America by Air Content Document Gallery #2
Working Title:
Target Opening Date:
Duration of Exhibition:
Size of Gallery:
Gallery Location:
Subject Areas:
Target Audience:
Target “Design-to” number:
Needed Services:
NASM Project Number:
America By Air
1/2021
permanent
12,112 sq. ft., ceiling height 50 ft.
NMB Gallery 102
Technology, business, culture, power, and people
General
$4,289,689.00
Exhibition Design
E-061-15-028 America by Air
Exhibition #2 – America by Air
Currently, The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) has an exhibit called “America by Air” in
gallery 102. This gallery gives visitor a look into the progression of aviation in America. The Gallery is
set up in different units. Each unit focuses on a different time period starting from the early days of flight
to present day. This gallery houses many large commercial airplanes from the 20th century, but also
models of airports, airport towers and the culture during this time period.
Exhibition Space Gallery 102 has an open concept. It is surrounding on two side with glass (curtain wall
and skylight). This gallery is approximately 12,000 square feet with a 50 ft. ceiling. All galleries will be
delivered by the Revitalization project to the design team as black boxes with open ceilings and a lighting
grid. The electrical and IT will be updated facilitating more cutting edge interactive and visitor
experiences. Final electrical capacity and specific material finishes have not been defined and the
contractor will be responsible to coordinate with the COTR the final black box details which are being
developed. Contractor shall be responsible for verifying that they have the latest version of the Black Box
description.
Exhibition Scope The National Air and Space Museum seeks the services of talented and creative exhibit
design professionals to assist in the updating of the existing America by Air exhibition. As part of the
revitalization of NASM, “America by Air” will have many different portions updated. The exhibit will
stay in gallery 102 but many of the artifacts will be removed and stored. This exhibition is deemed a “turn
key” space in which the current overall look, feel, style and exhibition components will remain but be
upgraded, refurbished, repaired and items replaced as required. “America by Air” is a very large exhibit
in gallery 102 and needs a lot of work to be updated. In order to update everything most artifacts will be
taken out and the structures will be redone. Work needs to be done on the exhibit while everything is
taken out. Some of the areas are dated and require new graphics. The interactives also need to be looked
at, updated and re-done in some cases.
While it is anticipated that some of the exhibitry will remain in place (i.e. Ford Trimotor wall, Hangar) we
have budgeted as if we are replacing with “new”. In certain instances where we can salvage components,
they will be refurbished for the gallery re-installation. All of the cases will be re-furbished and re-installed
for the new space. All of the cased artifacts will require removal for conservation and temporary storage.
The artifacts that are anticipated to remain in place are the hanging aircraft (Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing,
Fairchild FC-2, Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor, Northrop Alpha, Boeing 247-D, Douglas DC-3) and one two large
engines (Rolls Royce RB.211 and the General Electric CF6). A pre- inspection of each hanging artifact
should occur. This inspection and light cleaning will provide us with any additional requirements that
each object may require. These early determinations can better inform our timeline for any hanging
aircraft removals and conservation work. While we expect that the Rolls Royce RB.211 and General
Electric CF6 to remain in place, we have included the assembly and reinstallation, of these objects in the
budget as well. The nose displays of the Airbus and the DC-7 will require external and internal work and
will require transportation to UHC or receive contracted services to repaint and refurbish these object.
From the NASM collection we plan to display a new aircraft, the J-1 Standard. This aircraft requires
significant restoration. The current time estimate for the restoration is three years. Given this duration
the work should begin in 2017 if installation prior to opening is desired. The material cost is provided
for in the gallery budget and labor cost is identified in the program plan as a support activity. This exhibit
does not require any artifact incoming loans or gifts.
The interactives require updating. Some of the Mechanical interactives aren’t working properly and all of
the Computer Interactives require upgrades. Some of the CI’s just need to be updated to the latest
software and hardware specifications, but some of the other ones need to be redesigned to work better.
All of the computer hardware will be replaced and many of the Computer Interactives (CI) will be
updated. The Mechanical Interactives (MI) will also be fixed and upgraded as some of them are not
working currently.
Panels have been damaged or faded over the years and some could use redesigning to get the point across
more clearly. The cases and lighting will be reused but the cases need to be updated and the lighting may
be reconfigured. Some of the cases are also receive a lot dust inside or in some cases in between the glass
and a panel which blocks some of the view. This may require some modification to prevent this in the
future but the cases are currently planned to be refurbished and reused for the revitalized display. All of
the Intro pylons require audio labels to make the audio buttons more obvious. Plex barriers will be added
in certain areas to provide additional protection to the artifacts and to prevent visitors from touching some
objects. This protection will be required especially when the J-1 is installed in the gallery. Our visitors
have a tendency to leverage coins, etc from the balcony level onto our artifacts resting below on the first
floor. Measures will need to be taken to provide this protection.
Below is a representative list of some the items that require maintenance and redesign objectives:
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Replace damaged laminate on pylon of exhibit introduction panel
Replace damaged text label on exhibit introduction panel
Replace carpet and set a new floor tile layout
Redo all flip panels in Wild Bill section with better hinge mechanism and custom high pressure
laminate
Refurbish hut and areas around the hut
Liberty V-12 engine leaking on stand and floor of hut
Recreate working knee board map interactive to be more durable
Redo Travel Agent desktop so people cannot slide things under plex, seal edges of glass or create
graphic tabletop
Redo flip damaged flip book “Airports of Tomorrow”, custom high pressure laminate
Interior and exterior of DC-7 needs thorough clean-up maintenance
Replace turn style on exiting DC-7
Refurbish luggage pile
Refurbish exterior of airbus cockpit
Replace all speakers throughout gallery
Seal light attic in cases to eliminate dust
Add environmental monitoring and/or security to cases
Replace lighting in all cases, check lighting levels on all cases that face outside light
Upgrade family label materials to solid surface such as Corian
Below is a representative list of some of the graphic items that require a redesign or touch up:
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Delete "You Are Here" on graphic image collage of Exhibit Introduction Panel
Add audio description label under button of exhibit introduction panel
Use existing supports (on tops of unit 100 pylons to place J-1 where Jenny was supported, may
need some modification and shifting of pylons
Add clear glass to 2nd floor balcony to protect J-1 airplane artifact
Create new labels for J-1 to replace Jenny labels
Redo hut mural with correct sepia tone color
Recreate working knee board map interactive to be more durable
Angle top of knee wall so it's not used as a bar during special events
Add new case wedge graphic to large model case on back side (airplane labels, photos)
Redo damaged graphic panel Visionary Reforms
Redo damaged graphic panel Airmail Scandal
Redo Travel Agent desktop so people cannot slide things under plex, seal edges of glass or create
graphic tabletop
Redo flip damaged flip book “Airports of Tomorrow”, custom high pressure laminate
Redesign and replace damaged “Who’s Flying” flip panel with addition of Mickey Mouse on
answer panel
Move Lucille Ball name down on “Flying Stars” wall mural so not as obvious
Add photo of Juan Trippe in case with globe (new wedge at bottom of case)
Replace match books (on loan) in "At Your Service" case, redesign graphic label
Add interior plex barrier to DC-7 seating area
Re-design mural in the back of "At Your Service" case to prevent reflection and dust buildup
between case and mural
Add engine label to fill in empty space, right of 747
Move railing out farther away from Rolls Royce engine, left of 747 to prevent people from
touching it, will need to modify design of powder coated railing
Redo damaged graphic rail "Aviation Technology"
Change gold plating on piston engine interactive to aluminum
Update graphics for Price Master interactive
Add light shining into 747 lower door
Create new mural, both braille and text labels for 3D tactile models wall
Below is a representative list of some of the updates required for the interactives:
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All computer interactives will need to be digitized with updated software
Remake tea cup and saucer shake table so it shakes properly (2nd motor has failed), vitrine with
tea cup has crack and needs replacing
Redesign “Around the World” interactive as digital with a large monitor
Fix Piston engine interactive (currently not working)
Change gold plating on piston engine interactive to aluminum
Update graphics for Price Master interactive
Airbus software update to flight simulation (not over the white house)
Monitors inside airbus cockpit need to be replaced
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Update mechanisms and labels for all flight controls
Replace all monitor hardware
Big Ideas:
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Innovation – How did we learn to fly? What people and ideas contributed to the invention of
the airplane?
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Industrialization: How did technical change and improvement occur, 1903‐1914? What
factors led to technological advance? How did aviation grow to become an important
industry?
Globalization: A technology without borders ‐ what role did government play in fostering
aeronautical progress? What impact did varying levels of government support have on
aeronautical progress in different nations? Was early aviation a global technology? What
elements promoted technology transfer?
Flights of the Imagination: How did public perceptions of the potential of the airplane change
attitudes toward science, technology and the future? What sort of individuals emerged as
representatives of the new air age?
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Exhibition Goals The Exhibition core team is imagining a space where millions of museum visitors will:
• Share the excitement of early flight with visitors.
• Help visitors understand the birth of the relationship between government and the
aeronautical industry.
• Underscore the extent to which aviation was a global enterprise.
• Understand the broad social, cultural, economic and political impact of flight on the world.
• Explore factors supporting innovation and technological progress.
AT:000-L1
America by Air
Flying was new and daring in the early years of the 20th century.
Traveling by airplane was rare. Airlines, airliners, airports, air routes—
none of these existed. But by century’s end, you could travel to almost
anywhere in America by air in a matter of hours. How did this
revolutionary change happen?
In this gallery, explore the history of air transportation in America:
• How has the federal government shaped the airline industry?
• How have improvements in technology revolutionized air travel?
• How has the flying experience changed?
AT:000-L2
“Unlike the boundaries of the sea by the shorelines, the ‘ocean
of air’ laps at the border of every state, city, town and home
throughout the world.”
—L. Welch Pogue, former chairman of the Civil Aeronautics
Board
AT:000-L3
This Exhibition Is Made Possible Through the Generous
Support of
NASA
U.S. Department of Transportation
Airbus
Additional Support Provided by
Federal Aviation Administration
Rockwell Collins
Northwest Airlines, Inc.
The Boeing Company
AT:000-L4-P4
Philip C. Dittes, Minnesota Historical Society
November 15, 2007, page 1
AT:100-L1 Upright panel 100a
The Early Years of Air Transportation
1914–1927
The first airline began flying only 11 years after the
Wright brothers’ first flights in 1903. But that and
other early airlines could not make enough money to
stay in business.
To help create an air transportation network, the U.S.
government began flying the mail. Once reliable
service was established, the Post Office turned over
air mail delivery to private companies. By 1927, a
commercial airline system had been born.
Aviation technology was improving but still crude. A
system of air routes was just starting to develop. The
flying experience was exciting but uncomfortable
and sometimes dangerous. And for the few
passengers who flew, it was expensive.
November 15, 2007, page 2
Airplane labels
AT:100-L2-A2
Curtiss JN-4D Jenny
Artifact: Airplane
Designed as a trainer for the U.S. Army Air Service, the
Curtiss JN-4 first flew in 1916. Known popularly as the
“Jenny,” the JN-4 taught thousands of Allied pilots to fly
during World War I. After the war, surplus Jennys were
widely used for “barnstorming”—traveling air shows—and
they opened the first scheduled air mail service.
A19190006000
The JN-4D featured a 90-horsepower Curtiss OX-5 engine.
The Army ordered Curtiss to convert six JN-4Ds for the U.S.
Air Mail Service by installing a larger 150-horsepower
Hispano-Suiza engine and a mail compartment. These
airplanes were redesignated as JN-4Hs.
The Smithsonian acquired this Jenny in 1918.
Transferred from the U.S. War Department
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
13.3 m (43 ft 7 in)
8.3 m (27 ft 4 in)
3 m (9 ft 11 in)
871 kg (1,920 lb)
630 kg (1,390 lb)
Curtiss OX-5, 90 hp
Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Co., Garden
City, Long Island, N.Y.
November 15, 2007, page 3
AT:101-L1 Upright panel 111a
The World’s First Scheduled Airline
The St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line began flying across
Tampa Bay on January 1, 1914. It lasted only three months.
The flight covered 29 kilometers (18 miles) and took 23 minutes—11
hours less than traveling between St. Petersburg and Tampa by rail.
The Airboat Line safely transported 1,204 passengers across the bay.
But without a continuing subsidy from St. Petersburg or steady income
from tourist traffic, it could not survive. The airline closed at the end of
March.
AT:101-L2-P2a,b,c
95-8346
AT:101-L3-P3
00133278
Former St. Petersburg Mayor A. C. Phiel (center) paid $400
for the honor of being the first passenger on the St.
Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line. Pilot Tony Jannus is on the
right; the airline’s organizer, Paul E. Fansler, on the left.
The brief one-way trip across Tampa Bay cost $5 (more than
$100 today). Excess weight cost extra.
Case label
AT:101-L4-M4
Benoist XIV
Model
For its St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line, St. Petersburg
purchased a Model XIV from St. Louis aircraft manufacturer
Thomas Benoist. The airplane could carry one passenger, who
sat next to the pilot in the open cockpit. The Benoist was
powered by a Roberts 75-horsepower, 6-cylinder, watercooled engine.
November 15, 2007, page 4
AT:102-L1 Upright panel 110a
Early Airlines
After World War I, many people began to operate commercial
airlines. But every one of these early efforts failed because of high
operating costs.
Airlines could not make enough money carrying passengers or cargo.
They needed financial help—subsidies—until technological and
organizational improvements could enable them to become selfsufficient and profitable.
AT:102-L2
Aeromarine Airways
For four years starting in 1920, Aeromarine Airways carried
wealthy passengers from Miami to Nassau in the Bahamas and
Havana, Cuba, aboard flying boats. The overseas flights were a
popular way for many to drink legally during the Prohibition era.
During the off-season, Aeromarine flew between Cleveland and
Detroit. Despite its initial success, the airline eventually ran out of
money. It ceased flying in 1924 after safely carrying 17,000
passengers.
AT:102-L3-P3
SI 82-13221
AT:102-L4-P4
SI 89-1197
Aeromarine Airways’ three Miami-based pilots and two
mechanics pose on the fuselage of an Aeromarine 75 flying
boat.
Fashionably attired passengers pose on the Aeromarine 75
Cordeaux. The airline’s elite patrons flew in relative luxury
inside enclosed cabins.
November 15, 2007, page 5
AT:103-L1 Back side “Early Airlines”
Early Airlines
AT:103-L2
“Yesterday I flew to Cleveland for lunch in the “Buckeye,” an
11-passenger flying limousine…. It’s Magic!... It was like
being in heaven.”
—Miss “Peggy” MacLean on flying Aeromarine from Detroit
to Cleveland in 1922
AT:103-L3-P3
7A10690
AT:103-L4-P4
SI A-3061
AT:103-L5-P5
SI 00172992
AT:103-L6-P6
NASM Ref # 00028780
AT:103-L7-P7
Chaplin Air Lines flew wealthy passengers in Curtiss MF
flying boats between Los Angeles and Catalina Island briefly
in 1919. It was the first scheduled airline to fly in California.
Aeromarine Airways’ Model 75 flying boats Pinta and Santa
Maria prepare to depart New York for Miami in 1920.
Aeromarine Airways staff in Miami consume an undelivered
shipment of ice cream.
Starting in 1920, Pacific Marine Airways operated between
Los Angeles and Catalina Island for eight years. Passengers
and crew would take the occasional break to fish for tuna.
The Gulf Coast Air Line flew from New Orleans to Pilottown,
at the tip of the Mississippi Delta beginning in 1923. It
provided a mail link with steamers traveling to or from Cuba,
the Caribbean, and Central and South America.
November 15, 2007, page 6
AT:104-L1 Upright panel 120a
The Post Office Begins Flying the Mail
The U.S. Post Office began using airplanes to move the mail in
order to help establish an air transportation system.
The new field of air transportation was risky business. Early airlines
proved unprofitable—they flew and then folded. The airline industry
could not get off the ground.
So as it had with stagecoaches, steamships, and railroads, the federal
government stepped in to foster a new transportation system. It
authorized the U.S. Post Office to begin flying the mail. In 1918 the
vision of Postmaster General Albert Burleson and Second Assistant
Postmaster General Otto Praeger became a reality with the creation of
the U.S. Air Mail Service.
AT:104-L2
The First Carrying of Air Mail
To demonstrate the potential of transporting mail by air, the Post
Office approved a special air mail flight as part of the festivities at
an international air meet on September 23, 1911, on Long Island,
New York.
With a full mail bag squeezed between his legs, pilot Earle
Ovington took off and flew to Mineola, a few miles away. He
banked his airplane and pushed the bag overboard. It fell to the
ground and was retrieved by the local postmaster.
AT:104-L3-P3a,b
SI 87-7708
While Ovington’s flight was purely ceremonial, it marked the
first time an airplane officially carried U.S. mail.
SI 7B05364
AT:104-L4-P4
Earle Ovington was sworn in as America’s “first aeroplane
mail carrier.”
November 15, 2007, page 7
Case labels
AT:104-L5-M5
Queen
Model
Earle Ovington flew a Queen airplane on his brief air mail
flight in 1911. The Queen was based on the popular Blériot
monoplane design.
AT:104-L6-M6
Curtiss JN-4H
Model
The Curtiss JN-4H was the first aircraft used in regular
service by the Post Office. Popularly known as “Jennys,”
JN-4Hs were conventional Army trainers equipped with a
Hispano-Suiza 150-horsepower engine. They could carry 63
kilograms (140 pounds) of mail 400 kilometers (250 miles) at
a cruising speed of 120 kilometers (75 miles) per hour.
A193200010001
Gift of Stewart Geigen
AT:104-L7-A7a,b
Air Mail Pilot’s Coat and Helmet
Artifacts: Coat and helmet
Lt. James Edgerton flew the mail from Philadelphia to
Washington during the first scheduled air mail flight on May
15, 1918. He wore this helmet and coat during that flight.
Edgerton left the Army in 1919 and became the Chief of
Flying for the U.S. Air Mail Service.
NASM-0185, A19320001000
Gift of James C. Edgerton
AT:104-L8-A8
Compass Used on the First Scheduled Air Mail Flight
Artifact: Compass
On May 15, 1918, Lt. Howard P. Culver navigated between
Philadelphia and Belmont Park, near New York City, using
this liquid-filled compass installed in his Curtiss Jenny.
A19680559000
Gift of Mrs. A. Paul Culver
AT:104-L9-P9a,b
NASM-1320, 1962-0110
Letter and envelope carried on the first scheduled air mail
flight.
AT:104-L10-P10
James Edgerton’s Logbook
Family label
This is Lt. James Edgerton’s logbook, with entries for May 14
and 15, 1918. Pilots write down their experiences so other
pilots can learn from them. What problems did Edgerton
have? How long did it take him to fly from Bustleton Field to
Washington?
November 15, 2007, page 8
AT:104-L11-A11
Air Mail Bag
Artifact: Air mail bag
Early air mail was placed in heavy canvas bags and carried
inside a special compartment in front of the pilot on most mail
planes.
November 15, 2007, page 9
AT:105-L1
Back side of “P.O. Begins Flying the Mail” panel
The Curtiss JN-4D Jenny
AT:105-L2
“I always considered it a very safe airplane, because the
carburetor would vibrate the airplane so badly that it would
shake the ice off the wings.”
