis of one negative experience.
Example: If I am a girl, my sense of direction must be very bad. If you ask me for directions, I won’t know.
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Fifth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
My Irrational Beliefs Observation
Chart
Please record an event that happened to your friends/family, and try to analyze whether there
are any irrational beliefs in their thoughts and responses.
A. Event
B. Belief
Please circle possible irrational beliefs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the positives
Black-and-white thinking
Catastrophizing
Overgeneralizing
Mental Filter
Personalization
Labeling/ Mislabeling
C. Result/Response
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(F) Session: Sixth Session
Theme: Understanding irrational beliefs – Thinking from different angles
Aims: 1. To motivate members to change their irrational beliefs.
2. To learn to think from multiple angles to discover more positive possibilities.
Activity
Homework Sharing – “My Irrational Beliefs Observation Chart”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To assess individual irrational beliefs.
2. To motivate members to change their irrational beliefs.
Procedure
1. Members share their assignments one by one.
Sharing points:
• Personal experiences of irrational beliefs.
• Effect of irrational beliefs on themselves and others.
2. Workers compliment and praise members who finish their assignments and are willing to
share.
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Illusion Pictures
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To help members develop their ability to think from multiple perspectives.
Concept
Because reactive aggressors think in a single direction, the aim of the group is to broaden
their thinking patterns. Therefore, this activity will help them to understand that different
people have different points of view of a visual illusion.
Procedure
1. Workers show the visual illusion pictures to the group.
2. Divide the members into two groups. Each group will then say what they see in the
pictures and from what angle or how they see the picture.
3. Perceiving more than one angle scores extra marks.
Explanation:
• People’s judgments can be affected by appearance.
• How personal experience affects our viewpoint.
• Different perceptions will have a different focus.
• The benefits of thinking from multiple angles.
Materials
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Activity
Thinking from Multiple Angles
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
1. To change irrational beliefs.
2. To learn to think from different angles and be open to more possibilities.
Concept
Each individual has automatic thinking patterns and tends to ignore other angles, so
this activity can help members to refute irrational beliefs and see things from different
perspectives. Members can also understand that different people have different views and
workers can encourage them to consider and think of others’ thoughts that will help them to
construct rational beliefs in future sessions.
Procedure
1. Workers will show the video “Distributing report card” (please refer to the DVD, Part II,
Scenario 10: “Distributing report card”).
2. Members are divided into two groups and given 10 minutes to discuss the following two
questions:
• In the video, what are the character’s thoughts? Does he have any irrational beliefs?
• If you were his friend, how could you help him to change his thoughts?
3. After the discussion, each group reports the results and workers can introduce techniques
for refuting irrational beliefs.
Finally, workers can show appreciation to members who discussed the issue seriously.
Materials
1. Group discussion worksheet (Group Material 1.1)
2. Video: “Distributing report card”
3. Laptop and projector
Activity
Five Methods of Self-Questioning (Part I)
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
To teach members the five methods of self-questioning to identify more possibilities.
Concept
1. Although members may know about irrational beliefs, they may not be able to identify
them, so the group needs to be introduced to “Five Methods of Self-Questioning” to
reinforce their ability to identify irrational beliefs. These are the five self-questioning
sentences:
• Is there any other possibility?
• If other people encountered the same incident, what would they think?
• Is there any evidence to prove your thought is right or wrong?
• What’s the worst thing that might happen?
• If I continue to hold this thought, what are the benefits and drawbacks?
2. Using the self-questioning technique, members can develop new thinking patterns so that
they can refute their irrational beliefs. Because members need more time to learn and use
the technique, we divide the five questions between this session and the next session.
This session will focus on the first two.
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Procedure
1. Workers explain that people who have irrational beliefs tend to have extreme thoughts
and are unable to see other possibilities.
2. Workers teach members to use the self-questioning method to refute irrational beliefs.
3. The first two questions are explained to elicit other possibilities.
• Are there any other possible explanations?
• If others encountered the same incident, what would they think?
4. Workers will list some common irrational beliefs among students and then use the fivequestion technique to help members identify alternative possibilities and ideas.
5. Members can try to list their own irrational beliefs (referring to their homework from the
fifth session), and use the five-question technique to work out different possibilities and
ideas.
Explanation:
• For the same incident, is there more than one thought?
• Will different beliefs bring different results?
Materials
Tips card for the self-questioning method. (Grroup Material 1.2)
Activity
Debriefing and Distribution of the Homework:“Thinking from Multiple Angles”
Duration
10 minutes
Objectives
1. Debrief on the group content.
2. Cultivate members’ habit of finishing their assignments.
Procedure
1. Workers appreciate members’ performance.
2. Explain homework:“Thinking from multiple angles”.
3. Objective: Strengthen members’ ability to use the self-questioning technique to solve
problems and develop their thinking ability.
4. Remind members that they will receive a reward if they finish the assignment on time.
Materials
“Thinking from Multiple Angles” worksheet (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. As the purpose of this session is to encourage members to think in more depth about the same incident, workers
can use it again in the discussion of the third and fourth part to ask more about their views of the incident.
2. Workers can analyze and discuss members’ experiences to develop a sense of security and a good atmosphere
for sharing.
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Sixth Session Group Material 1.1:
Name：____________________
Group Discussion Worksheet
Please pay attention to the short video, and then discuss with others and answer the following
questions.
Situation: ________________________
What happened? (Sight, sound, smell, touch, flavor.)
If you were the character, what would be your instant response?
Are there any other possible beliefs?
Belief 1
Belief 2
Belief 3
Emotion and Response
Result 1
Result 2
Result 3
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Sixth Session Group Material 1.2:
Name：____________________
Tips Card for Self-Questioning
Method
1. Is there any other possibility?
2. If other people encountered the same incident, how would they think?
3. Is there any evidence to prove whether your thought is right or wrong?
4. What’s the worst that can happen?
5. If I continue to hold this thought, what are the benefits and drawbacks?
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Name：____________________
Sixth Session Homework Assignment:
Thinking from Multiple Angles
Please record an event that happened this week and try to apply the self-questioning technique
to think of other possibilities.
Event:
Instant thought:
Self-questioning method: possible questions
1. Is there any other possibility?
2. If other people encountered the same incident, how would
they think?
Other thought 1:
Other thought 2:
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(G) Session: Seventh Session
Theme: Disputing Irrational Beliefs– Self-questioning technique
Aims: 1. To dispute members’ irrational beliefs.
2. To learn self-questioning techniques to encourage rational thinking.
Activity
Revision of Homework and Explanation of “Thinking from Multiple Angles”
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
To strengthen the relationship between new beliefs and consequences.
Procedure
Members share their recorded events one by one and say how they used the technique to
think from multiple angles and identify possible problems.
Explanation:
• How to use the self-questioning technique to reveal potential problems.
• How to generate new ideas when applying the technique.
• What’s the difference between the new and the old idea?
• What is difficult about forming new ideas?