—Pilot Earnest M. Allison on the Jenny
AT:105-L3-A3
Curtiss JN-4D Jenny
Artifact: Airplane
Designed as a trainer for the U.S. Army Air Service, the
Curtiss JN-4 first flew in 1916. Known popularly as the
“Jenny,” the JN-4 taught thousands of Allied pilots to fly
during World War I. After the war, surplus Jennys were
widely used for “barnstorming”—traveling air shows—and
they opened the first scheduled air mail service.
A19190006000
Label repeated on back of AT:100 main label
panel.
The JN-4D featured a 90-horsepower Curtiss OX-5 engine.
The Army ordered Curtiss to convert six JN-4Ds for the U.S.
Air Mail Service by installing a larger 150-horsepower
Hispano-Suiza engine and a mail compartment. These
airplanes were redesignated as JN-4Hs.
The Smithsonian acquired this Jenny in 1918.
Transferred from the U.S. War Department
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, empty:
Weight, gross:
Engine:
13.3 m (43 ft 7 in)
8.3 m (27 ft 4 in)
3 m (9 ft 11 in)
630 kg (1,390 lb)
871 kg (1,920 lb)
Curtiss OX-5, 90 hp
AT:105-L4-P4
Special Stamps for Air Mail
Family label
The Post Office created a series of air mail stamps when it
began flying the mail. The ones below were first used in 1918.
What kind of airplane do they show?
(Hint: Look up!)
They show a “Jenny,” the type of airplane the Post Office first
used to carry mail.
November 15, 2007, page 10
AT:105-L5-P5
Oops!
Family label
Post Office printers made a mistake when they first printed
this stamp. Today very few of these rare “upside-down Jenny”
stamps still exist. These famous stamps are worth a lot of
money.
AT:105-L6
“Jenny” Is a Nickname
Family label
The airplane’s official name is the Curtiss JN-4. If you say the
letters “JN” out loud, they sound like “Jay-En.” That was
shortened to “Jen,” and it eventually was changed to “Jenny.”
AT:105-L7
Did You Know?
Family label
The words “Air Mail” were not added to air mail stamps until
1926—15 years after the first airplane carried the mail.
AT:105-L8-P8
Curtiss Jennys were widely used in exhibition flight. Here
Clyde Pangborn, who would later co-pilot the Boeing 247-D
in this gallery during the 1934 MacRobertson Race, attempts
to climb from an automobile onto the landing gear of a Jenny.
November 15, 2007, page 11
AT:106-L1 Upright panel 121a
Regularly Scheduled Air Mail Service Begins
The Post Office began flying the mail from New York to
Washington, D.C., via Philadelphia in 1918. The service got off to
an awkward start.
On the morning of May 15, 1918, two air mail pilots in Curtiss Jennys
took off within minutes of each other, one from Washington, D.C., the
other from Long Island, New York. At Philadelphia, they would
exchange mailbags and fly on, thus opening up two-way Washington–
Philadelphia–New York air mail service.
At least that was the plan….
AT:106-L2
Which Way to Philly?
The first day of regularly scheduled air mail service did not quite
go as planned. One pilot, Lt. Torrey Webb, left Belmont Race
Track on Long Island and reached Philadelphia an hour later.
Another, Lt. George Boyle, headed for Philadelphia from
Washington, but he quickly lost his way.
Navigating by a road map and a faulty compass, Boyle tried to
follow railroad tracks, then landed in Waldorf, Maryland, south of
Washington, to seek directions. On landing he flipped and
damaged his airplane and could not continue. After news of his
mishap reached Philadelphia, the connecting flight to New York
left and arrived on time—but without the mail from Washington.
AT:106-L3-P3
2004-51807
AT:106-L4-P4
President Woodrow Wilson presided over the opening
ceremonies at West Potomac Park in Washington. Here he
speaks with Maj. Reuben H. Fleet, who organized the initial
air mail service by assembling the necessary aircraft and
pilots from the Army Air Service.
Lt. Torrey Webb flew from New York to Philadelphia, where
he transferred his mail to Lt. James Edgerton’s waiting Jenny
for the flight to Washington.
November 15, 2007, page 12
AT:106-L5-P5
86-10953
AT:106-L6-P6
Major Fleet (left) discusses the Washington to Philadelphia
route with Lieutenant Boyle. Boyle lost his way, despite
Fleet’s advice.
Boyle begins his takeoff run from the Polo Grounds in
Washington.
November 15, 2007, page 13
AT:107-L1 Back side “Air Mail Service Begins”
How Did Air Mail Pilots Find Their Way?
Early pilots navigated by looking for familiar landmarks on the
ground: towns, rivers, railroads, race tracks, large buildings, and
lakes.
Navigating by keeping the ground in view and following landmarks is
called “contact flying.” Today modern instruments can help pinpoint a
pilot’s location, but many pilots still use contact flying to find their way.
AT:107-L2
“Flying 30 or 40 feet off the ground, I still couldn’t find the
railroad tracks…. I kept looking for just one friendly
landmark to let me know where I was.”
—Bob Shank, one of the four original air mail pilots, on
flying through fog
AT:107-L3-P3
Family label
James P. Murray drew the map below. Murray entered the
map, along with written directions for the route, in a Post
Office contest. The winning entries, awarded $50 dollars
each, appeared in 1921 as Pilots’ Directions: New York–San
Francisco Route.
AT:107-L4-P4
Test Your Contact Flying Skills!
Family label
The map below covers part of the original transcontinental air
mail route in Central Pennsylvania.
•
Follow the red line, from left to right. This is your route.
•
Look for landmarks on the map that correspond to the
pictures below.
•
Select the pictures in the correct order to match the map. If
you are correct, your path will light up.
Hint: Read the 1921 Pilot’s Directions for further clues.
AT:107-L5
This interactive is dedicated to the memory of Bob Hall.
AT:107-L6-P6
1921 Pilots’ Directions:
“The river to the south of Sunbury is wider than the north and
filled with small islands.”
November 15, 2007, page 14
AT:107-L7-P7
1921 Pilots’ Directions:
“A fair sized elliptical race track lies just southwest of town.”
AT:107-L8-P8
1921 Pilots’ Directions:
“A lone mountain, Egg Hill, may be seen to the south.”
AT:107-L9-P9
1921 Pilots’ Directions:
“New Berlin—identified by a covered bridge over Penn
Creek.”
AT:107-L10-P10
1921 Pilots’ Directions:
“The Pennsylvania Railroad…where the range of mountains
coming up from the southwest ends.”
November 15, 2007, page 15
AT:108-L1 Family section
Meet Bill!
AT:108-L2
Family label
“I have heard numerous reports of your stunting mail ships.…
This is absolutely against regulations and further actions of
the kind will merit disciplinary action.”
—Superintendent D. B. Colyer scolding Wild Bill on his wild
ways with an air mail airplane
AT:108-L3-P3
Wild Bill
Family label
Wild Bill flew the mail for eight years in the 1920s. He earned
his nickname by breaking speed records and damaging
airplanes. He was popular with other pilots but regularly
scolded by his supervisors!
SI 75-7024
He died in 1928 when his airplane crashed on the New York
to Chicago route. He was carrying a thousand pounds of mail,
including a large shipment of diamonds. Only 10 pounds of
mail were saved from the plane’s wreckage, but the diamonds
disappeared.
AT:108-L4-P4
Can you find “Wild Bill” in this group of air mail pilots?
Family label
SI 89-7061
AT:108-L5
The Well-Dressed Pilot
Family label
Williams Hopson, better known as “Wild Bill,” was a popular
early air mail pilot. The airplanes he flew had open cockpits
like the one in the photo below.
What do his clothes tell you about his job conditions?
Using the life-size photograph of Bill and the flip panels
below, discover parts of Bill’s outfit that protect him from the
weather.
AT:108-L6
Family label
Bill probably wore these clothes in the summer, too. Even if
it is hot on the ground, it is colder and windier up in the sky.
Most airplanes are enclosed now, so pilots don’t have to
worry about the temperature as much.
November 15, 2007, page 16
AT:108-L7
Made of leather and fur, this keeps his body warm.
Family label
[beneath flip panel:]
Flight suit
AT:108-L8
These need to be buckled tightly.
Family label
[beneath flip panel:]
Boots
AT:108-L9
A chin strap keeps this in place.
Family label
[beneath flip panel:]
Leather Helmet
AT:108-L10
These protect the eyes from wind and weather.
Family label
[beneath flip panel:]
Goggles
AT:108-L11
What’s missing?
Family label
[beneath flip panel:]
Gloves
AT:108-L12
What’s in the Mail?
Family label
Air mail offered people speedy delivery—at a hefty price. A
person in the 1920s paid more than four times the normal cost
to send a letter via air mail. This mail bag shows typical items
sent by air.
AT:108-L13-P13
It was new and exciting to send personal letters by air mail.
Air mail bag label
AT:108-L14-P14
Expensive items like diamonds were less likely to be stolen.
Air mail bag label
AT:108-L15-P15
Business documents have always needed fast handling.
Air mail bag label
AT:108-L16-P16
Air mail bag label
Sending bank documents by air mail was faster and saved
money on interest.
November 15, 2007, page 17
AT:109-L1 Back side “World’s First Scheduled Airline”
Early Aircraft Technology
Aircraft performance improved rapidly between 1911 and 1927,
but aviation technology was still fairly primitive. To boost
aeronautical research, the U.S. government created the NACA.
The airplane was only 15 years old when air mail service began in 1918.
Airplanes were still essentially wood and cloth machines that performed
inefficiently. Most were biplanes.
Concerned that the United States was rapidly falling behind Europe in
aeronautical technology, Congress formed the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1915 to supervise and direct
American aeronautical research. By the end of the 1920s, the NACA’s
efforts were bearing fruit.
AT:109-L2
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Spurred by Smithsonian Secretary Charles D. Walcott, the NACA
soon became the nation’s preeminent aeronautical research
organization and attracted some of the nation’s most creative
engineers.
Pioneering research by the NACA and its successor, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), solved many of
flight’s most difficult problems and greatly improved the
performance and safety of all aircraft. The NACA/NASA
developed some of the most important technological innovations in
air transportation. This critical research continues today.
AT:109-L3-P3
Named after Samuel P. Langley, third secretary of the
Smithsonian, the NACA’s Langley Memorial Laboratory
opened in 1917. The flight testing facility featured the first
pressurized (variable density) wind tunnel. It was used to
gather precise data on wing shapes.
November 15, 2007, page 18
AT:109-L4-P4
The NACA acquired a fleet of 19 aircraft to test their flight
characteristics and create new design parameters. It designed
equipment to measure air pressure distribution on wings and
also began research on engines.
AT:109-L5-P5
Europeans led the world in aeronautics after World War I.
They developed monocoque (“single shell”) construction—
the aircraft’s skin carried most of the aerodynamic load,
reducing structural weight. In Germany, Hugo Junkers
patented the internally braced cantilevered wing. Adolf
Rohrbach built a series of advanced all-metal aircraft,
including this Zeppelin E.4/20.
November 15, 2007, page 19
AT:110-L1 Separate small panel
Engine Technology: Water-Cooled Engines
Most airplanes in the 1920s used engines cooled by water. While
powerful for their size, water-cooled engines were heavy and
unreliable. They required large radiators, which created
aerodynamic drag, as well as heavy and complex pumps and
plumbing systems, which often leaked.
Still, they were more powerful than the bulky air-cooled engines of
the time and were widely used on all types of aircraft.
AT:110-L2-A2
Liberty V-12
Artifact: Engine
Designed for light bombers in World War I, the Liberty V-12
was widely used during the 1920s. Liberty engines powered
the Post Office’s de Havilland DH-4s and most mail planes
used by early airlines.
NASM-7317, 1985-0445
Although powerful, the water-cooled Liberty was not as
efficient or reliable as the new generation of air-cooled
engines introduced by the Wright and Pratt & Whitney
companies in the late 1920s.
Type:
Cylinders:
Displacement:
Power:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Water-cooled, V-type, inline
12
27 L (1,649 cu in)
400 hp at 1,800 rpm
384 kg (844 lb)
Lincoln Motor Co., Detroit, Mich., 1918
AT:110-L3-M3
De Havilland DH-4
Model
By 1921 modified de Havilland DH-4 light bombers were
being used as mail planes. They soon become the symbol of
the U.S. Air Mail Service. The first DH-4 built in the United
States hangs in the Museum’s Looking at Earth gallery.
NASM-6070, A19780405000
November 15, 2007, page 20
AT:111-L1 Text rail 130
What Was It Like To Fly?
Novel and exciting; loud and uncomfortable—an experience few
people ever got to relish or regret.
In the early years of flight, pilots and the occasional passenger sat in
open cockpits exposed to wind and weather. Even in Europe, where
large transports carried passengers in comparative luxury, the ride was
harsh, loud, and uncomfortable.
AT:111-L2-A2-P2
An Air Mail Pilot’s Wings
Artifact: Badge (wings)
Air mail pilots wore heavy flight suits instead of uniforms, but
they were issued badges or wings for identification, as in this
photo of pilot Wilfred A. “Tony” Yackey. Northwest Airlines
still issues similar wings to its pilots.
NASM-5532, A19761730000
Gift of Robert Shank
AT:111-L3-A3a,b
Air Mail Pilot’s Knee Board and Map
Artifacts: Knee board and map
Joseph L. Mortensen navigated the air mail route from Salt
Lake City, Utah, to Reno, Nevada, in 1920 using this scrolling
map and knee board.
NASM-0690, A19500138000
Gift of Joseph L. Mortensen
AT:111-L4-P4
Did You Know?
Family label
This object is called a “knee board” because a pilot would
strap it to his leg. He would turn the knobs to scroll the map
as he flew his route. Why would this be more useful than a
folding map?
AT:111-L5-P5
Pilot Reuben H. Fleet with a map strapped to his knee.
AT:111-L6-P6a,b
Of the more than 200 pilots hired by the Post Office from
1918 to 1926, 35 died flying the mail. Fatalities dropped after
the first few years, but flying the mail remained a
dangerous—and sometimes deadly—job.
November 15, 2007, page 21
AT:111-L7-P7
A Curtiss R-4 grounded by a snowstorm. Winter weather
made flying treacherous.
Adjacent small panel
AT:111-L8
Who Flew?
Mostly pilots. Most early airplanes could carry only a single extra
person, if any. Few passenger-carrying airlines existed, and none
survived for very long. Those that did catered to wealthy travelers
who could afford the expensive ticket prices. Except for the
occasional hop in the spare seat of a barnstorming Curtiss Jenny,
few Americans flew as passengers.
AT:111-L9-P9
175A0002700
Interior of an Aeromarine Airways airliner. Note the wicker
chairs.
AT:111-L10-P10
A female passenger in flying coveralls stands in the cockpit of
the St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line’s Benoist airplane,
perhaps discussing her flight with the photographer standing
in front of her.
AT:111-L11
“Fly the Mail” simulation courtesy of Microsoft Corporation
Nearby computer interactive
November 15, 2007, page 22
AT:112-L1 Text rail 132a
Air Mail Service Takes Root
The new U.S. Air Mail Service proved successful. It soon extended
its routes across the continent and its flights around the clock.
Despite some early setbacks, the Air Mail Service completed about 90
percent of its flights. A few months after service began in 1918, the
Army withdrew from flying the mail and left the Post Office in charge
with its own pilots and aircraft.
By 1920 transcontinental air mail service had begun. By 1924 mail was
also being flown at night, thanks to lighted airways the Post Office was
creating across the nation.
AT:112-L2
Service Extends from Coast to Coast
Air mail service opened between New York and Chicago in
September 1919. Service reached Omaha, Nebraska, the following
May. In September 1920 it reached San Francisco.
Compared to moving the mail by train, flying cut coast-to-coast
delivery time by about a day. When regular overnight air mail
service began in 1924, it slashed delivery time to 29 hours—almost
three days faster than by rail.
AT:112-L3-P3
Sorting the mail at Hadley Field, New Jersey.
AT:112-L4-P4
U.S. Air Mail Service staff headquarters at Fort Crook,
Omaha.
SI 91-7031
AT:112-L5-P5
SI 85-6448
AT:112-L6-P6
00138786
Unloading mail during the first transcontinental air mail flight
through Omaha.
A de Havilland DH-4 parked by a hangar and beacon tower.
Note the air mail logo on the hangar.
November 15, 2007, page 23
Upright panel above “Air Mail Service Takes Root”
AT:112-L7-P7
Air Transportation Pioneer
Capt. Benjamin Lipsner
Capt. Benjamin Lipsner helped guide the Air Mail Service
during its early days. Under Lipsner, it acquired new Standard
biplanes and shifted its Washington base of operations to
College Park Airport in nearby Maryland, the oldest airport in
the world. The service became a proving ground for civil
aviation.
AT:112-L8-P8
Air Transportation Pioneer
Col. Paul Henderson
As Second Assistant Postmaster General, Col. Paul
Henderson helped establish overnight air mail service. Under
his direction, powerful rotating beacons were placed along the
transcontinental route to guide pilots in the dark. He modeled
the system after an experimental lighted airway the Army had
created between Dayton and Columbus, Ohio.
November 15, 2007, page 24
AT:113-L1 Text rail 141a
Flying the Mail at Night
To speed up air mail service, the Post Office turned to flying the
mail throughout the night—a dangerous undertaking for air mail
pilots.
Night flying presented special hazards, especially getting lost. Initially,
bonfires set along air routes were used to help guide pilots through the
darkness. In the 1920s, the Post Office established a system of lighted
airways marked by powerful rotating beacons.
Airplanes making the night runs were equipped with flares, lighted
instruments, and navigation and landing lights.
AT:113-L2
Beacons Replace Bonfires
The Post Office, Army, and Commerce Department worked
together to develop better navigation technologies, especially a
system of lighted airways.
By the summer of 1923, air mail pilots could fly from Chicago to
Cheyenne, Wyoming, guided by 289 beacons and 39 lighted
landing fields. The lighting of the New York–San Francisco route
was completed in 1925, and the system was soon extended to other
routes.
AT:113-L3-P3
U.S. Air Mail workers transfer Chicago-bound mailbags into
a de Havilland DH-4 at Hadley Field, New Jersey.
AT:113-L4-P4
Hollywood later capitalized on the daring pilots who flew the
mail with the movie Air Mail. Beacons posted at intervals
along air routes helped keep flyers from getting lost in the
dark. But flying into fog or a storm could prove more hairraising than any fictional drama.
A19900886000CP
November 15, 2007, page 25
AT:113-L5-P5a,b
94-4084
Powerful mobile floodlights illuminated the airfield at Fort
Crook, Omaha.
00191473
AT:113-L6-A6
Air Route Beacon
Artifact: Beacon
Rotating beacons like this one, developed by the General
Electric Company, were placed 16 kilometers (10 miles) apart
along air mail routes. They rotated once every 10 seconds, and
their powerful beams could be seen 60 kilometers (40 miles)
away.
NAS-2799, 1973-0705
AT:113-L7-P7
Route beacon on Sherman Hill, Wyoming.
SI A-44456-C
AT:113-L8-P8
Beacon tower under construction at Omaha, Nebraska.
NASM Ref # 00191471
AT:113-L9-P9
Beacon tower at U.S. Air Mail field at North Platte, Nebraska.
NASM Ref # 00191470
AT:113-L10-P10
Enclosed beacon tower at Fort Crook, Nebraska.
NASM Ref # 00191472
November 15, 2007, page 26
AT:114-L1 Text rail 141b
A Daring Demonstration
On February 22, 1921, four air mail flights set out to prove the
mail could be flown coast to coast in record time by flying day and
night.
The going proved rough. One pilot died in a crash. Treacherous
weather stopped others. But the fourth flight got through, making it
from San Francisco to New York in 33 hours and 20 minutes—a
distance that took 4½ days by train and 3 days by air/rail (flown by
day and shipped by train at night).
Within three years, mail was being flown across the country by day
and night in only 29 hours.
AT:114-L2-P2
SI 00181643
Frank R. Yager, one of 14 pilots who flew the various legs of
the four flights.
AT:114-L3-P3
Air mail pilot Jack Knight. Thanks to his heroic efforts over
the Midwest, one of the four flights made it across the
country.
AT:114-L4-P4
Knight’s Telegram
Family label
This is the telegram Jack Knight sent to the Post Office
relating his experience. How would you describe his flight
based on his description? Knight had not flown this route
before. What tools did he use to stay on course?
National Archives
November 15, 2007, page 27
AT:114-L5-P5 Captions for Map
Westbound
Eastbound
New York
Flights 1 and 2 leave New York.
San Francisco
Flights 3 and 4 leave San Francisco at
4:30 a.m.
Pennsylvania
Flight 1: Heavy icing causes pilot to
make forced landing, damaging tailskid
and axle. Cannot continue.
Elko
Flight 3 and 4 change planes.
Flight 2: Reaches Chicago despite bad
weather. But with rain, snow, and fog to
the west, flight cannot continue.
Rawlins
Flight 4: Makes emergency landing at
Rawlins to fix oil leak, continues.
North Platte
Flight 4: Jack Knight takes over.
Ignition problem delays departure until
10:44 p.m.
Omaha
Flights 3 and 4 reach Omaha. Only
replacement pilot available who knows
route to Chicago refuses to fly due to
bad weather. Flight 3 ends.
Chicago
Flight 3: Pilot stalls plane after takeoff,
crashes, dies. Mail transferred to
standby aircraft; flight continues.
Flight 4: Knight volunteers to fly on,
despite weather and having never flown
the route. Departs at 1:59 a.m.
Iowa City
Flight 4: Sky “dark as hob,” with high
clouds obscuring moon. “Sense of
isolation that’s hard to describe.”
Descends beneath low clouds into
rough air to keep sight of ground, then
encounters snow flurries. Spots flares at
airport and lands to refuel.
Chicago
Flight 4: Fighting lack of sleep, Knight
reaches Chicago at 8:40 a.m. Another
pilot takes over.
New York
Flight 4: Reaches New York at 4:50
p.m. “Great jubilation” in the Post Office.
November 15, 2007, page 28
AT:115-L1 Text rail 142a
Airlines Take Over Carrying the Mail
Once the Post Office had established a reliable and practical air
mail system, it turned over air mail delivery to private airlines.
Having established a strong economic foundation for commercial
aviation, in 1925 the Post Office began contracting with private airlines
to carry the mail. By the summer of 1927, an effective commercial
airline system was providing reliable air mail service.
The federal government continued to shape the new industry by
regulating the airways, guiding aviation’s growth, and promoting safety
and technology.
AT:115-L2
The Legislative Foundation
The Contract Air Mail Act of 1925 allowed the Post Office to pay
private airlines to deliver the mail. Payments were based on the
weight of the mail carried. The Post Office later added a subsidy to
help offset airline operating losses, until more efficient aircraft
could be developed.
To guide the development of this new industry, Congress in 1926
passed the Air Commerce Act, which established the Aeronautics
Branch of the Commerce Department, the predecessor of today’s
Federal Aviation Administration.
AT:115-L3-A3
Artifact: Pen
Pen Used by President Calvin Coolidge to Sign the
Contract Air Mail Act
NASM-8120, A19950812000
AT:115-L4-P4a,b
SI 97-16601
Varney Air Lines, a predecessor of United Airlines, carried
the first contract air mail on April 6, 1926, from Elko,
Nevada, to Pasco, Washington.
November 15, 2007, page 29
AT:115-L5-P5
The Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department
pioneered safety regulation, required the licensing of pilots
and the certification of aircraft, and encouraged the
development of navigation aids.
Upright panel above “Airlines Take Over Carrying the Mail”
AT:115-L6-P6
Air Transportation Pioneer
M. Clyde Kelly
Representative M. Clyde Kelly guided the Contract Air Mail
Act through Congress in 1925. A progressive republican from
western Pennsylvania, Kelly felt that the Post Office had
accomplished its goals and that it was time to let more
efficient private enterprise fly the mail. The legislation
became popularly known as the “Kelly Act.”
AT:115-L7-P7
Air Transportation Pioneer
William P. MacCracken Jr.
Aviation legal expert William P. MacCracken Jr. crafted the
Air Commerce Act, which gave aviation a sound legal
foundation. Under his leadership as the first Assistant
Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics, the Commerce
Department pioneered safety regulation, required the licensing
of pilots and the certification of aircraft, and encouraged the
development of navigation aids.
November 15, 2007, page 30
AT:200-L1
Airline Expansion and Innovation
1927–1941
Despite the Great Depression, air transportation
experienced phenomenal growth and change from the
late 1920s through the 1930s, before U.S. entry into
World War II intervened.
As technology improved, aircraft evolved from
World War I–style biplanes into sleek, highperformance modern airliners. A solid infrastructure
took shape under government guidance through the
Post Office and the Commerce Department, and
regulatory reforms reshaped the industry.
Passenger service took root and grew, and air routes
spread across the country. But because air travel was
so expensive, only the wealthy and business travelers
flew. The flying experience improved but remained
an often uncomfortable adventure.
November 15, 2007, page 1
Airplane labels
AT:200-L2-A2
Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing
Artifact: Airplane
The Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing was designed to carry air mail in
the eastern United States. Efficient and economical, it helped
build the route structure for what would become Eastern Air
Lines.
The Mailwing displayed above was built in 1927 and was the
prototype for a series of Pitcairn mail planes. It combined a
square-steel-tube fuselage with wooden wings, both covered
by fabric. After it became obsolete as a mail plane, this
airplane served several private owners, survived a crash, and
saw use as a crop-duster.
The airplane was repurchased by employees of Eastern Air
Lines, restored, and presented to company president Edward
V. Rickenbacker, who later donated it to the Museum. The
airplane was restored in 1975 by veteran Eastern pilot Capt.
Joseph Toth.
Gift of Edward V. Rickenbacker
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
10 m (33 ft)
6.7 m (21 ft 11 in)
2.8 m (9 ft 4 in)
1,139 kg (2,512 lb)
731 kg (1,612 lb)
218 km/h (136 mph)
Wright Whirlwind J-5-C, 200 hp
Pitcairn Aircraft, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., 1927
November 15, 2007, page 2
AT:200-L3-A3
Fairchild FC-2
Artifact: Airplane
Developed for aerial photography, the Fairchild FC-2 was the
production version of Sherman Fairchild’s first aircraft, the
FC-1. It could cruise for long distances at high altitudes, and
its enclosed cabin protected the crew and equipment. The
design was so good that the aircraft’s duties rapidly expanded
to include air mail delivery, passenger flights, freight hauling,
and bush flying.
The Fairchild FC-2 on display above was one of the first
aircraft flown by Pan American–Grace Airways (Panagra) in
South America. It made the first scheduled passenger flight in
Peru, from Lima to Talara, on September 13, 1928. It could
carry five persons, including the pilot.
Gift of Pan American–Grace Airways
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
13.5 m (44 ft)
8.7 m (30 ft 11 in)
2.7 m (9 ft)
1,630 kg (3,600 lb)
930 kg (2,050 lb)
196 km/h (122 mph)
Wright J-4, 220 hp
Fairchild Airplane Manufacturing Corp.,
Farmingdale, N.Y., 1928
November 15, 2007, page 3
AT:200-L4-A4
Northrop Alpha
Artifact: Airplane
Introduced in 1930, the Northrop Alpha represents a
transitional air transport design, a blend of old and new
aircraft technology. It could carry six passengers in a snug,
comfortable cabin, but the pilot remained exposed to the
elements. The aircraft was all metal and streamlined, but had
fixed landing gear and only one engine.
Designed by John K. “Jack” Northrop, the Alpha was a great
step forward in metal aircraft design. Many of its features,
particularly the multi-cellular wing, were later used in the
Douglas DC-2 and DC-3. Although more powerful twinengine aircraft made the Alpha obsolete for passenger service,
it continued to serve as a fast express cargo plane.
The airplane on display above was restored by volunteers
from Trans World Airlines.
Gift of the Experimental Aircraft Association
and Trans World Airlines
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
13.4 m (41 ft 10 in)
8.7 m (28 ft 5 in)
3.3 m (9 ft)
2,043 kg (4,500 lb)
1,208 kg (2,660 lb)
272 km/h (170 mph)
Pratt & Whitney Wasp, 420 hp
Northrop Aircraft Corp., Burbank, Calif.,
1930
November 15, 2007, page 4
AT:200-L5-A5
Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor
Artifact: Airplane
Affectionately known as the “Tin Goose,” the Ford Tri-Motor
was the largest civil aircraft in America when it first flew on
August 2, 1926. Its all-metal, corrugated aluminum
construction and the prestigious Ford name made it
immediately popular with passengers and airline operators.
Noisy but reliable, the Ford Tri-Motor played a major role in
convincing the public that air travel was safe and practical.
The 5-AT, a more powerful version of the earlier 4-AT, had
three Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engines and entered
service in 1928. The airplane on display above was restored
by American Airlines.
Gift of American Airlines
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
23.7 m (77 ft 10 in)
15.2 m (49 ft 10 in)
4.2 m (13 ft 8 in)
5,738 kg (12,650 lb)
3,470 kg (7,650 lb)
217 km/h (135 mph)
3 Pratt & Whitney Wasps, 420 hp
Stout Metal Airplane Co. (a Division of Ford
Motor Co.), 1928
November 15, 2007, page 5
AT:200-L6-A6
Boeing 247-D
Artifact: Airplane
The world’s first modern airliner, the Boeing 247
revolutionized air transportation when it entered service with
United Air Lines in 1933. With its sleek, low-wing, all-metal
construction; retractable landing gear; and supercharged, aircooled engines, the Boeing 247 was 50 percent faster than its
competitors. Its innovative design launched a new generation
of commercial airliners, notably the Douglas DC-2. The
Boeing 247-D version pioneered the use of controllable-pitch
propellers and wing de-icer boots.
The airplane on display above is the first production 247-D.
Roscoe Turner and Clyde Pangborn flew it in the 1934
England-to-Australia International Air Derby, better known as
the MacRobertson Race. The airplane placed third overall and
second in the transport category, completing the 18,180kilometer (11,300-mile) journey in just under 93 hours. It was
returned to United Air Lines and flown as the airline’s
flagship until replaced by DC-3s.
The airplane is displayed with its racing numeral, NR 257Y,
and its commercial registration, NC 13369.
Transferred from the Civil Aeronautics Authority
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
22.6 m (74 ft)
15.7 m (51 ft 7 in)
3.8 m (12 ft 6 in)
6,192 kg (13,650 lb)
4,055 kg (8,940 lb)
322 km/h (200 mph)
2 Pratt & Whitney Wasp S1H1-G, 550 hp
Boeing Airplane Co., Seattle, Wash., 1934
November 15, 2007, page 6
AT:200-L7-A7
Douglas DC-3
Artifact: Airplane
First flown in 1935, the Douglas DC-3 became the most
successful airliner in the formative years of air transportation,
and was the first to fly profitably without government
subsidy. More than 13,000 DC-3s, both civil and military
versions, U.S. and foreign built, were produced. Many are still
flying.
An enlarged variant of the popular 14-seat DC-2, the 21-seat
DC-3 was comfortable by the standards of its time and very
safe, because of its strong, multiple-spar wing and all-metal
construction. The airlines liked it because it was reliable,
inexpensive to operate, and therefore profitable. Pilots liked
its stability, ease of handling, and excellent single-engine
performance.
The airplane on display above flew more than 56,700 hours
with Eastern Air Lines. Its last commercial flight was on
October 12, 1952, when it flew from San Salvador to Miami.
It was subsequently presented to the Museum by Eastern’s
president, Edward V. Rickenbacker.
Gift of Eastern Air Lines
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
29 m (95 ft)
19.7 m (64 ft 6 in)
5 m (16 ft 11 in)
11,430 kg (25,200 lb)
7,650 kg (16,865)
370 km/h (230 mph)
2 Wright SGR 1820-71, 1,200 hp
Douglas Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif.,
1936
November 15, 2007, page 7
AT:201-L1
The Need for Reform
By the end of the 1920s, private airlines were flying an expanding
system of air mail routes. Passenger service, however, remained
almost nonexistent.
While airlines often prospered flying the mail, the system had problems.
The Post Office’s bidding process for air routes resulted in an unfair
payment system, and short-term contracts discouraged airlines from
investing in long-term development.
Airlines that carried only mail favored small, single-engine airplanes.
Larger multi-engine aircraft were needed to carry passengers, but such
airplanes were too costly to operate. Reform was needed for the airline
system to grow.
AT:201-L2-P2
“We think it is necessary to give some aid to the passengercarrying lines, particularly if by giving that aid we greatly
increase the air mail facilities in the country.”
—Walter F. Brown
AT:201-L3-P3
Western Air Express tried to develop passenger service in the
West using large Fokker F-10 tri-motor airplanes. But despite
its reliable service, it could not make a profit carrying only
people.
AT:201-L4-P4
When bidding for air mail routes, some airlines fared much
better than others. With no competition for the PittsburghCleveland route, Clifford Ball managed to earn the maximum
$3 per pound of mail. National Air Transport had to underbid
several rivals for the New York–Chicago route and received
only $1.24.
AT:201-L5-P5
Loading and unloading air mail, Chicago Airport, late 1920s.
AT:201-L6-P6
Delta Air Lines
Western Express logo
November 15, 2007, page 8
AT:201-L7-A7
Wright J-5 Whirlwind
Artifact: Engine
The Wright J-5 Whirlwind is considered the first modern
aircraft engine. Developed by the Wright Aeronautical
Corporation from its Lawrance J-1 engine, the J-5 produced
220 horsepower and was the first engine to have sodiumcooled exhaust valves and to be self-lubricating. These
innovations greatly increased its reliability. The J-5 won the
prestigious Collier Trophy for 1927.
NASM-6410, 1979-1508
Charles Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis was equipped with a J5. Whirlwinds were also fitted to many early transport
aircraft, including Ford 4-AT Tri-Motors and the Pitcairn PA5 Mailwing and Fairchild FC-2 displayed overhead.
Gift of Juan T. Trippe
Type:
Cylinders:
Displacement:
Power:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Air-cooled radial
9
12.9 L (788 cu in)
220 hp at 1,800 rpm
232 kg (510 lb)
Wright Aeronautical Corp., Paterson, N.J.
AT:201-L8-A8
Pratt & Whitney Wasp
Artifact: Engine
When Wright Aeronautical refused to further develop its
successful J-5 engine, its president Frederick Rentschler, chief
designer George Mead, and chief engineer Andrew Willgoos
left the company to build their own high-performance, aircooled radial. Working in the defunct Pratt & Whitney tool
company building in Hartford, Connecticut, they created the
Wasp.
NASM-0720, 1951-0099
Reliable and efficient, the 425-horsepower, nine-cylinder, aircooled Wasp became the preferred engine for many military
and commercial aircraft, including the Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor
and the Boeing 40A. The engine displayed here was the first
Wasp built.
Transferred from the U.S. Navy, Bureau of Aeronautics
Type:
Cylinders:
Displacement:
Power:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Air-cooled radial
9
22.2 L (1,344 cu in)
425 hp at 1,900 rpm
295 kg (650 lb)
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co., Hartford,
Conn.
November 15, 2007, page 9
AT:202-L1
Cross-Country by Air and Rail
In 1929, Transcontinental Air Transport (T.A.T.) began providing
passenger service between New York and Los Angeles using
airplanes by day and trains by night.
Night flying was hazardous, so passengers rode the Pennsylvania
Railroad’s night train from New York to Port Columbus, Ohio. There
they boarded a Ford Tri-Motor and flew to Waynoka, Oklahoma, where
they transferred to a Santa Fe Railway night train. At Clovis, New
Mexico, they boarded another Tri-Motor for the final leg to Los
Angeles.
T.A.T. air-rail service took a day less than by train alone, but a one-way
ticket cost a whopping $338.
AT:202-L2-P2
“I am simply amazed at the detail that has gone into this TAT
line. They give so much care to comfort and luxuries…. And
an aero-car to take you from plane to train for your night
rides…. And a map given to each passenger so he may study
the country.”
—Anne Morrow Lindbergh
AT:202-L3
Fly or Drive?
Family label
In 1929 a one-way ticket across the country cost $338, more
than half the price of a new car. A Ford Model A cost $525; a
Chevrolet Coach cost $595.
AT:202-L4-P4
T.A.T. did not have an air mail contract; it depended strictly
on revenues from carrying passengers. Although well run, the
company was soon in desperate financial shape.
AT:202-L5-P5a,b
Transcontinental Air Transport hired Charles Lindbergh as a
technical advisor. Lindbergh selected the aircraft, chose and
planned T.A.T.’s cross-country route, and oversaw the
creation of all the necessary airfields and installations. T.A.T.
and its successor, Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.),
became popularly known as “The Lindbergh Line.”
November 15, 2007, page 10
AT:202-L6-P6
Far-sighted investment banker and Curtiss Aeroplane and
Motor Company president Clement Keys started T.A.T. to
demonstrate that flying passengers was now practical.
Earlier, he created National Air Transport to fly the mail
between New York and Chicago, then formed a holding
company called North American Aviation, which grew to
include Eastern Air Transport and T.A.T. He also merged
the assets of Curtiss Aeroplane and Wright Aeronautical
into another holding company known as the CurtissWright Corporation in 1929.
Case 202 labels
AT:202-L7-M7
Curtiss Carrier Pigeon
Model
Powered by the venerable Liberty engine, the Curtiss Carrier
Pigeon was designed to carry mail along National Air
Transport’s lucrative New York–Chicago route. Both Curtiss
and National were owned by pioneer aviation entrepreneur
Clement Keys.
NASM-0411, 1937-0040
Gift of the Great Lakes Exposition
AT:202-L8-M8
Curtiss Condor
Model
First flown in 1932, the Curtiss Condor could carry 14
passengers and had sleeping berths for night flight. Although
comfortable and fast, it was expensive to operate. Eastern Air
Transport and American Airways flew the Condor, but newer
designs soon replaced it.
NASM-1026, 1959-0037
Gift of David M. Shipton
November 15, 2007, page 11
AT:203-L1
Aviation Becomes Big Business
Charles Lindbergh’s historic 1927 transatlantic flight and a stock
market boom spurred investor interest in aviation. An intense
period of industry-wide mergers and consolidation followed.
Four large aviation holding companies soon arose. William Boeing and
Frederick Rentschler of Pratt & Whitney formed the first and the
largest, United Aircraft and Transport Corporation. Clement Keys
formed North American Aviation and the Curtiss-Wright Corporation.
Aerial photography pioneer Sherman Fairchild, Averill Harriman, and
Robert Lehman created The Aviation Corporation (AVCO).