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Five Methods of Self-Questioning (Part II)
Duration
45 minutes
Objectives
1. To teach members to refute their irrational beliefs and learn to interrogate themselves.
2. To learn to think from multiple angles.
Concept
Refer to Five Methods of Self-Questioning (Part I)
Procedure
1. Apart from explaining how to apply “finding problems”, explain that there are three other
questions that can be used.
2. Revise the “finding out problems” technique and teach members the other self-questions
to refute irrational beliefs.
3. “Five self-questions”:
• Is there any other possibility?
• If other people encountered the same incident, what would they think?
• Is there any evidence to prove whether your thought is right or wrong?
• What’s the worst that can happen?
• If I continue to hold this thought, what are the benefits and drawbacks?
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Procedure
4. Members take turns to list some examples of irrational beliefs in daily life.
5. Other members use the five-question technique to prompt the member to refute their
irrational beliefs and identify alternative possibilities.
6. During the discussion, workers can use questions to teach members rational beliefs and
build up a rational thinking system.
Explanation:
• Through these questions, what changes are there in members’ thoughts?
• What positive emotions and behavior bring about a change in beliefs?
Materials
Tips Card on the self-questioning method
Activity
Debriefing and Explanation of the Homework: “Transformation and Broadening of
Thought”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To strengthen members’ positive behavior.
Procedure
1. Workers debrief on the content of the session.
2. Praise members’ good performance and encourage them to show appreciation to others.
3. Explain homework assignment: “Transformation and broadening of thought”.
Objectives
To strengthen members’ ability to use the self-questioning technique to identify more positive
possibilities, predict different thoughts, and bring about different consequences.
Materials
1. Small rewards
2. “Transformation and broadening of thought” worksheet (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. During the self-questioning activity, members may feel uncomfortable and defensive when their beliefs are
challenged. Before proceeding to self-questioning and interrogating, workers need to explain the objectives and
expectations of the self-questioning activity (to become a rational leader). Workers should also pay attention to
members’ preparation and emotional responses.
2. Workers need to have a certain level of knowledge of the members and observe their progress and emotional
changes.
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Seventh Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
Transformation and Broadening
of Thought
Please record an irrational event that has happened to you and try to identify alternative ideas
and possibilities(3) and write down different thoughts and their consequences.
Event (A):
Instant thought (B):
Instant thought (C):
Five self-questions:
- -Is there any other possibility?
- -If other people encountered the same incident, how would they think?
- -Is there any evidence to prove whether your thought is right or wrong?
- -What’s the worst that could happen?
- -If I continue to hold this thought, what are the benefits and drawbacks?
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Rational Belief 1 (B):
New Result 1 (C):
New Result 1 (C):
New Result 2(C):
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(H) Session: Eighth Session
Theme: To learn more about emotions and emotional management
Aims: 1. To learn how to express emotions.
2. To learn how to control emotions.
Activity
Homework Revision and Explanation:“Transformation and Broadening of Thought”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To promote a positive atmosphere for sharing.
2. To strengthen multi-angled thinking and its relationship with different results.
Procedure
1. Members take turns to share their recorded events.
2. Members share their application of the self-questioning technique and the three
possibilities and thoughts.
3. Sharing different thoughts will lead to different consequences.
Explanation:
• How multi-angled thinking leads to different consequences.
• Difficulties in forming other possibilities and thoughts.
• Of the three results, which one makes you feel most comfortable and rational?
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Sharing Emotion
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
1. To share a difficult emotional experience.
2. To reflect on whether there are any irrational beliefs behind members’ agitated emotions.
Concept
The cognitive distortions and biases of reactive aggressors lead to negative emotions and
behavior. Encouraging members to understand the relationship between cognition, emotion,
and reaction in CBT, and how their personal beliefs affect their emotion and negative
behavior.
Procedure
1. Sit in a circle.
2. Randomly distribute four emotional characteristics cards to members.
3. Members choose a card and give it to their neighbor in a clockwise direction to collect the
same four emotional characteristics cards.
4. When members have collected the same four cards, they should touch their nose.
5. When other members see someone touch their nose, they should do the same at once.
The last one needs to share an experience relating to their emotional characteristics card.
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Procedure
6. Workers record the event and help members to finish the assignments.
Explanation:
• Sharing a negative emotional event.
• Helping members to reflect on their agitated emotions through other members ’
feedback.
• During the event, did members hold any irrational beliefs?
• After the event, how did they calm their emotions?
Materials
Emotional characteristics cards (Group Material)
Activity
STOP the Agitated Emotion
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
1. To learn to reduce violent emotions.
2. To strengthen members’ ability to handle violent emotions.
Concept
Because reactive aggressors have negative emotions and behavior, it is very important to
learn emotional management. This can be achieved through group discussion and roleplay that allows members to find effective ways of controlling their emotions and internal
resources. When they feel angry, they will be able to calm themselves down and think.
Procedure
1. Members write down their methods for relieving anger, such as drinking water, hitting a
pillow, singing, etc.
2. Role-play an angry situation (an example may be taken from the last activity) and use one
of the methods to respond to it.
3. After the exercise, discuss the feasibility and effectiveness of these methods.
Explanation:
• Application and experience of using members’ methods to relieve emotions.
• Are their methods effective or not?
• Workers can summarize the methods and comment on them. If members have had
successful experiences in dealing with angry emotions, they can share them with
others.
Materials
1. Colored paper
2. Pen
3. Rewards
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Activity
Angry Emotions Record
Duration
20 minutes
Objectives
To learn how to express their emotions.
Concept
Using a written record to strengthen members’ internal resources from the last activity and
the most effective methods for controlling emotions.
Procedure
1. Each member writes down something that makes them angry and scores each event from
1-10 (10: very angry; 1: a little angry)
2. Use the methods described in the last activity to choose the most effective method for
handling each event.
3. After choosing a method, try to use it at home and record which method is most suitable
for controlling emotions.
Materials
Angry Emotion Record List (Class Assignment)
Activity
Debriefing and Distribution of Home Assignment: “Trial of Effective Response”
Duration
5 minutes
Objectives
To strengthen members’ positive behavior.
Procedure
1. Workers’ debrief on the content of the session.
2. Compliment members’ good performance.
3. Explain homework–“Trial of Effective Response” – the objective of which is to record
an event that triggers members’ negative emotions and to use methods that can relieve
anger.
Materials
1. Small rewards.
2. “Trial of Effective Response” worksheet. (Homework Assignment)
Remarks
1. Some members may not know how to express and understand their emotions, not only because they are unused
to expressing emotions, but also because they may lack the words to express them. Therefore, workers need to
be patient, help them to express themselves, and teach them more emotional words.
2. To encourage members to become more involved in the practice activity, we can use real-life cases. Workers
need to be careful in case they provoke members’ emotions and handle their emotional responses carefully.
3. Workers should guide members to think of other methods of relieving their violent emotions. They can motivate
members by giving them rewards and encouraging them to choose a suitable method for themselves.