While these consolidations promised greater efficiency, airlines
remained unprofitable without government help.
AT:203-L2
“The United States covers a large area and it is inevitable that
the most obvious routes will be controlled by great
corporations.
—Aviation magazine
AT:203-L3-P3
Aircraft builder William Boeing (left), Philip Johnson (right),
Claire Egtvedt, and Eddie Hubbard created Boeing Air
Transport (B.A.T.) in 1927 to fly the mail from Chicago to
San Francisco. B.A.T. was so successful that it acquired
Pacific Air Transport. By 1931 these two airlines, along with
Varney Air Lines and National Air Transport, were operating
as United Air Lines.
 The Boeing Company
AT:203-L4-P4
Sherman Fairchild.
November 15, 2007, page 12
AT:203-L5
Who Was Lindbergh?
Family label
Charles Lindbergh gained instant celebrity when he became
the first person to fly alone nonstop from New York to Paris
in 1927 in his Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis (on display in the
Milestones of Flight gallery). He was the hero of the day—
every child in the country knew his name.
The “Lindbergh boom” in aviation followed: aircraft industry
stocks rose in value, and interest in flying skyrocketed.
Lindbergh’s subsequent U.S. publicity tour demonstrated the
airplane’s potential as a safe, reliable form of transportation.
Lindbergh used his fame to promote the expansion of
commercial aviation. Transcontinental Air Transport hired
him to help select T.A.T.’s aircraft, routes, systems, and
equipment. He also advised Pan American Airways and was
instrumental in its expansion.
Case 203 labels
AT:203-L6-M6
Boeing 40B
Model
Powered by Pratt & Whitney’s Wasp engine, the Boeing 40A
could carry two passengers. Thanks to the biplane’s large
payload capacity and low operating costs, Boeing Air
Transport won the coveted air mail route from Chicago to San
Francisco in 1927 and operated the route at a profit.
NASM-0411, 1937-0042
Boeing developed a larger version of the aircraft, the Boeing
40B, which could carry 4,400 kilograms (2,000 pounds) of
mail and four passengers. The pilot flew the airplane from an
open cockpit behind the passenger compartment.
Gift of David M. Shipton
AT:203-L7-A7
“Aviation: The Air Mail Game”
Artifact: Board game
In 1929, Parker Brothers introduced “Aviation: The Air Mail
Game” to exploit growing public interest in commercial
aviation. The game challenged 2 to 4 players to deliver the
mail to 12 cities between Boston and San Francisco. Red
cards determined destinations, and blue cards determined
flight conditions. Good weather sped up the mail; bad weather
or engine problems delayed it.
To capitalize on the public’s infatuation with Charles
Lindbergh, the airplane depicted on each card was his Spirit of
St. Louis, even though the Spirit never flew the mail.
Gift of Anne M. van der Linden and Gregory George-Adis
November 15, 2007, page 13
AT:204-L1
A Visionary Reforms the Airline Industry
Postmaster General Walter Brown helped draft legislation to
reform the way airlines were paid, streamline the nation’s air
routes, and encourage airline growth and innovation.
The most important architect of the nation’s passenger airline industry,
Walter Brown believed that the large holding companies created by the
wave of airliner mergers could provide the economic clout to develop
the industry, boost passenger travel, and reduce government subsidies.
Brown helped draft the McNary-Watres Act of 1930, which changed
how airlines were paid and made subsidies more fair, redrew the
nation’s air route system, and provided economic incentives to
encourage airlines to carry passengers.
AT:204-L2-P2
As postmaster general, Walter Brown sought to direct the
growth of commercial aviation through economic regulation.
His management of the system became the model for
subsequent airline regulation. Today’s air transportation
system, and its evolution through subsidies, regulation, and
deregulation, reflects exactly what Brown envisioned many
decades ago.
November 15, 2007, page 14
AT:204-L3
Reforming the Air Mail System
Walter Brown reformed the air mail system in four ways:
• By exchanging 4-year air mail contracts for exclusive 10-year
route certificates, Brown gave airlines long-term stability while
allowing the Post Office to reduce its payment rates each year.
• By extending the route network while reducing the payment rates,
Brown tripled air route mileage at no extra cost to taxpayers.
• By providing bonuses for technological improvements, Brown
encouraged the creation of larger, faster, safer, and more efficient
passenger airliners.
• By basing payments on space available in aircraft, rather than on
the weight of mail carried, the Post Office was able to spread its
payments more equitably among all air mail carriers.
AT:204-L4-P4
To promote passenger travel and to rescue several airlines
from bankruptcy, Walter Brown created two more
transcontinental air mail routes. Southwest Air Fast Express
and Robertson won the southern route. They merged to form
American Airways.
AT:204-L5
Brown’s “Spoils Conferences”
Walter Brown met with airline leaders in May 1930 to implement
the newly enacted McNary-Watres Act. When consensus could not
be reached, he determined routes and airline territories himself.
To ensure the survival of well-run passenger airlines, Brown
encouraged them to merge with air mail lines—a move that saved
many airlines from extinction during the Depression. He forced
other mergers in the interest of efficiency and excluded small,
marginal carriers. Critics later labeled these meetings the “Spoils
Conferences.”
AT:204-L6-P6
To fly the new central air mail route, Transcontinental Air
Transport merged with part of Western Air Express to form
Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.).
 The Boeing Company
November 15, 2007, page 15
AT:204-L7-P7
American and T.W.A. competed with Boeing Air Transport
and National Air Transport, which combined to begin
transcontinental service in 1930 and later became known as
United Air Lines.
November 15, 2007, page 16
AT:205-L1
The Air Mail “Scandal”
Charges of corruption in the air mail system led President
Roosevelt to cancel all air mail contracts. The Army resumed
carrying the mail.
Federal reforms enacted in 1930 gave most routes and air mail contracts
to big airline holding companies. Small, independent airlines
complained this was unfair, even though most had sold their own
contracts and some did not even exist when the law was passed.
The independents fought to break the holding companies’ power. Their
efforts led to congressional hearings and unfounded charges of
corruption and conspiracy to monopolize the air mail. Responding to
political pressure, President Franklin Roosevelt canceled all domestic
air mail contracts on February 9, 1934. The Army Air Corps was again
called upon to carry the mail.
AT:205-L2-P2
In February 1934, the Air Corps again began carrying the
mail. Flying in the worst winter in decades, in ill-equipped
aircraft, Air Corps pilots suffered a series of well-publicized
accidents, mostly during training. Several pilots died. Public
outcry caused President Roosevelt to suspend the Air Corps’
mail service until improvements could be made.
Aero Digest
AT:205-L3-P3
Thomas Braniff led the fight by independent airlines to break
the power of the airline holding companies that dominated air
transportation in the 1930s.
AT:205-L4-P4
War hero and American Airways vice president Eddie
Rickenbacker condemned the air mail crisis as “legalized
murder” after several Air Corps pilots died while flying the
mail. Charles Lindbergh, testifying before Congress, criticized
President Roosevelt for hastily canceling the air mail contracts
and punishing the airlines without due process.
November 15, 2007, page 17
AT:205-L5
The Air Mail Act of 1934
Four months after the air mail crisis began, Congress passed the
Air Mail Act. It cut payment rates to airlines, returned most air
mail routes to the major airlines, and gave some routes to smaller
airlines. It divided regulation among the Post Office, Commerce
Department, and Interstate Commerce Commission.
Aviation holding companies were dissolved and airlines separated
from aircraft manufacturers. Previous air mail contractors had to
change their names or restructure. American Airways became
American Airlines. Eastern Air Transport became Eastern Air
Lines.
AT:205-L6-P6
Punished Without a Trial
The Air Mail Act of 1934 broke up the large airline holding
companies and forced the firing of airline executives wrongfully
accused of conspiring to monopolize the air mail. One victim was
Philip G. Johnson of United Air Lines.
Like many others, Johnson had attended Walter Brown’s operators
conferences in 1930, in which air mail contracts and routes had
been legally awarded. Ironically, United received no contracts
during these so-called “Spoils Conferences.”
Nevertheless, Johnson and many others were wrongfully—and
unconstitutionally—barred from the airline industry without the
benefit of a trial.
AT:205-L7-P7
Philip G. Johnson.
November 15, 2007, page 18
Travel agency desk
AT:206-L1
Bermuda or California?
travel agent family interactive
In the 1930s, only businessmen and wealthy travelers could
afford to fly. Yet even many of them were apprehensive about
this new form of travel. Airline advertisements emphasized
speed, comfort, and, above all, safety. But were these enticing
ads entirely accurate? Like today, travelers had to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of the available travel options.
Let’s say you are planning a trip. Consider the options
advertised on the walls in front of you. Which will you
choose?
AT:206-L2
Airplane or Train
AT:206-L3
Will You Fly or Take the Train?
You want to travel from Chicago to sunny California. You are
used to traveling in high style on the train However, your
friends have talked enthusiastically about flying, and you’ve
decided to consider it.
•
•
•
•
Look at the advertisements for planes and trains.
Which is faster?
More comfortable?
More expensive?
AT:206-L4
Airplane or Ship
AT:206-L5
Will You Fly or Go by Sea?
You want to travel from New York to Bermuda. You like to
travel in high style on an ocean liner. Pan Am now flies to
Bermuda, and you’ve decided to consider flying.
Look at the advertisements for planes and ships.
•
•
•
AT:206-L6
Travel agency wall credit line
Which is faster?
More comfortable?
More expensive?
Spirit of Transportation by Herman Sachs, Southwestern Law
School/Bullocks Wilshire Building, photo courtesy of Randy
Juster/Decopix
November 15, 2007, page 19
AT:207-L1
The Triumph of Technology
Improvements in aircraft and aviation technology played a key role
in revitalizing the struggling airline industry.
The mid-1930s were a difficult time for airlines. The federal
government had broken up the large companies that had dominated the
aviation industry and had cut its subsidies to airlines. Air transportation
regulation was in a state of confusion.
To survive in these challenging times, airlines needed bigger, better,
and faster airplanes that could profitably fly passengers as well as mail.
New navigation and communications equipment was also required to
enhance safety and efficiency. The aviation industry responded. By the
late 1930s, the first modern, high-performance airliners were taking to
the air.
AT:207-L2-P2a,b
The government provided bonuses to airlines if their aircraft
could fly at night or had multiple engines, two-way radios,
and other equipment that promoted safety and speed. The first
aircraft produced under these terms was the Boeing 247 in
1933, the world’s first modern airliner. It could carry 10
passengers, fly 50 percent faster than the Ford Tri-Motor, and
cross the country in less than 20 hours.
 The Boeing Company
AT:207-L3-P3
T.W.A. needed an airplane to compete with United’s new
Boeing 247s. Douglas Aircraft responded with the DC-1,
which was faster and more comfortable and could carry 12
passengers. Stretched to seat 14 and redesignated the DC-2, it
easily surpassed its competition. Douglas went on to dominate
airliner production until the jet age.
AT:207-L4-P4
At the request of American Airlines, Douglas created a larger
version of the DC-2 with sleeping berths, the Douglas Sleeper
Transport. The daytime version became the famous DC-3.
The 21-passenger DC-3 became the first airliner that could
make a profit without subsidy, and it helped airlines survive
cutbacks in government assistance.
November 15, 2007, page 20
AT:207-L5-P5
The Boeing 307 Stratoliner was the world’s first pressurized
airliner. While other airliners flew no higher than about 3,000
meters (10,000 feet), the Stratoliner could cruise at 7,500
meters (25,000 feet). By ascending “above the weather,” it
could fly faster and more efficiently and provide its 33
passengers a smoother and quieter ride.
AT:207-L6-P6
Because of the onset of World War II and the development of
improved designs, only 10 Stratoliners were built. One, Pan
American’s Clipper Flying Cloud, is displayed at the
Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
AT:207-L7
What Does “Above the Weather” Mean?
Family label
When an airplane flies “above the weather,” it is flying over
storms and clouds, where the airstream is smoother. Flying
“under the weather” is bumpier and more uncomfortable.
Case 207 labels
AT:207-L8-M8
Douglas Sleeper Transport
Model
American Airlines introduced the Douglas Sleeper Transport
in 1936. The remarkable aircraft took less than 16 hours to fly
from Los Angeles to New York, and its sleeping
accommodations made the flight quite bearable. Even with
sleeper service, ticket prices remained fixed at $160 one way
and $288 round trip.
Gift of Robert C. Mikesh
AT:207-L9-M9
Boeing 307 Stratoliner
Model
The Stratoliner was based on Boeing’s B-17 bomber design,
and its pressurized fuselage on the Army Air Corps’
Lockheed XC-35. The Stratoliner pioneered the technology
that made modern air travel practical.
November 15, 2007, page 21
AT:207-L10-A10
“Flying the Beam” Board Game
Artifact: Board game
To exploit air travel’s popularity and to explain the new radio
range system in an easily understood manner, Parker Brothers
introduced “Flying the Beam” in 1941. The object of the
game was to be the first to safely land at the airport using
radio range navigation. Playing pieces were rubber DC-3s.
NASM-6224, 1979-01600
The game board graphically shows how the system worked:
•
A radio beacon sent out signals in a pattern of Morse code
A’s (dot-dash) and N’s (dash-dot).
•
Where the signals intersected, they combined to produce a
continuous tone, which a pilot could follow toward the
radio beacon.
•
If the aircraft strayed from the center of the beam, the
signal for either an “A” or “N” alerted the pilot that he had
strayed off course.
•
The exact location of the range beacon was identified by a
“cone of silence.”
Gift of Frank Youngquist
AT:207-L11-A11
Radio Transmitter
Artifact: Radio Transmitter
This was the first lightweight radio transmitter built for use on
aircraft. It featured a loop antenna, which could be turned to
find the signal direction. It supplanted traditional visual dead
reckoning navigation methods.
Designed and built by Hugo Leuteritz of Pan American, the
transmitter enabled aircraft to navigate accurately along Pan
Am’s first route, between Key West, Florida, and Havana,
Cuba, in 1928. Leuteritz designed other devices that allowed
Pan American aircraft to navigate safely throughout the
Caribbean and across the Pacific and Atlantic.
Gift of Juan T. Trippe
November 15, 2007, page 22
AT:207-L12-A12
Automatic Direction Finder
Artifact: Automatic Direction Finder
Developed by the Sperry Gyroscope Company, automatic
direction finders (ADF) were first installed on aircraft in the
mid-1930s. They replaced the existing four-course radio range
system. Displayed here are the control unit and indicator and
the loop antenna in its streamlined housing.
The ADF locates known stationary radio transmitters and
displays the radio’s location relative to the aircraft. This was a
much more flexible and accurate system, as aircraft no longer
had to fly in one of four radio courses. It also led to
instrument approaches for landing, which helped pilots locate
runways at night and in bad weather. Most aircraft built in the
late 1930s and 1940s, including the Douglas DC-3 above,
were equipped with ADF, with its distinctive “football”
antenna housing.
Gift of Charles L. Neumann
AT:207-L13-A13
ARC Model D Receiver
Artifact: Receiver
Designed by the Aircraft Radio Corporation in 1929, the ARC
Model D was the first commercial navigation receiver. It
pioneered the use of the four-course radio range system.
Gift of the Cessna Aircraft Company
November 15, 2007, page 23
AT:208-L1
The Creation of the Modern Airport
As the nation’s air transportation system grew, so did the need for
better aviation facilities. By 1940 the modern airport had come into
being.
Aerodrome, landing field, air field: all described places an airplane
could take off or land more than once. But open fields and parade
grounds were unsuitable for commercial aviation. Without a network of
adequate airports, an air transportation system was not possible.
As aircraft became bigger and passenger numbers rose, airports evolved
to keep up. Air fields grew larger, grass gave way to pavement, and
terminal buildings evolved from simple structures to architectural
statements of modernity.
AT:208-L2
“Nine-tenths of aviation is on the ground.”
—Early aviation entrepreneur Clement Keys
AT:208-L3-P3
The Army Air Service helped design and construct a network
of landing fields for the U.S. Air Mail Service. The design
they came up with was a large, square, carefully prepared
grass field with weather, navigation, and communications
facilities. This one is Candler Field, Atlanta, circa 1927.
AT:208-L4-P4
Glendale, California, circa 1932. The first boom in airport
construction, funded mostly by local governments, began in
1926. It was bolstered by the enthusiasm generated by Charles
Lindbergh’s transatlantic flight in 1927 and his subsequent
48-state tour. Despite the Great Depression, by 1931 the
number of airports had doubled to 2,000.
AT:208-L5-P5
Union Air Terminal, Los Angeles, circa 1935. Modern
airliners and increasing air traffic put a strain on airports and
led to airport lighting, a national aviation weather service,
radio navigation, and air traffic control. Heavier aircraft with
wheel brakes made grass fields obsolete. By the 1940s,
airports were building paved runways.
November 15, 2007, page 24
AT:208-L6-P6
AT:208-L7
Airport flipbook text
National Airport, Washington, D.C., circa 1941. As passenger
numbers increased, so did the scale of terminals. Architects
were hired to design beautiful but functional structures, which
served two purposes: to impress upon passengers that air
travel was safe and substantial, and to epitomize modernity
and progress.
Yesterday’s Airports of Tomorrow
Today’s airports are basically similar, but over the
years airport designers have had some interesting
ideas when planning for the future of air travel.
From underground airports to floating fields in the
ocean, these are some of their most radical ideas.
AT:208-L8-P8
Why Don’t Airports Look Like This?
This is a 1935 model for an underground air terminal. After
landing, aircraft would go underground to various levels for
passengers, maintenance, and cargo loading. Connections to
ground transportation are at the lowest level.
AT:208-L9-P9
How Is This Similar to an Aircraft Carrier?
This 1933 design would have given landplanes a place to
make emergency or refueling stops while crossing the ocean.
As on an aircraft carrier, touching down during bad weather
would have been challenging. As aircraft fuel efficiency,
speed, and range increased, the idea became obsolete.
AT:208-L10-P10
What Kinds of Airplanes Could Use This Airport?
In 1939 this airport was built on Treasure Island in San
Francisco Bay. It was later used as a base for transcontinental
flights and Pan American’s trans-Pacific service.
AT:208-L11-P11
What Challenges Would Pilots Face Trying to Land Here?
This was an entry in an airport design competition sponsored
by the Lehigh Portland Cement Company in 1930. The idea
was for an airport close to the city center; however, newer and
heavier airplanes needed longer runways.
Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution Libraries, National Air
and Space Museum Branch
November 15, 2007, page 25
AT:208-L12-P12
Could This Plan Work Today?
This landing platform was proposed in 1929 for the
Pennsylvania Railroad station in New York City. The
downtown location was convenient, but why do you think it
would not have worked? Compare this design to the more
recent one on the opposite page.
AT:208-L13-P13
How Can This Runway Be So Short?
New technologies are making older designs for small innercity airports relevant again. Can you tell why this idea from
1994 might work? (Notice the airplanes.)
Courtesy of Bell Helicopter Textron
November 15, 2007, page 26
AT:209-L1
The Beginning of Air Traffic Control
As the popularity of air travel grew, so did the need for better air
traffic control along the nation’s air routes and especially around
airports.
Airlines first developed systems to control their own air traffic.
However, a series of highly publicized accidents in the mid-1930s,
including the crash of a DC-2 in which New Mexico Senator Bronson
Cutting was killed, highlighted the critical need for a national system.
The federal government stepped in, and in 1936 the Commerce
Department accepted nationwide responsibility for air traffic control.
AT:209-L2
Navigation by Radio
New navigation techniques were needed to allow aircraft to fly
reliably and safely at night and in bad weather. In the 1920s the
first low-frequency radio range beacon experiments were
conducted along National Air Transport’s New York–Chicago
route. By February 1931, the entire New York to San Francisco
route was equipped with radio range stations.
AT:209-L3-P3
The first control tower to use ground-to-air and air-to-ground
radio communication was built in 1930 at Cleveland Airport.
AT:209-L4-P4
In December 1935, the airlines established the first Airway
Traffic Control Center at Newark, New Jersey. Two more
soon opened at Cleveland and Chicago. The Department of
Commerce took over their operation in mid-1936, and within
a year eight centers were in full operation coast-to-coast.
AT:209-L5-P5
An airway modernization program was launched in 1938, and
airport control towers, such as this one in Cleveland, became a
familiar sight. In November 1941, with World War II
sweeping through Europe and Asia, the federal government
assumed responsibility for all towers deemed vital to the war
effort.
November 15, 2007, page 27
AT:210-L1
Early Pilot and Flight Attendant Uniforms
By the early 1930s, airlines were introducing distinctive uniforms
for their employees, and women were entering the ranks of flight
attendants.
Pilots were given military-style uniforms to reflect their status. Pan
American emulated luxurious ocean liner service by calling its flying
boats “Clippers” and its pilots “Captains,” and attiring its crews in
naval-style uniforms with white hats and navy-blue, double-breasted
jackets and rank insignia on the sleeve cuffs. Other airlines followed
suit. Many of these customs continue today.
While Pan Am and other airlines employed men as stewards, Boeing
Air Transport introduced the first female stewards.
AT:210-L2-P2
The first officer of a Pan Am Boeing 307 Stratoliner turns to
speak with the flight engineer, who monitors the aircraft’s
engines and systems.
AT:210-L3-P3
This 1938 identification card authorized Lawrence W. Tiedt
of Eastern Air Lines to handle U.S. Air Mail and protect it
with a firearm.
AT:210-L4
Ships of the Air
Family label
Pan American was the first airline to use nautical terms.
Words like “captain” and “stewards” attracted customers used
to luxury ship travel.
November 15, 2007, page 28
AT:210-L5
The First Stewardess
A nurse from Iowa, Ellen Church wanted to become an airline pilot
but realized that was not possible for a woman in her day. So in
1930, she approached Steve Simpson at Boeing Air Transport with
the novel idea of placing nurses aboard airliners. She convinced
him that the presence of women nurses would help relieve the
traveling public’s fear of flying. Church developed the job
description and training program for the first stewardesses.
Church first flew as a stewardess between Oakland and Chicago.
She had only served for 18 months when an automobile accident
grounded her. After her recovery, she completed her college
degree and returned to nursing.
AT:210-L6
“There is still a newness about air travel, and, though statistics
demonstrate its safety, the psychological effect of having a
girl on board is enormous.”
—Comment about the addition of stewardesses from an
airline magazine, 1935
AT:210-L7-P7
United Air Lines’ “Original Eight” female flight attendants.
Boeing Air Transport (later United) district manager Steve
Stimpson introduced the first stewardesses to provide better
customer service along B.A.T.’s San Francisco–Chicago
route. He even designed the first stewardess uniform.
AT:210-L8-A8
Stewardess Key, American Airlines
Artifact: Stewardess Key
Stewardess Alice Lambert Coker carried this baggage
compartment key when flying for American Airlines in the
late 1930s.
Gift of Alice Lambert Coker
November 15, 2007, page 29
Case 210 labels
AT:210-L9-A9
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5605, 1976-1936/1937
Pilot
Transcontinental and Western Air, 1931
Until the late 1920s, pilots flew in open-cockpit aircraft and
were clad in flying suits, helmets, and goggles. The
introduction of enclosed cockpits made possible such attire as
this T.W.A. pilot’s uniform.
Gift of Ken Blanery
AT:210-L10-A10
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-0879, 1956-0022
The First Stewardess Uniform
Boeing Air Transport, 1930 (replica)
The first stewardess uniform was made of dark green wool
with a matching green and gray wool cape. United Air Lines
made this replica and donated it in commemoration of Ellen
Church, the first stewardess, and the rest of United’s “Original
Eight” female flight attendants.
Gift of United Air Lines
AT:210-L11-A11
Artifact: Uniform
Steward
Eastern Air Lines, circa 1938
Following the maritime tradition of male stewards, Eastern
Air Lines issued this distinctive uniform for its cabin staff.
John Brisendine wore this uniform while serving aboard
DC-3s in the late 1930s. The three red stripes denote his three
years of service. Eastern was one of the last major carriers to
introduce stewardesses, and then only when World War II
thinned its male staff.
Gift of John Brisendine
AT:210-L12-A12
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-2888, 1973-1202/1207
Stewardess
Transcontinental and Western Air, 1935
In 1935, Thelma Jean Harman became the first stewardess for
T.W.A. She wore this summer uniform while flying aboard
Ford Tri-Motors along T.W.A.’s “Lindbergh Line” from New
York to Los Angeles. The stewardess badge on her coat was a
later addition to the uniform.
Gift of Thelma Jean Harman
November 15, 2007, page 30
AT:210-L13-A13
Artifact: Uniform
Stewardess
American Airlines, 1936–37
Alice Lambert wore this uniform while flying on Curtiss
Condors and Douglas DC-2s and DC-3s for American
Airlines. Following the nautical theme started by Pan Am,
American called its airplanes “flagships,” a term that appears
on the left sleeve.
Gift of Alice Lambert Coker
AT:210-L14-A14
Chewing Gum Dispenser, 1938
Artifact: Dispenser
To ease pressure on passengers’ ears during climb and
descent, stewards on Eastern Air Lines flights in the late
1930s offered chewing gum from elegant polished steel
dispensers.
Gift of John Brisendine
AT:210-L15
Why Do Your Ears Hurt?
Family label
Your ears pop during takeoff and landing because of tiny airfilled tubes connecting your ears and throat. Air pressure
changes during ascent and descent cause those tubes to
become blocked. Yawning or swallowing opens them and
equalizes the pressure. Chewing gum helps you produce
saliva to swallow, but you don’t really need the gum!
AT:210-L16-A16
T.W.A. Overnight Flight Bag, 1934
Artifact: Flight bag
Passengers on T.W.A.’s Douglas DC-2s were given overnight
flight bags for transcontinental flights.
NASM-5496, 1976-1504
Gift of Mrs. W. P. Anderson
AT:210-L17-A17
American Airlines Overnight Flight Bag, 1935
Artifact: Flight bag
American issued this overnight flight bag to passengers flying
on its Curtiss Condors and later on its Douglas Sleeper
Transports.
NASM-5816, 1977-2532
Gift of Mrs. Helen McCune
November 15, 2007, page 31
AT:210-L18-A18
American Airlines “Flagship Fleet” Pennant
Artifact: Pennant
To evoke the comfort and ease of ocean liner travel, American
Airlines called its airplanes “flagships.” Each flagship
Douglas DC-3 flew a large pennant from its cockpit when
taxiing before takeoff and after landing. Shown here is a
smaller souvenir pennant that passengers could purchase.
Underscoring the nautical theme, American instituted an early
frequent flyer plan, in which frequent passengers were
designated “Admirals” and received access to comfortable
airport lounges and other benefits. Competing airlines soon
followed suit.
November 15, 2007, page 32
AT:211-L1
What Was It Like to Fly?
Despite the airlines’ cheerful advertising, early air travel was far
from comfortable. It was expensive too.
Flying was loud, cold, and unsettling. Airliners were not pressurized, so
they flew at low altitudes and were often bounced about by wind and
weather. Air sickness was common. Airlines provided many amenities
to ease passenger stress, but air travel remained a rigorous adventure
well into the 1940s.
Flying was also something only business travelers or the wealthy could
afford. But despite the expense and discomforts, each year commercial
aviation attracted thousands of new passengers willing to sample the
advantages and adventure of flight.
AT:211-L2
“The airplanes smell of hot oil and simmering aluminum,
disinfectant, feces, leather, and puke...the stewardesses, shorttempered and reeking of vomit, come forward as often as they
can for what is a breath of comparatively fresh air.”
—Ernest K. Gann, an early commercial pilot
AT:211-L3-P3
A line of well-dressed passengers prepares to board a SAFE
Way Ford Tri-Motor.
AT:211-L4-P4
While the revolutionary Boeing 247 was much faster and less
noisy than the Ford Tri-Motor, the cabin was cramped and
movement difficult because of the wing spar that intruded into
the aisle.
AT:211-L5-P5
In the early 1930s, T.W.A. typically served passengers box
lunches with hot coffee poured from thermos bottles.
November 15, 2007, page 33
AT:211-L6-A6
Megaphone
Artifact: Megaphone
Noise was a problem in early airliners. To communicate with
passengers, cabin crew often had to resort to speaking through
small megaphones to be heard above the din of the engines
and the wind. The noise in a typical Ford Tri-Motor during
takeoff was nearly 120 decibels, loud enough to cause
permanent hearing loss.
NASM-6876, 1982-0519
Gift of Col. William B. Mozey Jr.
AT:211-L7
Earplugs, Anyone?
Family label
Normal conversation
60 dB
Busy street traffic
70 dB
Vacuum cleaner
80 dB
Personal radio with headphones
at maximum volume
100 dB
Front rows of rock concert
110 dB
Ford Tri-Motor during takeoff
120 dB
Threshold of pain
130 dB
Military jet takeoff
140 dB
Instant perforation of eardrum
160 dB
AT:211-L8
Would You Ride on a Tri-Motor?
Interactive
Push the button to hear and feel what it might have been like
to ride on a Ford Tri-Motor.
Look at the picture of passengers on a Tri-Motor. This photo
was probably used to promote air travel.
•
What clues suggest that the photograph was staged?
•
How comfortable do you think it was to fly on a
Tri-Motor?
Special thanks to the Experimental Aircraft Association
November 15, 2007, page 34
AT:211A-L1
Who Flew?
Flying was very expensive. Only business travelers and the wealthy
could afford to fly.
America’s airline industry expanded rapidly, from carrying only 6,000
passengers in 1930 to more than 450,000 by 1934, to 1.2 million by
1938. Still, only a tiny fraction of the traveling public flew.
Most people still rode trains or buses for intercity travel because flying
was so expensive. A coast-to-coast round trip cost around $260, about
half of the price of a new automobile. Only business executives and the
wealthy could afford to fly.
AT:211A-L2
Flying Politicians
As air travel became more common in the 1930s, more politicians
took to the air. In 1932, New York Governor Franklin D.
Roosevelt flew an American Airways Ford Tri-Motor from Albany
to Chicago, where he accepted the Democratic Party’s nomination
for president and delivered his “New Deal” speech. During World
War II, President Roosevelt flew overseas to meet Allied leaders at
Casablanca and Yalta. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt often flew
around the country on the president’s behalf.
Commercial air travel still had risks. On May 6, 1935, New
Mexico Senator Bronson M. Cutting died in a crash of a T.W.A.
Douglas DC-2. Nevertheless, flying grew increasingly popular
with politicians, as the advantages of fast travel outweighed the
real and perceived hazards.
November 15, 2007, page 35
AT:211B-L1
Flying Stars
Air travel was popular with Hollywood celebrities, but their
employers did not consider it safe. The film studios often put
clauses in actors’ contracts prohibiting them from flying,
especially while filming a movie. But by the mid-1930s, the
studios realized this rule was impossible to enforce, and they began
to recognize the economic value of flying stars around the country
to promote their movies.
Airlines benefited as well when celebrities flew. It was no
coincidence that an airline’s name was featured in the photo when
a celebrity’s arrival was captured on film.
AT:211B-L2
In the News
Family label
Look at what the newspapers said about flying stars. Besides
flying, what other restrictions did studios place on their stars.
AT:211B-L3-P3
© 1935, The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission.
AT:211B-L4-P4
© 1934, Los Angeles Times. Reprinted with permission.
AT:211B-L5
Who’s Flying?
Flip panel and answers
See if you can identify these celebrities. The cartoon appeared
in a 1938 Airlanes magazine.
United Airlines
LIFT
George Arliss
W. C. Fields
Shirley Temple
Babe Ruth
The Marx Brothers
Jimmy Durante
Mae West
AT:211B-L6-P6
Will Rogers.
AT:211B-L7-P7
Katharine Hepburn.
AT:211B-L8-P8
The Marx Brothers.
AT:211B-L9-P9
Lucille Ball.
November 15, 2007, page 36
AT:212-L1
Pan American Airways
Led by Juan T. Trippe, Pan American became the dominant U.S.
international airline. Its famous “Clippers” flew to Latin America
and crossed the Atlantic and Pacific.
Founded in 1927, Pan American opened regular commercial service
throughout Latin America using both flying boats and landplanes. In
1935, Juan T. Trippe introduced the first regularly scheduled
transpacific service with the famous Martin M-130 China Clipper. He
opened regular transatlantic service in 1939 with the Boeing 314 flying
boat.
Pan American was barred from domestic routes in return for exclusive
rights to international routes. Its overseas monopoly lasted until World
War II, and its domestic restriction until 1978.
AT:212-L2-P2
With 38 seats and a crew of six, the Sikorsky S-40 flying boat
was the largest U.S. airliner of its time. Only three were built,
but they left a lasting mark as the first “Clippers,” a name
affixed to all subsequent Pan American aircraft.
AT:212-L3-P3
The revolutionary new 32-seat Sikorsky S-42 flying boat
entered service in 1934. It could fly twice as many people
twice as far as the Douglas DC-2.
AT:212-L4-P4
The Boeing 314 Atlantic Clipper. In May 1939, exactly 12
years after Lindbergh’s solo transatlantic flight, its sister ship,
the Yankee Clipper, opened the first regularly scheduled
transatlantic air mail service, between Port Washington, New
York, and Marseilles, France. A month later the Dixie Clipper
began the first passenger service along that route.
Lockheed Martin
November 15, 2007, page 37
AT:212-L5
Ships of the Air
Family label
Pan Am’s “Clippers” were named in tribute to the clipper
ships of the China tea trade in the 1850s, the fastest sailing
ships of their day.
AT:212-L6
Juan T. Trippe
For over 40 years, Pan American was the embodiment of its
dynamic founder, Juan T. Trippe. During the 1930s, he inspired the
famous “Clipper” series of Sikorsky, Martin, and Boeing flying
boats. In the 1940s, he bought the pressurized Boeing 307 and
Lockheed Constellation and opened the first around-the-world
service.
In the 1950s, Trippe introduced the jetliner to America, sponsoring
both the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8. In the 1970s, he again set
the pace with the wide-body Boeing 747. Pan Am struggled after
Trippe retired and the industry was deregulated. It ceased
operations in 1991.
AT:212-L7-P7
Juan Trippe (right) with Charles Lindbergh, who served as a
technical advisor to Pan American.
November 15, 2007, page 38
Case 212 labels
AT:212-L8-M8
Sikorsky S-40
Model
Igor Sikorsky, an innovative Russian aircraft designer who
emigrated to the United States, created the S-40 for Pan Am’s
Caribbean routes. Charles Lindbergh, who advised Pan Am
on the layout of the S-40, piloted the airplane on its first
commercial flight, from Miami to the Canal Zone in 1931.
Gift of Juan T. Trippe
AT:212-L9-M9
Sikorsky S-42
Model
The efficient S-42 cut Pan American passengers’ travel time
between Miami and Buenos Aires, Argentina. More
significantly, Pan Am used improved S-42s to survey its
proposed routes across the Pacific in 1935 and the Atlantic in
1937.
Gift of Pan American World Airways
AT:212-L10-M10
Martin M-130
Model
The Martin M-130 was larger and had greater range than the
Sikorsky S-42. It could fly passengers and cargo between San
Francisco and Hawaii, the longest nonstop route in the world
with no alternate en route landing point. The airplane typically
carried no more than 12 passengers. Only three were built.
Gift of the Glenn L. Martin Estate
AT:212-L11-M11
Boeing 314
Model (fuselage cutaway)
Pan Am president Juan Trippe ordered the Boeing 314 flying
boat in 1936 specifically for the planned transatlantic route.
The aircraft had a maximum range of 5,700 kilometers (3,500
miles), and on shorter flights it could carry up to 74
passengers and a crew of 10.
Gift of Pan American World Airways
AT:212-L12-A12
Pan American Ticket Holder
Artifact: Ticket holder
On June 28, 1939, Pan American presented this sterling silver
ticket holder to William J. Eck for being the first paying
passenger to cross the Atlantic by aircraft. He flew on the
Boeing 314 Dixie Clipper.
NASM-1940-0012
Gift of William J. Eck
November 15, 2007, page 39
Other artifacts
AT:212-L13-A13
Juan Trippe’s Globe
Artifact: Trippe Globe
From his office in New York City, Pan American president
Juan T. Trippe used this globe to plan his airline’s expansion
around the world. Trippe often would stretch a string between
two points on the globe and calculate the distance and time it
would take for his airliners to fly between them. Made in the
late 1800s, this globe was featured prominently in many
publicity photos of Trippe, and it became part of Pan Am’s
and Trippe’s public image.
Gift of the Pan American Historical Foundation
AT:212-L14-A14
Propeller from the China Clipper
Artifact: Propeller
This Hamilton Standard variable-pitch propeller belonged to
the famous Martin M-130 flying boat China Clipper. The
blade’s angle could be adjusted for optimum performance
during takeoff and cruise, thus greatly increasing the aircraft’s
efficiency.
NASM-0447, 1939-0009
Gift of Pan American Airways
AT:212-L15-A15
Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp
Artifact: Engine
Designed in 1930, the 14-cylinder, 800-horsepower Twin
Wasp engine was first used on the Martin M-130 China
Clipper, which opened transpacific commercial service in
1935 for Pan American Airways. United Air Lines installed
1,000-horsepower Twin Wasps in its Douglas DC-3As, which
began service in 1937.
NASM-5103, 1975-0478
The engine displayed here is the 1,200-horsepower R-1830-92
military version, the most widely used Twin Wasp in the
DC-3 series. More than 173,000 Twin Wasp engines were
manufactured, more than any other large aircraft engine.
Gift of Grumman Aerospace
Type:
Cylinders:
Displacement:
Power:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Air-cooled, twin-row radial
14
31.6 L (1,830 cu in)
1,200 hp at 2,700 rpm
665 kg (1,467 lb)
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co., Hartford,
Conn., 1942
November 15, 2007, page 40
AT:212A-L1
The China Clipper
The name China Clipper evokes a romantic age of luxurious air
travel, when the rich and adventurous flew across the Pacific to the
Orient.
The China Clipper was the name of one of three Martin M-130 flying
boats built for Pan American Airways. The others were the Hawaii
Clipper and the Philippine Clipper. The Martin M-130 was the first
airliner that could fly nonstop the 3,840-kilometer (2,400-mile) distance
between San Francisco and Honolulu, Hawaii—the longest major route
in the world without and emergency intermediate landing field.
The China Clipper and its sister ships demonstrated that there were no
technological barriers to transoceanic travel.
AT:212A-L2
Why Flying Boats?