4. Some members may lack the skills to handle their emotions and may not be able to think of a suitable method.
Workers can offer hints and common solutions to guide them. If members suggest negative methods, such as
hitting others or breaking things, workers need to guide them towards other methods so that they will not hurt
themselves or others, do not break the law, etc.
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Name：____________________
Eighth Session Class Assignment:
Angry Emotions Record
Please write down something that makes you feel angry and give it a mark from 1-10
(10: very angry; 1: a little angry).
Things that make you angry
Marks(1-10)
Ways of reducing the angry
emotion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Name：____________________
Eighth Session Group Materials:
Emotional Characteristic Cards
Talking
loudly
Talking
loudly
Talking
loudly
Talking
loudly
Swearing
Swearing
Swearing
Swearing
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Open eyes
widely
Open eyes
widely
Open eyes
widely
Open eyes
widely
Breathe rapidly
Breathe rapidly
Breathe rapidly
Breathe rapidly
Attack others
Attack others
Attack others
Attack others
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Heart beating
rapidly
Heart beating
rapidly
Heart beating
rapidly
Heart beating
rapidly
Clenching fists
Clenching fists
Clenching fists
Clenching fists
Throwing things
Throwing things
Throwing things
Throwing things
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Eighth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
Trial of Effective Responses
Please record an event that triggers your negative emotions and the method you choose to
handle the situation.
A. The event
B. What degree of angry/negative emotion did the event cause? (1: a little angry; 10: very angry)
Not angry at all
very angry
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C. How did you handle the situation?
D. How effective was the method in dealing with your emotions? (1-10)
Not effective
very effective
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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(I) Session: Ninth Session
Theme: Positive self-expression – “I-messages”
Aims: 1. To learn and strengthen methods to handle angry emotions.
2. To learn and improve social skills.
3. To use “I-Messages” to improve the ability to express feelings and expectations.
Activity
Homework Revision and Explanation: “Trial of Effective Responses”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To strengthen the positive sharing atmosphere in the group.
2. To evaluate the use of methods for controlling angry emotions.
Concept
Using a written record to strengthen members’ internal resources from the last activity and
the most effective methods for controlling emotions.
Procedure
Members share the events they have recorded in their “Angry Emotions” worksheet.
Focus of explanation:
• Sharing the methods that members have used to control their angry emotions in the
past week.
• Members can focus on sharing the process, difficulties, and effect of using the
methods.
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Social Skills for Leaders Role-play
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
1. To learn and improve individual social skills.
2. To learn how to express themselves when being refused.
Concept
Because members easily get into conflicts with others and lack social skills, apart from
changing members’ irrational beliefs, group members also need to improve their social skills.
Through role-play and modeling situations, members can learn and apply appropriate social
skills.
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Procedure
1. Workers set up the social practice situation.
2. Members and workers role-play the situations and observe whether members:
• Greet others (e.g. say “good morning”);
• Look at people in a friendly way;
• Keep an appropriate distance;
• Speak gently and at a suitable pace;
• Talk using suitable words; and
• Remain calm and polite when provoked by others.
Sharing points:
• What sort of tone, manner, words, pace, and distance do you expect others to use
when they communicate with you?
• Describe your daily communication with classmates.
• How can you ensure people understand you better?
• When getting along with people, do you often forget some basic social requirements
and expectations? Why do you forget these and do you hold any irrational beliefs?
Materials
Social skills practice card. (Group Material 1.1)
Activity
“I-Message”
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
1. To understand the function and importance of the “I-Message”.
2. To learn the basic rules and skills of the “I-Message”.
3. To strengthen the control of emotions and practice using the “I-Message”.
Concept
Reactive aggressors are prone to be misunderstood by others because they lack
appropriate social skills. In difficult social situations they are likely to encounter problems.
Therefore, learning to use the “I-Message” teaches members how to express their emotions
and expectations positively and reduce misunderstanding and conflicts that occur in
communication.
Procedure
1. Workers explain the definition and structure of an “I-Message”.
2. Use different situations to explain how to respond with an “I-Message”.
3. Divide members into two groups and ask them to use the “I-Message” to express the
following situations:
• After school, some classmates call out your nickname loudly.
• During recess, two classmates are looking at you with a smile and talking quietly.
4. Workers play the role of provoking members and encouraging them to use “I-Messages”
to express themselves. If members can use the “I-Message” correctly, they will receive a
small reward.
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Procedure
5. If members find it difficult to express themselves positively and instead show negative
emotions, workers should offer them the hint cards for relieving emotions to help them
calm down and try again.
6. After the activity, workers can offer comments and suggestions to members on their use
of the “I-Message”, and encourage them to express themselves positively.
Explanation focus:
• Praise members’ attempts to apply “I-Messages”.
• Share the difficulty of applying “I-Messages” and discuss how it feels to use them.
Materials
1. “I-Message” hint card (Group Material 1.2)
2. Rewards
3. Hint cards for relieving emotions (Group Material 1.3)
Activity
Debriefing and Distribution of the Homework: “Learning and Applying ‘I-Messages’”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. Give credit for members’ performance.
2. Explain the content of the assignment.
Concept
Using a written record to strengthen members’ internal resources from the last activity and
the most effective methods for controlling emotions.
Procedure
1. Debrief on the technique and function of the “I-Message”.
2. Compliment members on their performance.
3. Explain the homework assignment “Learning and Applying ‘I-Messages’”.
Expected goal: Members should record when they successfully use an “I-Message”.
Materials
1. “Learning and Applying ‘I-Messages’” worksheet (Homework Assignment)
2. Small rewards
Remarks
1. During the session, when members are asked to share their assignment, they may not be able to report any
successful experiences of controlling and handling emotions. This may not be because nothing has made them
angry, but because they do not fully understand the methods for handling emotions. Workers should accept this,
discuss the difficulties, and encourage members to try again.
2. In the “Social Skills for Leaders” activity, social skills such as using eye contact, keeping distance, and using
appropriate language and manner have been taught. Hence, workers should pay attention to whether members
are able to use these skills and encourage them to try.
3. In the “I-Message” role-play, when members are provoked by the situation, they may have a negative emotional
response and so may not apply the “I-Message” fully. Workers need to use the “Hint Card for Relieving Emotions”
to encourage members to control and calm their emotions. Workers can then discuss why they are finding it
difficult to use the “I-Message” and encourage them to try again.
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Ninth Session Group Materials 1.1:
Name：____________________
Social Skills Practice Card
Members can role-play the following situations to practice their social skills.
1. Classmates refuse to hand in an assignment for you.
2. A classmate hits you accidentally.
3. You ask to join a group to play a ball game.
4. You ask your friend to buy something for you.
5. You ask a classmate how to do some homework.
6. You invite some friends to have lunch.
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Name：____________________
Ninth Session Group Material 1.2:
“I-Message” Hints Card
Steps
1.
Use “I” at the start of a sentence.
2.
Express your feelings and emotions.
3.
Express your expectations about an event.
4.
No need to blame others.
I feel…(feeling/emotion)
I think…(individual expectation)
Examples
1.
I feel unhappy. I want others to respect me.