Flying boats became popular in the 1930s because they did not
have to contend with the rough state of early airfields. They could
also alight on water in emergencies, thus allaying fears of
passengers flying long distances over oceans. And they could be
made larger and heavier than other airliners, because they were not
restricted by the short length of airfields.
Most of Pan American’s Latin American destinations were along
coasts, so flying boats were a logical choice.
AT:212A-L3-P3
Travelers could sleep in comfortable berths while crossing the
Pacific Ocean at night in Pan American’s Martin M-130
flying boats.
AT:212A-L4-P4
On November 22, 1935, the Martin M-130 China Clipper
opened the first regularly scheduled air mail service across the
Pacific, from San Francisco to Manila. Here, it flies over the
unfinished Golden Gate Bridge. A year later, the China
Clipper began the first trans-Pacific passenger service.
November 15, 2007, page 41
AT:212A-L5-P5
Each Clipper flew a total of 60 hours over a six-day span,
with stops at Midway and Wake islands, where Pan Am
constructed its own hotels and facilities, as well as Guam.
Few could afford the $799 one-way fare, so the M-130s
usually carried no more than eight passengers, and often less.
November 15, 2007, page 42
AT:213-L1
The NACA and the Modern Airliner
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was largely
responsible for developing many technologies that led to the
creation of modern airliners.
A revolutionary new generation of airliners began appearing in the early
1930s. Fast and efficient, they featured all-metal, monocoque and
stressed-skin construction, cantilevered wings, retractable landing gear,
cowled air-cooled engines, and variable-pitch propellers—technologies
developed by the NACA, the military, and private industry.
The first of these modern airliners was the Boeing 247, one of which
hangs above you.
AT:213-L2
Research: NACA Wind Tunnels
Wind tunnels were the primary research tools of aeronautical
engineers. The NACA built four innovative tunnels at their
Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia from 1927 to 1939
that led to breakthroughs in aircraft design.
AT:213-L3-P3
John K. “Jack” Northrop left Lockheed Aircraft in 1928 to
start a company for producing metal aircraft. His first design
was the Northrop Alpha (hanging above), which blended a
strong, lightweight, cantilevered stressed-skin wing with a
metal monocoque fuselage. The Alpha so impressed William
Boeing that he bought Northrop’s Company. Jack Northrop’s
fervent advocacy of all-metal monocoque aircraft had a
lasting impact on U.S. aircraft designs.
Northrop Grumman Corporation
November 15, 2007, page 43
AT:213-L4-P4
Propeller research tunnel. With a throat 6 meters (20 feet)
across, this tunnel enabled engineers to test full-size aircraft
fuselages with their propellers attached. They discovered that
fixed landing gear and exposed engine cylinders caused
enormous amounts of drag, and that aircraft performed better
when their engines were positioned directly in front of the
wing.
AT:213-L5-P5
Full-scale tunnel. The testing space within this huge wind
tunnel was the size of a small two story house, allowing
engineers to test full-size aircraft. They found that external
struts, scoops, and antennas impaired performance. Nearly
every high-performance U.S. aircraft used during World War
II was tested in this tunnel.
AT:213-L6-P6
High-speed wind tunnel. This tunnel could produce air
speeds of 925 kilometers (575 miles) per hour. Although most
aircraft flew only about a third of that speed, their propeller
tips approached the speed of sound. The tunnel demonstrated
that rivet heads and other surface irregularities produced
significant drag.
AT:213-L7-P7
High-pressure tunnel. Opened in 1939, this tunnel was the
first to combine large size and high pressure in one facility.
Engineers used it to develop a new generation of highperformance military aircraft. The large NACA sign behind
you is from this tunnel.
AT:213-L8
Results: NACA Contributions
AT:213-L9-P9
Airfoils. NACA engineers developed many new families of
airfoils (wing cross sections), which were used to design most
American and many foreign aircraft. Research on high-speed
airfoils also reshaped the design of aircraft propellers.
AT:213-L10-P10
Cowlings. The NACA’s most important contribution to the
modern airliner was the engine cowl. Enveloping the front of
an engine, it increased aircraft speed by smoothing the airflow
over the cylinders, while allowing for better engine cooling.
For producing the first practical full-cowl design (shown
here), the NACA received the prestigious Collier Trophy.
November 15, 2007, page 44
AT:213-L11-P11
Engine placement. NACA research showed that locating
engines directly in front of the wing, with the propellers far in
front of the leading edge, reduced drag and enhanced lift and
engine efficiency. The gains proved so great that aircraft
designers could eliminate nose-mounted engines.
AT:213-L12-P12
Publications. The NACA spread the results of its own and
other research through publications. This information
profoundly influenced American aviation technology and
inspired many changes to civil and military aircraft, from
flush rivets, tighter construction tolerances, and retractable
landing gear to overall fuselage and wing designs.
AT:213-L13-P13
What Makes an Airliner “Modern”?
Look for all the features illustrated here on the Boeing 247 hanging
overhead, the first modern airliner.
AT:213-L14
Cantilevered Wing
A wing supported by internal structures and free from any
external bracing. Although heavier than externally braced
wings, a cantilevered wing has much less drag.
AT:213-L15
Monocoque (Stressed-Skin) Construction
A structural design in which the skin carries some or all of the
airframe weight without using internal cross braces. A
monocoque fuselage is light but strong and allows more room
for passengers or payload.
AT:213-L16
Metal Construction
Metal aircraft did not become practical until the mid-1920s,
when two methods to protect aluminum alloys from corrosion
were developed: anodizing alloys with a protective oxide
coating (used on the Boeing 247), and bonding pure,
corrosion-resistant aluminum to the surface of aluminum
alloys, known as Alclad (used on the Douglas DC-3 and
Northrop Alpha).
November 15, 2007, page 45
AT:213-L17
Variable-Pitch Propeller
One whose pitch can be adjusted in flight, so the propeller
maintains the most efficient angle relative to the airflow as the
airspeed changes. It shortened the Boeing 247’s takeoff
distance by 25 percent and greatly improved its high-altitude
performance.
AT:213-L18
Reliable Engine with NACA Cowling
Many new technologies reduced drag but made airframes
heavier. Powerful new air-cooled radial engines built for the
military helped offset these weight gains, and the NACA
cowling reduced the drag these engines created.
AT:213-L19
Retractable Landing Gear
Although heavier than fixed gear, retractable landing gear
greatly reduces drag and improves an aircraft’s speed and
efficiency.
AT:213-L20-A20
NACA Sign
Artifact: NACA sign
This sign, to the right, was installed on the exterior of the
high-pressure wind tunnel (later known as the Transonic
Dynamics Tunnel) at the NACA Langley Memorial
Aeronautics Laboratory (now NASA Langley Research
Center) in Hampton, Virginia.
Lent by NASA
November 15, 2007, page 46
AT:214-L1
Around the World in 18 Days
On September 30, 1936, Herbert R. Ekins, a reporter for the New
York World-Telegram, set out to travel around the world by air
using only regularly scheduled airlines. He wanted to set a new
speed record and to demonstrate the progress of commercial air
travel.
His adventure became a race when two rival newspapers sent
reporters to challenge him.
AT:214-L2
“The fact that I had gone around the world in less than three
weeks proved that the man with a month’s vacation might
spend a good part of it in almost any place in the world he
chose.”
—H. R. Ekins
AT:214-L3
Directions
Track Ekins’ journey by putting the various aircraft he used in
the correct order. If successful, you will find out if he won the
race.
Hint: Ekins started in Lakehurst, New Jersey, near New York
City and traveled east.
AT:214-L4
The German dirigible Hindenburg
Depart: Lakehurst, New Jersey (near New York City)
Arrive: Frankfurt, Germany
Route: Across the North Atlantic
No commercial airline flies across the Atlantic yet.
AT:214-L5
“We went straight up…like a tremendous elevator in some
gargantuan department store. No noise, no vibration, no
sway.”
November 15, 2007, page 47
AT:214-L6
Dutch KLM Douglas DC-2
Depart: Frankfurt, Germany Arrive: Batavia, Dutch East
Indies
Route: Across Europe and Asia via Athens, Baghdad, and
Bangkok
KLM is one of only three regularly scheduled airlines that
carry passengers across Europe and Asia. It uses American
planes.
AT:214-L7
“I settled myself in my comfortable seat in the big 14passenger transport...and observed the steward hovering
attentively nearby.”
AT:214-L8
Dutch KNILM Douglas DC-2
Depart: Batavia, Dutch East Indies
Arrive: Manila, Philippines
Route: Mainland Asia to Manila
This new service allows Ekins to fly instead of taking a
steamer from Hong Kong.
AT:214-L9
“The typhoon was tossing us about as though the big Douglas
[DC-2] were an autumn leaf.”
AT:214-L10
Pan American’s Martin M-130 Hawaii Clipper
Depart: Manila, Philippines
Arrive: San Francisco
Route: Across the Pacific Ocean via Guam and Honolulu
Pan American Airlines is the first to open this route and uses
seaplanes that stop at various islands in the Pacific.
AT:214-L11
“The Clipper absolutely astonished me…. Flying along at
10,000 feet in that huge boat (see her on the surface of the
water and you half-doubted whether she would be able to get
off), I had a complete feeling of safety.”
November 15, 2007, page 48
AT:214-L12
T.W.A. Douglas DC-2
Depart: Los Angeles
Arrive: Lakehurst, New Jersey (near New York City)
Route: Across North America
Both Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.) and United
Airlines offer service across the United States. Ekins flies
United Airlines from San Francisco to Los Angeles, then
T.W.A. east.
AT:214-L13
“Two things delighted me about the Sky Chief—you could
smoke cigarets (sic) while in flight…and we had a hostess
aboard. The air hostess is a peculiarly American institution
and one of the best.”
AT:214-L14
Ekins beat his two competitors by six days and 10,000 miles
and set a new record for travel around the world: 18 days, 14
hours, 56 minutes.
His total trip cost $5,000 and included travel on 7 airplanes
and 1 dirigible
AT:214-L15-P15
Ekins dancing in Honolulu, Hawaii.
AT:214-L16-P16
Ekins greeting officials in Rangoon, Burma.
AT:214-L17
Images courtesy of the Library of Congress
November 15, 2007, page 49
AT:214-L18
Ekins’ Tips for Air Travelers
•
•
•
•
•
•
If you enjoy travel at all you will enjoy it by air.
If you want some particular bit of information in
flight, write the pilot a note and hand it to the steward.
If you should experience some slight discomfort when
coming down from a high altitude take a deep breath
through the mouth and swallow—it will help to
equalize the air pressure.
Don’t expect to take a lot of snapshots en route. Many
of the countries over which you will fly are very
sensitive about cameras, fearing that something of
military value may be photographed. Over long
stretches your camera must remain in the custody of
the plane’s Captain.
Don’t try to carry too much luggage. Two light
aviation suitcases are enough.
All fares include hotel accommodations, meals and
transport to and from the aerodromes [airports].
From Around the World in 18 Days by Herbert Roslyn Ekins,
1936
AT:214-L19
“The endless desert unrolling beneath me, all combined with
speed and lack of sleep and perhaps a touch of dizziness from
standing hatless in the sun, to give me a complete feeling of
disassociation from reality.”
AT:214-L20
Jet Lag Before the Jet
Family label
The speed of air travel made Ekins feel disoriented. Years
before the first jet airplane, Ekins was experiencing what
today we call “jet lag.”
November 15, 2007, page 50
AT:300-L1
The Heyday of Propeller Airliners
1941–1958
Air transportation changed dramatically during and
after World War II. New technology led to advanced
piston-engine aircraft and new solutions to the
problems of navigation and air traffic control.
Regulated by the federal government, a few large
airlines continued to dominate. Air traffic grew
steadily, as declines in travel time and fares made air
travel available to an increasing number of people,
and the flying experience continued to improve.
In 1955, for the first time, more people in the United
States traveled by air than by train. By 1957 airliners
had replaced ocean liners as the preferred means of
crossing the Atlantic.
November 15, 2007, page 1
AT:300-L2-A2
Douglas DC-7
Artifact: Airplane nose section
The Douglas DC-7 was an advanced development of the
DC-6B piston-engine airliner. It was introduced by American
Airlines on its New York–Los Angeles route in November
1953 and was the first airliner to provide nonstop
transcontinental service in both directions.
NASM-1598, 1966-0150
Repeated in AT:309
The fastest transport aircraft in service, the DC-7 cruised at
580 kilometers (360 miles) per hour. A total of 338 DC-7s of
all types were purchased by 18 different airlines. Like other
piston-engine airliners, it was made obsolete by the
introduction of turbine-engine Boeing 707s and Douglas
DC-8s. Some DC-7s later served as cargo and charter planes.
This nose section is from American Airlines’ Flagship
Vermont, which carried about 130,000 passengers in its nearly
13,500 hours aloft.
Gift of American Airlines
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, gross:
Weight, empty:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
35.8 m (117 ft 6 in)
33.2 m (108 ft 11 in)
8.7 m (28 ft 7 in)
55,429 kg (122,200 lb)
30,076 kg (66,305 lb)
656 km/h (410 mph)
4 Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound, 3,250 hp
Douglas Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif.,
1956
November 15, 2007, page 2
AT:301-L1
World War II and the Airlines
Airlines worked closely with the military during World War II,
furthering the war effort by transporting people and materiel.
The airlines were well prepared to play their part in the war effort. Plans
for their wartime mobilization had been drafted in 1937 by Edgar
Gorrell of the industry’s Air Transport Association.
When the United States entered World War II four years later, the plan
was smoothly put into action, and the airlines immediately began
working closely with the military. The Air Transport Command (ATC)
was formed in 1942 to coordinate the transport of aircraft, cargo, and
personnel throughout the country and around the world.
AT:301-L2-P2
Casual air travel virtually ceased in the United States. A tight
priority list ensured that only those serving the war effort
flew. As a result, aircraft flew more than 80 percent full, 20
percent higher than before the war. The military requisitioned
200 of the nation’s 360 airliners, along with airline personnel.
Illinois Digital Archives
AT:301-L3-P3
TWA transferred its entire fleet of five Boeing 307s, along
with their flight crews, to the ATC. The airline opened regular
transatlantic service in 1942.
AT:301-L4-P4
Pilots and crewmen wearing the distinctive ATC logo on their
jackets walk past a Lockheed Lodestar on the way to their
aircraft in 1942.
AT:301-L5-P5
The ATC contracted with airlines to fly wherever they were
needed. Pan American’s vast overseas experience became an
especially valuable asset. But to Pan Am’s eventual dismay,
other airlines also received overseas routes. Northwest flew to
Alaska and the Pacific, United to Hawaii and the Pacific,
Eastern and Braniff to Latin America, TWA across the
Atlantic, and American to Africa, India, and China.
November 15, 2007, page 3
AT:301-L6-P6
L. Welch Pogue
At the Chicago Conference in 1944, the Allies drew up plans
for postwar civil aviation. They established the “Five
Freedoms of the Air,” permitting reciprocal flyover and
landing rights to international airlines, and created the
International Civil Aviation Organization as part of the United
Nations to regulate safety and set standards for international
air travel.
L. Welch Pogue, chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board,
played an instrumental role in drafting these agreements. He
also helped shape the Bermuda Agreement of 1946, which
detailed routes, rates, and air rights between the United States
and Great Britain. After retiring from his law practice, Pogue
served as a docent at the Museum until his death in 2003 at
the age of 103
AT:301-L7
First President to Fly
Family label
Franklin Roosevelt was the first president to fly while in
office. He flew to the 1943 Casablanca Conference in
Morocco to plan the Allies’ European strategy in World War
II. The threat from submarines made air travel the preferred
mode of transportation.
November 15, 2007, page 4
AT:302-L1
Post-War Revival and Regulation
After World War II, passenger travel surged to new levels. The
federal government reorganized its regulatory agencies to manage
the rapidly growing airline industry.
When wartime travel restrictions ended, airlines were overwhelmed
with passengers. New carriers emerged, and new technology began to
revolutionize civil aviation. Through the new Civil Aeronautics Board
and later the Federal Aviation Agency, the U.S. government remained a
guiding force, working to ensure safety and fair competition.
With revenues on the rise and new, more efficient airliners in the air,
airlines no longer needed economic support. In 1952 the government
ended its decades-old subsidy for flying the mail. While air mail
remained a valuable source of income, airlines no longer needed it to
survive.
AT:302-L2
“The airplane will have a far greater role in the affairs of a
world at peace than it already has in the stern business of a
world at war.”
—William A. Patterson, president of United Air Lines
AT:302-L3
The Civil Aeronautics Board
Created in 1940 from the Civil Aeronautics Authority, the Civil
Aeronautics Board (C.A.B.) merged the regulatory functions of the
Interstate Commerce Commission, Post Office, and Commerce
Department. It would set airline fares and routes for four decades.
The C.A.B. continued to favor a system anchored by a few large,
well-financed airlines—United, American, Eastern, and TWA—
with several regional airlines flying north-south routes. Limited
competition ensured stability and allowed the C.A.B. to control the
young industry’s growth.
November 15, 2007, page 5
AT:302-L4
The Federal Aviation Agency
A series of airliner accidents and rapid increases in aircraft
performance and airport congestion spurred the federal
government to again reorganize its regulatory powers.
Created on January 1, 1959, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA)
quickly moved to improve the management and safety of the
nation’s airways, while the C.A.B. continued to set airline routes
and fares. When the Department of Transportation was created in
1967, the FAA became the Federal Aviation Administration.
AT:302-L5-P5
The Civil Aeronautics Administration became the Federal
Aviation Administration on January 1, 1959. Workmen
exchange signs on the new FAA headquarters at 17th Street
and Constitution Avenue in Washington, now the site of
Constitution Gardens.
AT:302-L6
What Does the FAA Do?
Family label
The FAA is mainly responsible for the advancement, safety,
and regulation of air travel. It also watches over the
development of air traffic control systems and commercial
space travel.
Case 301/302 labels
AT:302-L7-A7
Flag and Seal
Artifacts: Flag and seal
The five-member Civil Aeronautics Board rendered their
decisions under this flag and seal. The Museum acquired these
items when the C.A.B. closed its doors in 1985 after the
airline industry was deregulated.
Transferred from the Civil Aeronautics Board
November 15, 2007, page 6
AT:302-L8-A8
Air Transport Command Uniform
Artifact: Uniform
Most of the airliners drafted for the war effort were placed
under the control of the Air Transport Command (ATC),
which was formed in June 1942. The ATC functioned as an
enormous international airline, combining the efforts of the
Ferry Command, which moved combat aircraft around the
world, and the Air Service Command, which moved cargo
and personnel.
A19830276000
A19830277000
A19830278000
A19830279000
A19830280000
A19830285000
Cap, garrison, ATC
Coat, service, ATC
Shirt, service, ATC
Trousers, service, ATC
Belt, service, ATC
Scarf, service, ATC
The ATC was organized by Gen. Robert Olds and later Gen.
Harold George. They benefited immensely from the
experience of Maj. Gen. C. R. Smith of American Airlines,
who served as executive officer, and hundreds of other former
airline employees.
Gift of Vergil W. Vaughan
AT:302-L9-A9
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-7837, 1990-0346/0352
Flight Attendant
Continental Airlines, early 1940s
Jean Begley Bluestein wore this uniform while flying on
Continental DC-3s.