2.
I am angry. I want to wash my face.
3.
It feels so unfair. I want the matter to be handledfairly.
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Name：____________________
Ninth Session Group Material 1.3:
Hint Cards for Relieving Emotions
Workers should cut the following table into pieces to make hint cards. During the “I-Message”
role-play activity, members may become angry when provoked. If they display negative or angry
emotions, workers can give them one of the following cards (e.g. “drink some water” or “breathe
deeply”) to calm their emotions or distract their attention.
Drink some water
Shout loudly out of the window
Breathe deeply
Talk to friends
Go sightseeing
Leave the situation
Do some exercises
Close your eyes
** Prepare some blank cards for members’ own suggestions during the 8th session
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Ninth Session Homework Assignment:
Name：____________________
Learning and Applying “I-Messages”
Learning and Applying “I-Messages”
A. The event:
B. In the event, how did you use an “I-Message” to express your emotions and expectations?
C. What was the result and how did you feel after using the “I-Message”?
D. What difficulty did you have when using the “I-Message”?
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(J) Session: Tenth Session
Theme: Leadership Graduate Session
Aims: 1. To prevent the recurrence of irrational beliefs in the future.
2. To strengthen members’ ability to use “I-Messages”.
3. To improve and develop individuals’ potential and talents.
4. To strengthen members’ confidence to change and maintain changes.
Activity
Revision and Explanation of the Homework: “Learning and Applying ‘I-Messages’”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
To strengthen members’ application of “I-Messages”.
Procedure
1. Members take turns to share their assignments.
Sharing points:
• Use of “I-Messages” in the past week.
• Difficulty in using “I-Messages”.
• Through discussion, find effective ways to use “I-Messages”.
2. Give compliments and rewards to members who finish their assignment and are willing to
share.
Materials
1. Back-up assignment (if members are unable to hand in their assignment, they can
complete it immediately)
2. Small rewards
Activity
Preventing Relapse
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To teach members how to prevent relapse.
2. To strengthen members’ ability to use “I-Messages”.
Concept
To prevent members relapsing into irrational beliefs and negative emotions, in the last
session workers will fill in a reminder containing members’ irrational beliefs, how to use the
self-questioning method, methods of emotional control, and how to use “I-Messages”, to
prevent members from making mistakes and to provide encouragement.
Procedure
1. Workers distribute the “preventing relapse” cards (Group Material 1.1) to individual
members.
2. The cards are used to remind members how to deal with interpersonal conflicts and their
emotions. The group training should have helped members to extend their thinking time to
avoid irrational beliefs so that they may become rational leaders.
3. Workers and members can practice using “I-Messages” and strengthen their ability to
express themselves positively.
Materials
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Preventing Relapse Cards (Group Material 1.1)
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Activity
“Turning over a New Leaf”
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
1. To let members identify their expectations.
2. To review their positive changes.
Procedure
1. Workers distribute human-shaped worksheets for members to plan their expectations and
targets for the future.
2. Members take turns to share.
Sharing and discussion points:
• Which methods can help members to achieve their expectations and targets?
• Compare the worksheets from the 1st and the 10th sessions. What are the
differences? What are the positive changes?
• In these ten sessions, what have you learnt to appreciate about yourself and what do
you think has improved?
Materials
Human-shaped worksheet (refer to the content of 1st session)
Activity
Group Sharing and Appreciation
Duration
15 minutes
Objectives
Through group appreciation and feedback, acknowledge members’ successful experiences
and increase their confidence to maintain change.
Concept
1. Workers will have prepared eight rewards numbered from 1 to 8.
2. Members refer to the sharing paper (see group materials) and take turns to share
according to the question numbers.
3. After sharing, members applaud the sharer and the sharer is given the reward with the
number corresponding to the question he/she shared.
Materials
1. Rewards (such as stationary)
2. Sharing worksheet (Group Material 1.2)
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Activity
Debriefing and Award Certificate
Duration
30 minutes
Objectives
1. To debrief on the group content.
2. To strengthen members’ sense of achievement.
Procedure
1. Workers debrief on the experiences and topics that have been taught over the ten
sessions. Workers may use a question and answer format for revision.
2. Workers guide members to acknowledge and appreciate the achievements of other
members.
3. Workers present an individual achievement certificate to each group member.
• Workers will have prepared a description of each member ’ s achievements and
appreciation and encouragement for each member.
• A piece of paper with a sentence of appreciation will be attached to the achievement
certificate.
• Each member may use another sheet of paper to write down their own merits or
achievements or those of others and attach them to their achievement certificate.
Materials
1. Certificates
2. Description of each member’s achievements
Remarks
1. As this is the last activity, workers need to emphasize that if members find they have irrational beliefs again, they
have the ability to deal with them. Members are given the “preventing relapse” cards to remind them of how to
use the self-questioning technique when irrational beliefs appear, and how to calm themselves down and actively
deal with interpersonal arguments and conflicts when they become angry.
2. At the end of the session, workers should lead members to reflect on what they have learnt and areas that they
have most appreciated. They should particularly encourage members to show appreciation for one another, to
help them build good relationships with others, and end the session in a harmonious atmosphere.
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Tenth Session Group Material 1.1:
Sharing Worksheet
Members take a piece of sharing paper and start sharing according to the number on the paper.
Members are given a reward as encouragement after their turn at sharing.
1. Who is the member that you most appreciate, and what
do you appreciate in him/her?
2. Share an unforgettable moment in the group.
3. What did you get from the group?
4. Share your feelingsabout the group and explain why you
have these feelings.
5. Share an unforgettable group experience.
6. What have you improved when compared to the first
session?
7. Which activities or sessions did you enjoy most in the
group?
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Tenth Session Group Material 1.2:
Preventing Relapse Card
Workers can fill in the irrational beliefs for each member according to their sharing and
homework. The cards remind members how to use the self-questioning method to find out if
they hold rational beliefs, ways to handle anger, and the use of “I-Messages”.
________’s leadership reminder
1. What is the evidence?
My irrational beliefs is:
Magnifying the negatives and minimizing
the positives ( )
Black-and-white thinking ( )
2. What other possibilities are there?
Catastrophizing ( )
Overgeneralizing ( )
Mental Filter ( )
Personalization ( )
Labeling/ Mislabeling ( )
3. The worst thing that could happen is:
My way to control emotion:
4. What will others will think about this?
“I-Message”:
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages for
me?
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I think…
I want…
I feel…
I expect…
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IV. Case Studies
In this section, a selection of the above-mentioned activities are described in detail using real-life examples,
together with the group process, a case description, and the worker’s analysis of each activity. For better
understanding, the sessions are grouped into four stages: first meeting, initial stage, early-midstage, late-midstage,
and late stage.
1. First Meeting of the Treatment Group
The following is a brief summary of the first session of the treatment group. Reactive aggressors are prone to
becoming suddenly agitated and furious; they may lose control and think ill of others without provocation. Workers
need to understand the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics of reactive aggressors before finalising
the treatment group agreement with them.
First Session: “My Expectations”
Group process and case description
Each member drew a self-portrait on a piece of paper, and shared their expectations of the treatment group.
Members’ expectations included “Learn to control my emotions”, “Meet new friends”, “Rewards”, and “Have fun”.
Workers’ analysis
Reactive aggressors are different from proactive aggressors. Proactive aggressors focus on benefits and only
expect to receive material rewards. However, reactive aggressors want to learn to control their emotions and meet
new friends, which is reflected in the way the reactive aggressors in this group valued the pursuit of relational goals.
Because reactive aggressors can become suddenly agitated and angry, they tend to lose control and think badly
of others even without provocation, so they are not welcomed by peers. “Control my emotions” and “meet new
friends” were the expectations of two members of the treatment group, and this reflected their wish to improve their
interpersonal relationships. At the same time, these expectations became the driving force behind their participation
in the group.
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First Session: “Codes of Practice”
Group Activities: Session 1
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Reactive aggressors – 1: First meeting of the treatment group.)
Group process and case description
Wai heard someone laughing while he was sharing his expectations for the group. He looked to his left and saw
another member, Lap, laughing with the student sat next to him. Workers noticed Wai reacting angrily, as he
slapped the table and was about to punch Lap. Ms. Wu, another worker in the group, saw it happening and stopped
Wai immediately, although Wai did not calm down immediately and continued to stare at Lap.
Workers’ analysis
According to the SIP model(Crick & Dodge, 1996; Dodge & Coie, 1987; Pettit, Polaha, & Mize, 2001), reactive
aggressors often have problems processing the first and second steps of social information. Wai’s behavioral and
emotional responses accurately reflect the theory.
Reactive aggressors tend to receive selective aggressive external cues in the first step of SIP. Wai selectively heard
Lap’s laughter, but was not aware that Lap was discussing the human-shaped worksheet with another student.
In the second step of SIP, reactive aggressors understand and interpret social cues in relation to their previous
experiences of bullying or teasing. They misinterpret and distort the situation, and then produce hostile attributions,
which led Wai to believe that Lap was intentionally laughing at him. Without a thorough understanding of the social
cues, and his subsequent hostile attribution, Wai responded with rage and resorted to aggressive behavior to solve
his problem.
In a treatment group for reactive aggressors, workers should pay more attention to members’ fluctuating behavior
and emotions. Reactive aggressors may suddenly use aggressive behavior without provocation, therefore workers
must be ready to intervene before violent emotional outbursts and aggressive behavior occur, to prevent damaging
the relationship or affecting the mutual trust among members. Hence, it is crucial to emphasize in the group
agreement that any form of aggressive behavior will not be allowed in the treatment group.
2. Initial Stage of the Treatment Group
In the initial stage, workers utilize various activities to assess members’ core beliefs. Workers first broaden
members’ understanding of the event, so that members are able to receive all external cues. Workers then use
Beck’s cognitive theory to explore the core beliefs and intermediary schemas that produce members’ angry
emotions and aggressive behavior.
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Second Session: “Five Senses Test”
Group process and case description
Members were very enthusiastic at the beginning. After hearing the first clue (noisy screaming), Wai’s group
decided that the answer was a fighting scene, and the noise was from the bystanders. The second clue was a
somatosensory clue (a soft drink bottle). The answer from Wai’s group remained the same and they believed that
the protagonist was using the bottle as a weapon in the fight.
After the third and fourth clues (olfactory: a bag of potato chips; gustatory: potato chips), Wai’s group began to
waver, as a fighting scene would not include potato chips. Wai’s group re-organized the four clues and changed
their answer to a party scene. When the visual clue (a basketball game) was shown, one member immediately
responded by saying “The protagonist was playing basketball”. Wai suggested that they should review all the clues
carefully as he believed the protagonist would not be eating potato chips and drinking soft drinks if he was playing
basketball. They then decided that the protagonist and friends were watching a basketball game.
Wai shared their key to success after the activity. He said “Not having all the information about an event often
results in misunderstanding. We relied on sound and touch initially and thought it was a fighting scene”. Workers
then invited members to share similar experiences they had had in the past, and Wai made a confession,
“One time, the student sat behind me tapped my shoulder. I was really angry because I thought he had hit me
deliberately, so I punched him back. But the truth was, he saw my stationery fell on the floor and was reminding me
to pick it up. Since then, the student has been scared of me and refuses to be friends with me”.
Workers’ analysis
From the above example we can see that Wai was a typical reactive aggressor. He ignored his surroundings,
emphasized only a certain part of the sensory system when receiving cues, and selectively perceived aggressive
external cues. Wai misinterpreted being tapped on the shoulder and this led to his aggressive response.
Workers suggested that Wai should apply the “five senses test” in his daily life. Wai remarked that if he had been
able to use the test, he would not have relied on touch to determine the student’s motive. He would have first turned
around and paid attention to the environment and the expression of the student. If he could not make a judgment,
he would have asked the student to clarify the reason for tapping him on the shoulder.
Workers asked other members to put themselves in Wai’s situation, and shared the consequences of Wai’s
new approach. Members commented that Wai’s new approach would bring many benefits, it would not damage
peer relationships and Wai would not be punished. Workers hoped the positive feedback from members would
encourage Wai and other members to apply the positive experiences gained in the group in their daily lives.
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Third Session: “Exploring Situational Cues”
Group Activities: Session 3
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Reactive aggressors – 2: Initial stage of the treatment group, and 3: Explanation
by Dr. Annis Fung. )
Group process and case description
In this activity, members were required to list their thoughts; however, workers found that most of the members
could not clearly distinguish between thoughts and behavioral responses. Group activities (such as situational
questions) helped members to identify their own thoughts, behavior, and emotions. Workers should not just
focus on leading group activities; more importantly, workers should seize the opportunity to assess members’
subconscious thoughts. Based on the scenario and flow of the discussion, workers should try to assess members’
irrational beliefs and hostile attributions from their behavioral and emotional responses. All of these can be followed
up on in later sessions.
“Teacher asks me to see him after school” was a scenario that members had often experienced and that made
them angry, resentful, frustrated, and worried. Wai said that he had been very angry when this happened to him,
and he had ignored the teacher’s request and immediately left school. Wai believed he was picked on by the
teacher and that was the reason behind his detention. Other members worried that he was given detention because
of his poor academic performance.
Anger is an important emotional characteristic of reactive aggressors. It is easy for them to express their core
beliefs when they experience negative emotions. Because reactive aggressors lack communication skills, workers
can help members to express the beliefs underlying their angry emotions through the use of animal pictures. Wai
remarked that he would throw himself recklessly at his opponent and attack him like a lion.
He recalled one of his experiences in which a sixth-form student once called him “first-form kid”. He threw himself
at the sixth-form student and, like the lion in the picture, he attacked the student until the student fell down.
Workers’ analysis
Workers were able to assess the beliefs underlying Wai’s aggressive behavior and angry emotions. Furthermore,
workers believed that Wai himself could identify his beliefs through this experience. Therefore, workers continued to
explore this experience with Wai, using Beck’s cognitive concept chart to assess his core beliefs and intermediary
schemas.