Gift of Jean Begley Bluestein
November 15, 2007, page 7
AT:303-L1
The First “Fare Wars”
New airlines operating on a nonscheduled basis began offering the
first discount fares, undermining the government’s regulated
airfare system.
The Civil Aeronautics Board’s efforts to limit competition on
transcontinental routes were seriously challenged by scores of new
airlines that emerged after World War II. These nonscheduled airlines,
or “non-skeds,” carried cargo and passengers on irregular or charter
services. By combining their resources, some non-skeds were able to
offer transcontinental service at discount fares, which other airlines
were forced to match.
This brief episode foreshadowed the turbulent competition to come in
the late 1970s, when the government deregulated the airline industry.
AT:303-L2-P2
Several “non-skeds” pooled their resources to create North
American Airlines in 1950. N.A.A. began offering daily Los
Angeles–New York service at a one-way fare of only $99.
Other airlines responded, and they too discovered that lowcost service could be profitable. Even so, under pressure from
the major airlines, the C.A.B. closed down N.A.A. in 1955.
AT:303-L3-P3a,b
Reacting to competition from nonscheduled airlines, Capital
Airlines in 1948 introduced the first coach fares. Although
approved reluctantly by the C.A.B., these lower fares
immediately became popular and introduced air travel to a
much broader passenger market.
AT:303-L4-P4
With the widespread availability of surplus Douglas C-47
transports (military versions of the DC-3) after World War II,
many freight service airlines arose and prospered. Returning
veterans eager to continue flying formed such airlines as
Flying Tigers, Slick, Airlift, and Seaboard World.
November 15, 2007, page 8
AT:303-L5-P5
After the C.A.B. closed down North American Airlines, it
changed the “non-sked,” designation to “supplemental.”
Under this designation, the charter business flourished. World,
Trans International, Overseas National, Transocean, Standard,
Saturn, Capitol, and other carriers provided cargo and
passenger service for tour operators and the military.
AT:303-L6
Traveling by Coach
Family label
A “coach” was originally a horse-drawn vehicle designed for
carrying more than one passenger. The word comes from the
Hungarian town of Kocs (pronounced “kotch”), known as a
place where well-designed coaches were built. When railroads
adapted coaches for use on tracks, the term stayed in use. The
airlines borrowed the term to use for coach class, the least
expensive seats
November 15, 2007, page 9
AT:304-L1
A New Generation of Airliners
Aircraft manufacturers introduced a new generation of large, fourengine airliners that soon dominated U.S. and international air
travel and helped lower fares.
The new airliners introduced after World War II were built with the
profitable transcontinental air routes in mind. They enabled airlines to
carry far more people at greater speeds, while providing unprecedented
comfort for passengers and unprecedented profits for airlines.
As a result, competition increased and fares fell, thus opening up air
travel to even more people.
AT:304-L2-P2
The Douglas DC-4 introduced four-engine safety and comfort.
The unpressurized aircraft could carry 44 passengers. Western
Airlines introduced the DC-4 in January 1946, and United
began flying them coast to coast three months later. As
United’s “Mainliner 230,” the DC-4 flew from New York to
San Francisco in 16 hours with a stop at Chicago. The fare of
$236.60 round trip was 26 percent cheaper than prewar fares.
AT:304-L3-P3
Sleek, powerful, and graceful, TWA’s Lockheed
Constellations introduced pressurized comfort and shortened
transcontinental travel by an astounding five hours. Eastern
began flying the “stretched” 71-seat Super Constellation in
1951. The L-1049C and strengthened L-1049G versions had
greater range and capacity than the original “Connie.”
Northwest Orient and TWA also flew Super Constellations.
AT:304-L4-P4
The DC-6 was Douglas Aircraft’s response to Lockheed’s
Constellation. Slightly longer than the DC-4 and pressurized
like the “Connie,” the DC-6 could carry 60 passengers and
had heating elements in its wings to prevent icing. United
introduced the DC-6 in 1947, and after overcoming some
initial problems it became widely used.
NASM-1314, 1962-0101
November 15, 2007, page 10
AT:304-L5-P5
Perhaps the epitome of piston-engine airliner design, the
Douglas DC-6B combined unrivalled operating efficiency and
reliability. Its slightly stretched fuselage could carry 88
passengers. DC-6Bs entered service with United in 1952, and
Pan Am used them to pioneer tourist fares across the Atlantic.
AT:304-L6-P6
Introduced by American on its New York–Los Angeles route
in November 1953, the DC-7 was the first airliner to provide
nonstop transcontinental service in both directions. It could
carry 60 passengers between the two cities in less than 8 hours
for $158.85 one way and $302 round trip. This is the DC-7
Flagship Missouri, a sister ship to the Museum’s Flagship
Vermont.
AT:304-L7-P7
A unique feature of the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was its
lower-level lounge and bar, reached via a spiral staircase.
When designing the huge 747 jumbo jet, Boeing used the
same staircase design to connect the main cabin with the
upper deck. Such a staircase can be seen inside the 747 nose
in this gallery.
November 15, 2007, page 11
Case 304 labels
AT:304-L8-M8
Lockheed Constellation
Model
TWA began flying “Connies” in 1946 on the same day United
introduced its unpressurized DC-4s. TWA matched United’s
fare but added $25 for the Constellation’s “Advanced Sky
Chief” service. TWA’s fast, pressurized Constellations could
fly from New York to Los Angeles in 11 hours with one 25minute fuel stop—five hours faster than United’s DC-4s on its
New York–San Francisco route. The Museum’s Constellation
is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
Gift of Pan American World Airways
AT:304-L9-M9
Boeing 377 Stratocruiser
Model
Although not economically successful, the huge Boeing 377
Stratocruiser epitomized luxury air travel in the 1950s. Based
on the design of Boeing’s B-29 bomber of World War II, the
377 had a bulbous “double bubble” pressurized fuselage and
could carry 100 passengers. Northwest, Pan Am, United, and
American Overseas Airlines all flew Stratocruisers.
Gift of Pan American World Airways
AT:304-L10-A10
Artifact: Uniform
Flight Attendant
United Airlines, 1946
Flight attendants wore this uniform while serving aboard
United DC-4s just after World War II.
Gift of Helen Elizabeth McLaughlin
AT:304-L11-A11
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-4087, 1974-0913
Captain
Eastern Airlines, circa 1940s
Capt. L. C. Cloney wore this uniform while flying Eastern
Airlines Constellations. Eastern rose to national prominence
under the leadership of Eddie Rickenbacker, America’s
premier ace during World War I. Eastern Airlines dominated
air travel in the East and Southeast for many years after World
War II.
Gift of Capt. L. C. Cloney
AT:304-L12-A12
Cigar Box
Artifact: Cigar box
This silver cigar box was made to commemorate the opening
of Pan American’s first around-the-world service in 1947.
Gift of Juan T. Trippe
November 15, 2007, page 12
AT:304-L13-A13
Playing Cards
Artifact: Playing cards
This presentation set of four decks of playing cards was given
to Northwest Airlines president Donald W. Nyrop and
features the airline’s Boeing 377 Stratocruiser.
Gift of Donald W. Nyrop
November 15, 2007, page 13
AT:305-L1
Air Traffic Control Comes of Age
The dramatic increase in air travel during the 1950s created a need
for better airports and air traffic control.
Just as new aircraft technology produced a new generation of aircraft,
new electronic technology produced answers to the growing problems
of communications and managing air traffic.
By the end of the 1950s, the aviation infrastructure in the United States
had grown intricate and highly advanced.
AT:305-L2
Radar and Precision Landing Systems
Radar—“radio detecting and ranging”—was developed by the
British in the 1930s and widely used during World War II. By
war’s end, two precision landing systems were available for civil
use: Ground Controlled Approach (GCA), which used radar, and
Instrument Landing System (ILS), which used radio transmissions.
The first U.S. civilian control tower equipped with radar began
operating at Indianapolis Airport in 1946. By 1951 the use of radar
had begun to supersede pilot-reported positions by radio.
AT:305-L3-P3
With Ground Control Approach (GCA), a ground controller
followed an approaching aircraft on a radar screen and
instructed the pilot down to the runway. GCA was placed into
operation at Washington’s National Airport and Chicago’s
Municipal Airport in 1947. Although GCA was popular with
the military, airline pilots preferred the competing ILS system.
AT:305-L4-P4
Improved air traffic control techniques, particularly GCA,
were critical to the success of the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49.
For almost a year, a continuous relay of military and civilian
transports landed in the Soviet-blockaded East German city
every three minutes around the clock and in all weather, and
kept the city’s 2 million people fed.
November 15, 2007, page 14
AT:305-L5-P5
The Civil Aeronautics Authority in 1947 adopted the
Instrument Landing System (ILS) as its primary landing aid,
supplemented by GCA at busy airports. With ILS, a pilot
relied on instruments that received altitude and direction data
via radio transmissions and allowed the pilot to follow a glide
path to the runway. ILS greatly reduced missed approaches
and flight cancellations due to weather and enabled airports to
handle more traffic.
AT:305-L6-P6
The ILS indicator was installed on the upper-left corner of the
captain’s instrument panel on the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser.
AT:305-L7
“Operation Vittles”
Family label
The U.S. Air Force’s codename for the Berlin Airlift was
“Operation Vittles.” In addition to food, more than 2.3
million pounds of coal were delivered to keep Berlin residents
warm. That’s equal to the weight of more than 143 school
buses!
November 15, 2007, page 15
AT:305-L8
Growing Pains and Growing Concerns
Despite steadily improving air traffic control, a series of airliner
accidents over five months in 1951–52 aroused public concern.
Although not related to air traffic control, the accidents led to an
accelerated program of technical development and promoted new
discussions on safety and traffic control.
Air traffic growth in the 1950s led to severe airport congestion and
delays. In 1956 two airliners collided over the Grand Canyon. Two
more midair collisions occurred in 1958 and another in 1960.
These events prompted legislation that enabled aviation authorities
to take corrective measures.
AT:305-L8-P9
Radar Departure Control made its debut at Washington’s
National Airport in 1952. Until then, radar had been used only
to confirm a pilot’s reported position. With the new system,
controllers could provide better and safer traffic flow into and
out of airports.
AT:305-L10-P10
In the 1950s the Civil Aeronautics Administration, in
cooperation with the Air Force, began installing long-range
radars with a radius of 322 kilometers (200 miles). A network
of overlapping radars was completed by 1965, allowing
continuous monitoring of aircraft in controlled airspace.
AT:305-L11-P11
The upsurge in air travel led to the development of modern
airports. Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport introduced
the first “air bridges.” Better known by the brand name “Jet
Way,” they provided sheltered passage between terminal and
plane and sped up aircraft turnaround times. However,
passengers now sometimes never even saw the airplane they
were boarding.
AT:305-L12
From “Jet Way” to “Jetway”
Family label
“Jetway” is an example of a trade name that became a generic
term for a sheltered passage between a terminal and plane.
What other examples of this (like Xerox) can you think of?
November 15, 2007, page 16
AT:306-L1
The NACA Looks Beyond Propellers
While propeller-driven airliners were enjoying their “golden age,”
the NACA was doing research that would help create a new
generation of high-speed passenger planes.
As the Cold War took hold after World War II, the United States
anxiously stepped up aeronautical research to enhance the nation’s
security in an uncertain world. The National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) began to focus on the challenges of transonic and
supersonic flight.
Although intended primarily for military purposes, the results of the
NACA’s research greatly benefited the future development of highspeed airliners. As proof of its pioneering work during this time, the
NACA won the coveted Collier Trophy four times.
AT:306-L2-P2
While today’s jet airliners fly most efficiently at high
subsonic speed, air flows over their wings at transonic and
even supersonic speeds. To make high-subsonic flight safe
and efficient, aircraft companies developing jetliners in the
1950s depended upon the NACA’s pioneering transonic
research.
AT:306-L3-P3
The NACA and the Navy designed and tested the Douglas
D-558-1 Skystreak. They used it to study the difficulties of
transonic flight, during which the airflow over the wings
becomes unpredictable and unstable. Because it was jet
powered, the Skystreak could collect data for much longer
periods than the rocket-powered Bell X-1, which was faster
but had a short range.
November 15, 2007, page 17
AT:306-L4-P4
On October 14, 1947, Capt. Charles E. “Chuck” Yeager
piloted the rocket-powered Bell X-1 to Mach 1.06, destroying
the myth of the “sound barrier.” Working with the Air Force
and Bell Aircraft, the NACA made critical contributions to the
design of the wings, the fuselage, and the crucial adjustable
stabilizer. The NACA used the X-1 to study the dangerous
problem of air compressibility and powerful shock wave
formation during transonic flight. The Bell X-1 now hangs in
the Milestones of Flight gallery.
AT:306-L5-P5
Gathering test data about transonic flight was difficult,
because conventional wind tunnels would “choke” on shock
waves bouncing along their walls. In 1950, John Stack and his
associates at the NACA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical
Laboratory built the first “slotted” wind tunnel, which
resolved this problem.
AT:306-L6-P6
The NACA and the Navy developed the Douglas D-558-2
Skyrocket to learn more about the characteristics of sweptwing aircraft. Flight testing revealed the problem of the nose
pitching up at high speeds, which they solved, paving the way
for swept-wing military and civilian aircraft. On November
20, 1953, NACA test pilot A. Scott Crossfield became the
first to fly faster than twice the speed of sound in the
Skyrocket, which now hangs nearby above the east escalator.
AT:306-L7-P7
The Cold War pushed the United States into expanding all its
scientific research. One result was the NACA’s entry into
astronautical research. On October 1, 1958, almost one year
after the Soviet Union orbited the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) was formed, absorbing the NACA. Despite its focus
on spaceflight, NASA continues to pioneer new discoveries in
aeronautics.
November 15, 2007, page 18
AT:306-L8-A8
Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound Engine
Artifact: Engine
One of the most powerful piston engines ever built, the
Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound produced 3,400 horsepower
in its ultimate version. Based on the engine that powered the
Boeing B-29 bomber of World War II, the R-3350 was
installed on Lockheed Constellations and Douglas DC-7s.
NASM-1598, 1966-0150
Near ATC rail
The more powerful Turbo Compound version routed exhaust
gases through an impeller, which helped turn the crankshaft
and gave the engine a 20-percent boost. However, the
complexity of the system resulted in service reliability
problems that reduced aircraft productivity.
Gift of American Airlines
Type:
Cylinders:
Displacement:
Power:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Air-cooled, twin-row radial
18
55 L (3,350 cu in)
3,400 hp at 1,900 rpm
1,263 kg (2,779 lb)
Wright Aeronautical Div., Curtiss-Wright
Corp., Wood Ridge, N.J., 1955
November 15, 2007, page 19
AT:307-L1
International Service
Pan American Airways was the nation’s sole international airline
before World War II. After the war, other domestic airlines were
allowed to open international routes.
During the war, Pan Am helped build a worldwide network of paved
runways, enabling the airline to replace its luxurious but inefficient
flying boats with four-engine landplanes. Pan Am gained much wartime
experience delivering high-priority passengers and cargo as well. Thus,
it was strongly positioned to dominate postwar international service.
However, presidents Roosevelt and Truman both felt it would serve the
nation best to have several overseas airlines. So after the war, the Civil
Aeronautics Board ended Pan Am’s monopoly.
AT:307-L2
“A World of Neighbors”
—Pan American World Airways brochure
AT:307-L3
New Competition for Pan Am
Transcontinental and Western Air, with its well-developed
domestic network and proven record of overseas war service,
quickly became a serious competitor to Pan Am. To reflect the
airline’s new international status, majority shareholder Howard
Hughes changed the airline’s name to Trans World Airlines.
Northwest Orient expanded across the Pacific to the Far East.
Braniff Airways extended into South America. American Airlines
also began international service, but withdrew a few years later.
AT:307-L4-P4
In the early 1940s, Pan American flew through the airport at
Barreiras in the Brazilian interior to save two days of travel
time between Miami and Rio de Janeiro. Using Douglas
DC-3s (shown here) and Boeing 307s, Pan Am no longer had
to fly the longer route along the Atlantic coast.
November 15, 2007, page 20
AT:307-L5-P5
Wealthy businessman, oil executive, aviator, and movie
producer, Howard Hughes gained control of TWA in the late
1930s and turned it into a major international airline.
November 15, 2007, page 21
AT:308-L1
Air Travel and Segregation
African Americans could choose to fly, but few did. Many airport
facilities were segregated and discrimination was widespread.
Few members of minority groups flew before World War II. But as the
economy rapidly expanded and the number of minority-owned
businesses increased, more people of color began to fly. In doing so
they often encountered discrimination.
While the airlines were not legally segregated, airports often were.
Throughout the South, inferior airport accommodations discouraged
African Americans from flying. Until the Civil Rights movement began
to bring about change, air travel remained mostly for whites.
AT:308-L2
“All of these incidents I witnessed with my own eyes.”
—Charles C. Diggs Jr.
AT:308-L3-P3
Complaints to the airlines about discrimination proved
fruitless, as the airlines did not control the municipally owned
airports they served and did not wish to get involved for fear
of losing white customers.
Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Howard University
AT:308-L4-P4
Efforts to desegregate airports began as early as 1948. Rep.
Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan supported a bill in Congress
to desegregate federally owned Washington National Airport.
The bill did not pass, but it encouraged others to take action.
In December 1948, after a direct appeal to President Truman
by a member of his Committee on Civil Rights, National
Airport’s restaurant was finally desegregated. Slowly during
the 1950s and ’60s, the rest of the segregated airports
followed suit after succumbing to legal and political pressure.
Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Howard University
November 15, 2007, page 22
AT:308-L5-P5
Airlines did not allow African Americans to fly their aircraft
or work aboard them as flight crew. Throughout the country,
these jobs were restricted to whites only until the 1960s. The
exceptions were Perry H. Young Jr., who first flew helicopters
for New York Airways in 1956, and Ruth Carol Taylor, who
first served as a stewardess for Mohawk Airlines in 1958.
AT:308-L6-P6
The color barrier within the major airlines was finally broken
in 1965, when Marlon D. Green won a suit against
Continental Airlines to become a pilot. His victory opened
commercial aviation to all Americans.
AT:308-L7-P7
National Airport was one of many southern airports that
discriminated against African Americans as late as the 1950s.
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority
AT:308-L8
Separate but Senseless
Family label
Congressman Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan disliked how
African Americans were treated at airports throughout the
South. He led a campaign to change this by writing to the
presidents of the major airlines to ask for their support. Read
about his experience as an African American traveling by
plane in the 1950s.
November 15, 2007, page 23
AT:309-L1 Various exhibits near the DC-7
At Your Service
Whether United’s “red carpet service” or American’s “service fit for a
king and queen,” airline advertising made sure passengers knew they
would be treated well. As one American Airlines publication noted,
“travel by air should be a time of leisure, a chance for you to escape
humdrum worries.”
Since the federal government regulated prices, airlines competed by
offering various amenities.
AT:309-L2
A Sky-Lounge View From Four Miles Up
Text from brochure
The inviting rear lounge, scene of card games and new
friendships, is the favorite spot for sightseeing too. Lounge
seats are not sold...they are yours to enjoy.
AT:309-L3
Smoke, If You Care To
Text from brochure
But please, cigarettes only, and only when the “No Smoking”
sign is off. Non-smoking passengers are often offended by
cigars and pipes. Because of special air conditioning, pipe and
cigar smoking is permitted in the lounge of DC-6Bs only!