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Name: Wai
Age: Repeat Form 1, 14 years old
Case Background: Impulsive, has short temper, poor academic achievement
Related Childhood Information
Wai was once bullied in kindergarten. He was frightened and helpless. Wai’s younger brother, who
was two years younger than him, protected him and beat off the bully. Hence Wai thought he was
incompetent
Core Belief
I am incompetent
Hypothetical Situation/Belief/Rules
“I am incompetent and am a loser if I cannot protect myself.”
“Everyone has to be competent, otherwise they will be despised by others and areworthless.”
Compensation Strategies
Act preemptively to protect oneself
Situation 1
Situation 2
Situation 3
Wai overheard someone calling
“first-form kid” from behind
Wai was punished for disrupting
theclass
Wai had a dispute with a group
member. When a worker was
dealing with him outside the
classroom, another worker
opened the door to offer
assistance
Automatic Thoughts
1. He was laughing at me
2. He despised me
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
I was incompetent
Automatic Thoughts
1. Teachers directed against me
2. Teachers must have thought
I was the most vulnerable
person in class
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
I was incompetent
Emotional Response
Anger, unease
Behavioral Response
Turned around immediately and
attacked the student standing
behind him
Automatic Thoughts
The member wanted to see me
making a fool of myself
Meaning behind
Automatic Thoughts
I was incompetent
Emotional Response
Emotional Response
Anger
Anger
Behavioral Response
Insulted the teacher
Behavioral Response
Rushed into the classroom to
attack the fellow member
Wai’s Cognitive Concept Chart (Beck, 1995)
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Because Wai selectively perceived the aggressive external cues and ignored his wider surroundings, he could not
fully understand the event. Furthermore, Wai reacted with anger and aggression because he believed others were
laughing at him. It was obvious that Wai had cognitive distortions in his automatic thoughts as he inferred others’
motives with only partial knowledge of the event.
Workers continued to explore the experiences that had influenced Wai’s intermediary schemas and core beliefs.
They found that he strongly believed that if he failed to protect himself, he would be considered a useless failure.
Wai’s selective perception of aggressive external cues, coupled with the above beliefs, induced cognitive distortions
in his automatic thoughts.
Wai mentioned in the individual follow-up session that he had been bullied in kindergarten. He was frightened and
helpless. Wai’s younger brother, who was two years younger than him, protected him and fought off the bully. Wai
felt that he was not only unable to protect himself, he even needed his younger brother to protect him. He therefore
thought that he was incompetent. With an understanding of his childhood experiences, workers were more certain
that Wai’s core belief was helplessness.
Although workers need to assess each member of the treatment group in detail, they should not neglect the other
group members while carrying out the assessment. For example, Ms. Chung (a key worker) was giving Wai an indepth assessment while most of the members were actively involved in the group activities. Two members who
seldom participated in the group came to blows and started hitting each other. Because reactive aggressors are
impulsive and short-tempered, Ms. Wu (a co-worker) had to intervene before the situation intensified. The two
members were able to maintain a civilized relationship and returned their attention to the group activities.
3. The Early-MidStage of the Treatment Group
This section briefly describes the situation of the treatment group during its early–midstage. The automatic thoughts
of reactive aggressors are characterized by cognitive distortions. Workers help members to discriminate the errors
in their automatic thoughts using the concept of the eight thinking errors, followed by the self-questioning method to
debate their irrational beliefs.
Fifth Session: “My Irrational Beliefs – Example from Campus Life”
Group process and case description
Reactive aggressors have cognitive distortions in their automatic thoughts. Beck classified them into the types of
errors outlined below. Workers assessed members’ thinking errors and cognitive level at the initial stage of the
treatment group and simplified them into the following three types of thinking errors:
i) Black-and-white thinking:
Seeing things in black and white (in extreme terms). That is, situations or circumstances are interpreted as being
good or bad, all or nothing, positive or negative. There is no middle/common ground.
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ii) Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the positives:
Exaggerating negatives, and downplaying your own, or other people’s strengths and assets, or a positive event
or situation that you have experienced
iii) Overgeneralizing:
Placing a lot of importance on one single negative experience, to the point where you see one negative
experience as being a sign for a never-ending pattern of negative events that you forecast (expect) to face in the
near future.
The three thinking errors were referred to as “thinking traps” in the treatment group to enable members to
easily understand and apply them in their daily lives. When anger arose, members could use this concept to
make themselves aware of the “thinking traps” in their thoughts andto remind themselves of other possible
interpretations of the event.
Workers gave examples (not members’ own experiences) to stimulate group discussion. Members would then
begin to discuss their own irrational beliefs and thinking errors. Members recalled Wai’s automatic thoughts from
the activity in Session 3 – “He was laughing at me, he must despise me,” when Wai overheard someone calling
“first-form kid” – as an example of a “thinking trap”. A detailed explanation is given in the table below.
Belief: ”He was laughing at me, he must despise me”
“Thinking traps” (thinking errors)
Black-and-white thinking
Example: He was laughing at me, he must despise
me.
Magnifying the negatives and minimizing the
positives
Magnifying Example: He was laughing, he must hold me in
contempt.
Minimizing -
Rational understanding/thoughts
• It was a joke. Maybe he wanted to be friends with
me. He did not despise me.
• Even if he was laughing at me, it didn’t mean he
despised me. Never overreact or take it personal. It
was only a joke.
• Do not underestimate yourself. Others laughed
at you because they did not know you. Most
importantly, you should not underestimate yourself.
Example: I was incompetent at handling the derision.
Overgeneralizing
He laughed at me, everyone laughs at me.
• Others might not have been laughing at you, but at
something else.
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Workers’ analysis
Workers used examples to initiate and stimulate group discussion, then evaluated members’ knowledge of the
three thinking errors through the perspectives they presented. Workers continued to assess the development of the
group. If the group advances through the stages of development into maturity, members should be able to confront
their own or other members’ beliefs directly, in order to identify their thinking errors. Workers observed that in the
initial stage, members were able to safely share some of the unpleasant incidents that had occurred on campus.
Some members even shared information about their family lives, and relationships with their parents. This reflected
the mutual trusting relationships among members. It is helpful for workers to warm up the group using indirect
examples to initiate discussion, and allow members to proceed to the second phase of confrontation.
During the process, workers noticed that the arguments put forward by members not only achieved the effect of
confrontation, they also facilitated mutual encouragement among members. This phenomenon was extremely
beneficial to reactive aggressors, and also for the development of the group. Members were hostile toward each
other at the beginning of the treatment group, which is a typical characteristic of reactive aggressors. Mutual
encouragement can influence members’ belief that “others are hostile to me”, and can create a positive experience
that helps them to develop trusting and supportive relationships with their peers.
Sixth Session: “Five Methods of Self-Questioning (Part I)”
Group Activities: Session 6
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Reactive aggressors – 4: Early mid-stage of the treatment group, and 7:
Explanation by Dr. Annis Fung.)
Group process and case description
Workers invited members to share a conflict experience they had encountered with their peers. Members were
encouraged to use the rhetorical questions in the “Five Methods of Self-questioning” to identify other possible
interpretations of the event.
Wai shared a conflict experience of his. One of his peers, who he disliked, once hit him with a ball on a basketball
court. He rushed towards him, hit him, and spat on him.
Workers asked members to enumerate all the possible explanations for Wai being hit by a ball on the basketball
court. Wai rejected all the possibilities proposed by members during the discussion, believing there was no other
explanation other than that he was being picked on by the student, who had thrown the ball at him deliberately.
During the debate, workers asked Wai to invite members to role-play the event and reconstruct the scene. The roles
included the suspected attacker, Wai’s basketball teammates, other students, and the spectators on the basketball
court.
Workers asked the members involved in the reconstruction to describe what they saw. The suspected attacker
remarked that he saw a crowd of people standing between Wai and himself and it was difficult for him to throw the
ball at Wai. The members who played the students and spectators speculated that the basketball was out of bounds
and was picked up by the suspected attacker, who might only have intended to return the ball to Wai’s teammates.
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Workers once again asked Wai if there were other possible interpretations of the event. Wai refuted this immediately
and said that someone had deliberately thrown the basketball at him. It hit him hard and hurt him, so he would not
believe it was possible that the ball was just being returned to his teammates.
Workers asked the members who played the roles of Wai’s teammates how they would have responded if the ball
was passed to them in this way. They said they would dodge the ball to avoid it hitting them. Workers then asked
Wai what he was doing at the time. Wai said that he was talking with some other students and had his back to his
teammates. Therefore, he suspected that his classmate attacked him intentionally.
Workers prompted Wai to consider other possible interpretations of the event through role-play and discussion.
When Wai tried to see things from others’ perspectives, he began to realize that he had neglected other factors and
the surroundings of the event before he came to the conclusion that he had been deliberately targeted.
Workers’ analysis
It was not difficult for members to learn the “Five Methods of Self-questioning” on a cognitive level. For members
to gain a better understanding of the importance of the method, workers invited them to share a peer conflict
experience of their own, and through role-play, the use of rhetorical questions, and reconstruction of an event,
members were able to establish a new set of thinking models and mechanisms. Through role-play, members could
employ the “Five Methods of Self-questioning” to debate their irrational beliefs and open Wai’s mind to consider
different possibilities.
We could see the “overgeneralizing” distortion in Wai’s automatic thought, “others deliberately harm me”. He drew
conclusions about others’ motives based on only a proportion of the event. Reconstruction of the event helped
Wai to expand his awareness to his other senses, which enabled him to understand the surroundings thoroughly.
Through confrontation and feedback from other members, Wai was able to understand the event from others’
perspectives, and speculate about other possibilities. He could therefore recognize the cognitive distortions in his
thinking.
4. The Mid-Late Stage of the Treatment Group
This session briefly describes the mid-latestage of the treatment group. In the previous stage, members learned to
detect, discriminate, and debate their irrational beliefs. Through the process of debate and behavioral assignments,
members were able to strengthen their ability to analyze events from different perspectives, and to construct new
rational beliefs.
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Seventh Session: “Five Methods of Self-Questioning (Part II)”
Group Activities: Session 7
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Reactive aggressors – 5: M id-late stage of the treatment group, and 7:
Explanation by Dr. Annis Fung. )
Group process and case description
After the debate, members discussed and helped one another to construct new reasonable, fair, and rightful
beliefs. The workers helped Wai to form new beliefs through the positive emotional and behavioral responses
(consequences) that followed the particular beliefs.
Changes in Wai’s beliefs:
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Initially, Wai was quite certain that the suspected attacker deliberately aimed the ball at him to hurt him. However,
once he had speculated about other possibilities, his behavioral and emotional responses changed accordingly.
Wai said that he would be less angry if he could believe in more positive possibilities. In future, he would also take
the initiative and ask others to clarify the matter instead of attacking them.
Workers then guided Wai to express the reasonable and fair belief in his newly formed behavior and emotion. Wai
now believed “I have the ability to speculate on other possibilities and circumstances”. He trusted he could now
calm himself and refrain from attacking others and being punished.
Workers’ analysis
During the debate, Wai was able to discriminate the unreasonable thoughts (cognitive distortions) underlying his
irrational belief. In the late mid-stage of the treatment group, workers helped members to construct new, reasonable
and fair beliefs.
Ellis and Bernard (2006) pointed out that workers must help members to understand their irrational beliefs and
the negative behavioral and emotional responses during the counseling process. Through comparison of these
beliefs, members are able to recognize their own problems and their motivation for change is enhanced as a result.
In the group, workers used the “pie” technique to vividly illustrate the differences in these beliefs, thereby helping
members to understand the deviation in their beliefs (Beck, 2003) and realize that reasonable beliefs would bring
positive results and therefore strengthen members’ reasonable beliefs.
The workers assessed Wai in the initial stage of the treatment group and confirmed that he held the core belief
that he was “helpless” and intermediary schemas of “I am incompetent and am a loser if I cannot protect myself”.
As the treatment group progressed, Wai broadened his awareness of his senses and no longer relied on a single
sense (vision) to understand and selectively receive aggressive cues. Such changes greatly enhanced his ability
to comprehend events and also reduced his hostility toward others. Moreover, by the mid-stage of the treatment
group, Wai was equipped with knowledge about thinking errors that helped him to realize his anger came from
his irrational beliefs, rather than objective reality. With support from workers and other members, Wai realized he
had the ability to deal with the problem using other, more effective ways than aggressive behavior. For example,
he would ask others to clarify matters when dealing with peer conflict, which in turn increased his sense of selfefficacy.
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Seventh Session: Conclusion and Explanation of Homework Assignment - “Transformation and Broadening
of Thought”
Group process and case description
Workers emphasized that the homework assignment in this section was very challenging and different from
previous assignments. The aim of the assignment was to encourage members to implement new, reasonable
beliefs. Therefore, a special reward was given upon completion of the assignment to foster members’ motivation to
practice new beliefs.
Members constructed new beliefs in this session. Wai developed the belief that “I have the ability to speculate on
other possibilities and circumstances”. The workers first helped Wai to recall past campus conflicts that he had
often encountered. Wai indicated that he would become furious and get into fights with whoever bumped into him
during recess. The workers helped Wai to reflect on his new belief, and he commented that he was now calmer
than before. Before acting, he would pause to observe the surroundings, and then consider the intentions of others.
Workers helped members to rehearse possible scenarios when they were ready for their behavioral assignment.
Workers encouraged Wai to implement the new belief during the following week and to evaluate the positive
consequences.
Workers’ analysis
Behavioral training is designed to target behavioral responses or rational beliefs. Those such as Wai, who make
positive progress, can be encouraged to implement new beliefs and new behavior directly. For members making
slower progress, workers implemented behavioral training; for example, when they encountered conflicts, members
were urged to calm themselves first, then use their five sensory systems to understand the event, and solve the
problem using the concept of fair and reasonable thoughts. Finally, it is important to review and appreciate what
they have done well during the process.
Upon completion of the behavioral training, members were asked to write down how they managed their emotions
and used the five sensory systems to understand the situation at the time. Members learned to appreciate
themselves and reflected on their new beliefs through the positive experience of the behavioral training.
When designing the behavioral training for members, workers should bear in mind that the training should be
achievable, specific, and not over-complicated, otherwise members may easily give up.
5. Late Stage of the Treatment Group
This section describes the late stage of the treatment group. In the previous stage, members successfully debated
their irrational beliefs. In the later stage, members underwent behavioral training; they learned to express their
emotions, strengthen their multi-angled thinking approach, and initiate alternative interpretations to construct new,
rational beliefs.
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Eighth Session: “STOP the Agitated Emotion”
Group process and case description
The workers asked members to recall successful experiences of managing their emotions and write them down
on a piece of paper. Members found it difficult at first because they could not recall any successful experiences.
However, the workers affirmed members’ previous efforts and encouraged those with successful experiences to
share their stories first.
The workers encouraged Wai to share his experience. He said: “I was knocked down on the floor by a student, and
was being stared at by a lot of other students. I was very angry. I picked up a nearby chair and went to throw it at
the student. Just as I lifted the chair, I thought of the consequences, so I put it down and went to the washroom.”
Workers once again affirmed Wai’s effort and bravery in sharing his experience. Workers helped Wai to summarize
the three effective methods he had mentioned: predict negative consequences, leave the scene, and wash your
face.
Other members then took turns to share their experiences and gave one another advice. For instance, one member
chose to “hit the wall” to help control his emotions, but others pointed out that this had the drawback of harming
himself and damaging public property. Some members could see that it had the advantage of causing no harm to
others. Later on, members encouraged the member to “punch a pillow” instead, which would vent emotion without
hurting anyone, including himself.
Workers’ analysis
Negative emotions and extreme behavior are characteristics often exhibited by reactive aggressors, thus emotional
management is extremely important. When members thought they could not manage their emotions, workers
encouraged them to concentrate and recall their past experiences. It is also important for workers to affirm
members’ efforts in trying. Apart from sharing their own experiences, members can also learn from the feedback
and successful experiences of others. All of these can help members to identify the most effective method for
controlling their own emotions and exploring their internal resources, thereby increasing the efficacy of group
members. Should members encounter situations that make them angry in the future, they will know how to control
themselves, and find space to think of ways to solve the problem.
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Tenth Session: Revision and Explanation of Homework Assignment – Learning and Applying “I-Messages”
Group Activities: Session 10
(Please refer to the DVD, Part III, Reactive aggressors – 6: Late stage of the treatment group, and 7: Explanation
by Dr. Annis Fung.)
Group process and case description
In Session 9, members learned the basic principles and skills of using “I-Messages” and applied them in their daily
lives in the following week. Wai was very successful in applying “I-Messages” and controlling his emotions. He
shared he experience with other members.
Wai was knocked down by a classmate in the school playground last week. He applied the “Predict Negative
Consequences” approach that he had learned in the group. He predicted that he would be “punished” if he
retaliated aggressively. Therefore, he managed to control his emotions. When he calmed down and found space to
process his thoughts objectively, he realized the classmate was playing a game and had knocked Wai down only
because he was anxious to save the ball. Other members praised Wai’s effort and success. Moreover, when Wai
accidentally bumped into other students, he again successfully used an “I-Message” to make a sincere apology and
to clarify that the accident was not intentional.
Workers should also discuss members’ less successful experiences and examine the difficulties members
experience in applying the “I-Message”. Workers should acknowledge what members did right, clarify what they did
wrong, and allow them to practice again in the group.
Workers’ analysis
Because reactive aggressors lack appropriate social skills, they are easily misunderstood and alienated by others.
They often find themselves trapped in a vicious cycle of social problems. Through learning to use the “I-Message”,
members learned to express their emotions and expectations positively and thus reduced misunderstandings and
conflicts with others.
The successful experiences of members were shared in the group to encourage less motivated members. Wai
indicated that his new belief kept him calm and he no longer felt others were hostile towards him. He was able
to maintain good relationships with his peers and his conduct was much improved. These positive responses
encouraged and sustained Wai’s new belief. Moreover, Wai successfully applied the effective behavior he had
learned; he actively expressed personal emotions and expectations. Wai was able to replace his dysfunctional
behavior with functional behavior.
The workers found that reactive aggressors have difficulties in expressing their feelings, and often ignored their
own speech tone and attitude. As a result, reactive aggressors are only able to indicate their expectations by using
“I-Messages”. It is therefore helpful to encourage members who encounter difficulties to reconstruct the scene. At
the same time, workers should pay attention to members’ attitudes and the content of what they are saying, and
ensure other members feedback on the success and failure of the process.
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V. Effectiveness
The table below shows the results of the study collected from reactive aggressor treatment groups held between
2008 and 2009 among Hong Kong secondary schools.
Reactive aggressors treatment group: Result of student self-report (pre-test – post-test)
Pre-test – Post-test
Valid sample size#
Mean difference+
t-value
Aggressive behavior
45
4.22
4.79**
Attentional problems
45
2.33
3.74**
Delinquent behavior
45
3.07
5.63**
Proactive aggressive
behavior
45
2.67
3.28**
Reactive aggressive
behavior
45
4.31
5.92**
Control of anger
45
1.53
2.19*
# Valid sample size: the number of students who completed both pre- and post-tests
+ A positive value of mean difference represents a decrease of mean score while a negative one represents an
increase of mean score
*p<0.05 **p<0.01
The treatment group for reactive aggressors had significant effects. Aggressive behavior, attentional problems,
delinquent behavior, proactive aggressive behavior, and reactive aggressive behavior were all significantly reduced
in these group members after completing the treatment groups. Members’ ability to control their anger was also
improved. The results demonstrate that the treatment groups were effective in helping reactive aggressors.
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Project Director
: Annis Lai-chu Fung, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies,
College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong
Consultant
: Prof. Adrian Raine
Richard Perry University Professor, Department of Criminology and
Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania
Clinical Supervisors : Ho Wai Ling, Lydia
Lui Wai Ling, Winnie
Members
: Tsui Wing Ki (Executive Officer), Lee Wing Hang (Clerical Assistant),
Lam Yin Hung (Senior Research Assistant), Fan Sai Man (Research
Assistant), Leung Yik Kiu (Research Assistant), Chuah Zhi Xue
(Research Assistant), Lo Kin Fai (Social Worker), Tsang Shuk Yi (Social
Worker), Lai Kwun Lun (Social Worker), Choi Kong (Social Worker),
Chan Man Kuen (Counselor)
Organization
: City University of Hong Kong
Printed In
: September 2011
Funded By
: Quality Education Fund
ISBN
: 978-988-17052-6-6
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