AT:309-L4
Gourmet Meals...Hot, Fresh and Full of Flavor
Text from brochure
Here is deluxe meal service at its very best. All of the artistry
of United’s own Continental chefs goes into the preparation of
your full course “Red Carpet” meal.
AT:309-L5
A Hand of Rummy at Six Miles a Minute
Text from brochure
At your seat, or in the lounge, you can relax with one of the
scores of games and other special items aboard to help while
the miles away. Writing kits and the latest periodicals are as
close as the stewardess call button.
November 15, 2007, page 24
AT:309-L6
Youngsters Like To Travel, Too!
Text from brochure
Traveling with youngsters is “duck soup” when you fly. Your
Continental Hostess will supply you with blankets, comic
books or crayons and paper to keep the children comfortable
and happy...and Mother happy too.
AT:309-L7
Text taken from brochures shown below.
AT:309-L8-M8
DC-7 model
Cutaway models like this illustrated the air travel experience
to potential customers visiting a travel office. The passengers
in the model were made slightly smaller in scale to make the
plane look larger.
AT:309-L9
Can You Find…
Family label
two couples playing cards
people in the lounge
people who are eating
children
five people with binoculars or a camera
AT:309-L10
The Thomas Cook and Son Travel Agency operated an office
in San Francisco’s City of Paris department store in the late
1940s.
AT:309-L11
Who’s Flying?
Family label
Take a look at the model. What do all of the passengers and
crew have in common?
LIFT
They are dressed up, they look happy, and they are white.
Look at the panel behind you to find out more about who
flew.
AT:309-L12
Be sure to walk through the DC-7 in front of you.
Family label
November 15, 2007, page 25
Inside DC-7
AT:309-L13-P13
Interior of the DC-7
AT:309-L14
Family label
Look around—how is the passenger experience different
today?
AT:309-L15
Where Does It Go?
Family label
Airplane bathroom waste has always gone into a storage tank
in the airplane, which is pumped out after landing. If the tank
gets full, there is an overflow valve that discharges extra
waste out of the aircraft—during flight. The chemicals used
to treat the waste turn it blue, and the waste freezes during its
fall to earth—the infamous “blue ice.”
Near flight insurance vending machine
AT:309-L16-A16
Flight Insurance Vending Machine
Artifact: Vending machine
Although air travel had become quite safe, nervous flyers
were given the option of buying additional travel insurance.
Flight insurance became so popular that vending machines
were installed in airports around the country to dispense
insurance policies.
NASM-7945, 1993-0090
Gift of Mercury International through Dennis Bennett
AT:309-L17
“Americans have an abiding belief in their ability to control
reality by purely material means.... Airline insurance replaces
the fear of death with the comforting prospect of cash.”
—Cecil Beaton, “It Gives Me Great Pleasure,” 1955
AT:309-L18-P18
By the 1950s, inexpensive flight insurance was widely
available through vending machines at most airports.
AT:309-L19-P19
Even people in the aerospace industry used travel insurance.
Here Dr. Wernher von Braun, the noted German scientist
behind the U.S. space program, purchases a policy.
Don Cravens/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
November 15, 2007, page 26
AT:309A-L1
Could You Have Been a Stewardess in the Early 1950s?
AT:309A-L2
GIRLS WANTED
Family labels
to enter Flight Stewardess Training Group
Here is the career opportunity for which you have been
waiting!
If you are interested and feel that you can meet all of the
qualifications below, please write in detail and attach a full
length photograph.
AT:309A-L3
Height
Flip panels
Between 5 feet, 2 inches and 5 feet, 6 inches
AT:309A-L4
Weight
135 pounds maximum
In 1979 several court cases forced airlines to change their
weight policies.
AT:309A-L5
Age
21 to 26 years old
In 1968 the mandatory resignation at ages 30 to 35 was struck
down in court.
AT:309A-L6
Marital Status
Single, not divorced, separated, or widowed
Legal victories beginning in 1969 allowed married women to
become stewardesses.
AT:309A-L7
Appearance
Height and weight proportionate
Attractive—“Just below Hollywood” standards
Plenty of personality and poise
November 15, 2007, page 27
AT:309A-L8
Race
White
The first African American stewardess started work in 1958.
AT:309A-L9
Gender
Female
In 1971 courts prohibited airlines from refusing to hire men.
AT:309A-L10
Education
Registered nurse or two years of college
AT:309A-L11
The Few
Family label
In the early 1950s, the airlines accepted about 1.7 percent of
stewardess applicants. In 1951 American Airlines received
20,000 applications for 347 stewardess positions.
AT:309A-L12
Stewardess, is your…
Smile: Friendly & Sincere
Posture: Erect & Poised
Hair: Short & Styled
Make-Up: Neat & Natural
Blouse: Fresh & Pressed
Ribbon: New & Trimmed
Nails: Manicured & Polished
Gloves: White & Tailored
Uniform: Clean & Pressed
Purse: Orderly & Polished
Shoes: Repaired & Shined
?
Smile!
AT:309A-L13-P13
Stewardess in mirror photo
Photography Collections, University of Maryland, Baltimore
County
Alice Engeman
November 15, 2007, page 28
AT:310-L1
Regional Service
United, American, Eastern, and TWA dominated the major
transcontinental routes, while smaller airlines served specific areas
of the country.
Beyond the “big four” major carriers, a few other large airlines—Delta,
Braniff, Western, Continental, and Northwest—provided service to
particular regions. Federal regulators limited competition between them
by preventing their territories from overlapping, except on heavily
traveled routes.
After 1955 a new category of smaller airlines providing local service
gained official recognition. These so-called regional airlines brought
airline service to hundreds of small cities.
AT:310-L2
“The local service carrier stands in a very special personal
relationship with the community it serves….”
Sir George Edwards, managing director of British Aircraft
Corporation
AT:310-L3-P3
This promotional map shows the 13 local service airlines that
flew in the United States during the mid-1950s.
Case 310 labels—Regional Airline Uniforms
AT:310-L4-A4
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-2629, 1972-1190/1193
First Officer
Mohawk Airlines, 1950s
A prominent local carrier in the 1940s and ’50s, Mohawk
served New York State and the Northeast. First Officer David
F. Holmes wore this uniform while flying Mohawk DC-3s.
Gift of David F. Holmes
November 15, 2007, page 29
AT:310-L5-A5
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-7670, 1988-0281/0286
Flight Attendant
Capital Airlines, 1955
Marcy Wetherbee wore this uniform while serving on Capital
Airlines Vickers Viscount airliners.
Gift of Marcy Wetherbee
AT:310-L6-A6
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-4055, 1974-0743
Mechanic’s Coat and Hat
Capital Airlines, 1940s
Mechanics for Capital Airlines (formerly Pennsylvania
Central) wore coats and coveralls while servicing their fleet of
DC-3s and DC-4s.
Gift of J. F. Ulrich
AT:310-L7-A7
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5092, 1975-0371/0374
Flight Attendant
Colonial Airlines, 1950s
Colonial Airlines broke with tradition in the early 1950s and
began to serve alcoholic beverages on its New York–Bermuda
flights. The rest of the industry quickly adopted this
successful and profitable marketing tool. Macivor Celeste
wore this uniform as a Colonial flight attendant.
Gift of Macivor Celeste
AT:310-L8-A8
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5637, 1976-2079-2084
Flight Attendant
Western Airlines, 1958
In operation since 1926, Western was the nation’s oldest
airline. It flew mainly in California and the Southwest before
merging with Delta in 1987. Nancy Birckhead wore this
uniform while serving on Western’s Douglas and Convair
airliners.
Gift of Nancy Birckhead
AT:310-L9-M9
Convair 240
Model
The Convair 240 was a short/medium-haul transport powered
by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engines. It was
introduced in 1948.
Gift of Mohawk Airlines
AT:310-L10-M10
Martin 4-0-4
Model
A short-haul airliner, the Martin 4-0-4, an improved version
of the flawed Martin 2-0-2, was introduced in 1951.
Gift of Mohawk Airlines
November 15, 2007, page 30
AT:311-L1
Aircraft for Regional Airlines
Regional airlines operated the same large aircraft as the “big four”
airlines. But for short- to medium-length routes, they used smaller
aircraft as well.
After World War II, the major airlines began looking for a replacement
for the venerable DC-3. American Airlines led the way by cooperating
in the development of the Convair 240. The Martin 2-0-2, which first
flew with Northwest, was designed to compete with the 240.
Improved models followed and helped fill the need for smaller airliners
flying shorter routes.
AT:311-L2-P2
The pressurized, 40-seat Convair 240 brought a new level of
comfort and productivity to American Airlines’ secondary
routes. The 240 and its stretched 340 and 440 versions proved
popular among major, secondary, and local-service airlines.
AT:311-L3-P3
The Convair 240 featured this unique “orange peel” cowling
that permitted easy engine access for servicing.
AT:311-L4-P4
The Martin 2-0-2 debuted in 1947 and featured a set of stairs
in the tail. However, serious technical flaws in the wing
structure limited its usefulness. Redesigned with an improved
wing and a pressurized fuselage, the Martin 4-0-4 (shown
below) served with distinction with TWA, Eastern, and other
airlines.
November 15, 2007, page 31
AT:312-L1
The Era of Mass Air Travel Begins
As flying became more popular and commonplace, the nature of the
air travel experience began to change.
By the end of the 1950s, America’s airlines were bringing a new level
of speed, comfort, and efficiency to the traveling public. But as flying
became commonplace and jet aircraft began to replace piston-engine
airliners, the air travel experience began to change.
With the steady increase in passenger traffic, the level of personal
service decreased. The stresses of air travel began to replace the thrill.
Flying was no longer a novelty or an adventure; it was becoming a
necessity.
AT:312-L2-P2
Colorful postcards highlighted the ease and comfort of air
travel, as in this American Airlines Douglas DC-7.
AT:312-L3-P3
With airplanes becoming faster and passenger numbers
increasing, airlines discontinued their plush sleeper service by
the 1950s. Expensive to operate, sleeper service gave way to
low-fare night coach service. The coast-to-coast eastbound
flights became known as “red eye” specials.
AT:312-L4-P4
Passengers began experiencing physiological problems due to
crossing several time zones within a few hours. Shortened or
lengthened days or nights upset natural body rhythms and
made sleeping difficult. Although later dubbed “jet lag,” this
was first experienced after long-distance trips on fast pistonengine and turboprop airliners.
AT:312-L5-P5
The arrival of nonstop transcontinental service meant that
major league baseball was no longer restricted to cities within
a day’s train ride, but could expand into new markets west of
the Mississippi. In 1958 both the New York Giants and the
Brooklyn Dodgers found new homes in California. Even
before the move, the Dodgers had acquired a Convair 440 for
their use.
November 15, 2007, page 32
AT:312-L6
Is Flying a Necessity?
Family label
A necessity is something you can’t live without. Could you
live without air travel? People got along just fine before
airplanes were invented. But now the world has come to
depend on airplanes for many things. Visit the luggage pile
under the 747 nose to explore the many ways air travel affects
everyday life.
AT:312-L7
“You Look Tired, Bob.”
Family label
Why do you think overnight coast-to-coast flights were called
“red eyes”?
AT:312-L8-A8
Charge Card
Artifact: Charge card
Airlines issued company charge cards to their employees—
predecessors to today’s credit cards.
Gift of Herbert Ford
November 15, 2007, page 33
AT:313-L1
“Fly Now!”
Even though airlines spent most of their marketing budgets on
newspaper and magazine advertisements by the 1950s, posters still
played a role in selling air travel.
Dramatic and colorful airline posters appeared in department and
specialty store displays, on city airline ticket counters, and on the walls
of travel agents’ offices throughout the 1950s. Competing with train and
ocean liner advertisements, airline posters in this era usually included at
least a small iconic representation of the airplane servicing the route
advertised.
As air travel became increasingly safe and air travelers increasingly
savvy, however, advertisers began focusing less on passengers,
timetables, airplanes, and flying itself, and more on airline destinations.
AT:313-L2-P2
Before World War II, Pan American did not have to boast that
it was the “world’s most experienced airline.” But by the late
1940s, competition from TWA and other airlines affected the
direction of Pan Am’s advertising. In this 1951 poster, the
airplane—Pan Am’s newest “Clipper Ship,” the Boeing 377
Stratocruiser—is almost incidental. Drawn to scale with some
detail, the airplane nonetheless pales in comparison with the
stunning Scandinavian fjord.
AT:313-L3-P3
The signature design style of the distinctive three-finned tail
says it all—Trans World Airlines “owned” the Lockheed
Constellation. Other airlines flew it, but TWA had
commissioned the airplane and flew the largest Constellation
fleet. Using these airplanes, TWA continually improved its
transcontinental service. In 1953 the airline instituted its
Ambassador Service, which offered nonstop flights from Los
Angeles to New York.
November 15, 2007, page 34
AT:313-L4-P4
In 1955, Cuba provided hefty subsidies to hotel, nightclub,
and casino builders in hope of turning Havana into the “Las
Vegas of the tropics.” This 1957 poster’s glowing orange
background and whimsical portrayal of Cubans presents an
attractive but romanticized picture of the island nation. A
small Douglas DC-7 draws attention to Delta Air Lines,
which acquired the Caribbean route in 1953 when it merged
with Chicago & Southern Airlines.
November 15, 2007, page 35
AT:400-L1 Upright panel 400a (in two places)
The Jet Age, 1958 –Today
The jet engine revolutionized air travel. Powerful and
durable, jets enabled aircraft manufacturers to build
bigger, faster, and more productive airliners. Jet
technology also enabled airlines to reduce their
operating costs and their airfares.
The jet age saw the end of airline regulation by the
federal government, an act that transformed the
industry and produced much upheaval. Passengers
benefited from falling fares—almost anyone who
wanted to could now fly.
The effects of deregulation, along with the computer
revolution and heightened security measures,
especially following the terrorist attacks of September
11, 2001, have profoundly changed the nature of the
air travel experience.
November 15, 2007, page 1
AT:400-L2-A2
Boeing 747-151
Artifact: Aircraft nose section
This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing
747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for
Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific.
It was retired in 1999.
Repeated inside nose
Gift of Northwest Airlines
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, empty:
Weight, gross:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
59.6 m (195 ft 8 in)
70.5 m (231 ft 4 in)
19.3 m (63 ft 5 in)
158,220 kg (348,816 lb)
333,400 kg (735,000 lb)
958 km/h (595 mph)
4 Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3, 19,730 kg
(43,500 lb) thrust
Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.
November 15, 2007, page 2
AT:401-L1 Rail panel
Transition Aircraft: The Turboprops
Turboprop-powered aircraft, which used jet engines to turn a
propeller, were introduced on medium-range routes.
Turboprops promised greater fuel efficiency and reliability than pistonengine aircraft. Beginning in 1955, when Capital Airlines bought the
British Vickers Viscount and when the Dutch Fokker F-27 first flew,
turboprops found brief success on medium-range routes before being
replaced by pure jets.
Many regional and local-service airlines mounted turboprop engines on
some of their piston-engine aircraft, such as the Allison-powered
Convair 580 and the Rolls Royce Dart–powered Convair 600 series.
AT:401-L2-P2
The Lockheed Electra II featured a lounge in the rear of the
cabin, as shown in this Pacific Southwest Airlines postcard.
AT:401-L3-P3
Lockheed produced the first U.S. turboprop-powered aircraft,
the L-188 Electra II. American Airlines began flying them in
1959. However, wing failures caused by excessive vibration
resulted in several fatal accidents and flight restrictions.
Lockheed solved the problem, but sales plunged. By the time
Electras returned to full service, jetliners had superseded
them.
AT:401-L4-P4
A prominent presence in the Mid-Atlantic and Midwest,
Capital Airlines in 1955 became the first U.S. airline to
introduce the revolutionary Vickers Viscount turboproppowered airliner. Mismanagement and the expense of
acquiring the British airliner forced Capital to sell out to
United in 1961.
AT:401-L5-P5
The most widely sold turboprop airliner in history, the Fokker
F-27 Friendship first entered service in 1958 when it began
flying with West Coast Airlines.
November 15, 2007, page 3
AT:401-L6-P6
West Coast Airlines advertised their new F-27s on their 1958
timetables.
AT:401-L7-A7
Rolls-Royce Dart
Artifact: Engine
First introduced in 1948, the Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop
combined the power of jet propulsion with the efficiency of
propellers. It was widely used in the first generation of
turboprop-powered aircraft, including the British Vickers
Viscount and the Dutch Fokker F-27. The Dart enabled these
and other new airliners to lower airline operating costs and
bring greater speed and comfort to passengers traveling on
short-to-medium length routes.
NASM-6782, 1982-0071
Gift of Rolls-Royce Ltd.
Type:
Turboprop, 2-stage centrifugal flow
compressor, 7 combustion chambers, 3-stage
axial flow turbine
1,815 ehp at 15,000 rpm
567 kg (1,250 lb)
Power:
Weight:
Specific fuel
consumption: 0.317 kg/ehp/hr (0.700 lb/ehp/hr)
Manufacturer: Rolls-Royce Ltd., Derby, England, ca. 1970
AT:401-L8
Jet versus piston interactive
AT:401-L9
Jet versus piston interactive
Piston engines have many parts moving in alternating
directions, which produces vibrations and wear.
Jet engines have fewer moving parts than piston engines, so
they are more reliable and less costly to operate.
November 15, 2007, page 4
AT:402-L1 Upright panel 410a
The First Generation of Jet Airliners
Jet passenger service began in the United States in the late 1950s
with the introduction of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airliners.
Pan American introduced overseas flights on 707s in October 1958.
National Airlines soon began domestic jet service using a 707 borrowed
from Pan Am. American Airlines opened domestic jet service with its
own 707s in January 1959. Delta and United began flying DC-8s later
that year.
British de Havilland D.H. 106 Comets and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104s had
entered service earlier. But 707s and DC-8s were bigger, faster, had
greater range, and proved more profitable.
AT:402-L2
“new way to a magic world of travel”
—Pan Am Jet Clipper brochure
AT:402-L3-P3
The first jet service by any U.S. airline began on October 26,
1958, when this Pan American World Airways Boeing 707,
the Clipper America, left New York for Paris.
AT:402-L4-P4
Continental proudly announced the opening of its first jet
service in 1959 with this colorful brochure, which detailed all
the advantages of its Golden Jet service.
AT:402-L5-P5
With the Boeing 707, Pan American ushered in the Jet Age in
1958. However, its flight attendants still wore conservative
military style uniforms.
AT:402-L6-P6
The excellent Douglas DC-8 competed directly against the
707.
Rolls-Royce plc
November 15, 2007, page 5
AT:402-L7 Rail panel 410b and artifact case 4.1
The Advantages of Jets
Jet engines have far fewer moving parts than piston engines, so
they are more reliable, safer, and less costly to operate. They burn
kerosene, which is less expensive than gasoline, and produce
tremendous thrust for their weight. Therefore jet aircraft can be
made larger and can fly faster than piston-engine aircraft.
AT:402-L8-P8
Boeing’s 707 was designed for transcontinental or one-stop
transatlantic range. But modified with extra fuel tanks and
more efficient turbofan engines, 707-300s could fly nonstop
across the Atlantic. Boeing built 855 707s.
 The Boeing Company
AT:402-L9-P9a,b
The prototype for the Boeing 707, the “Dash 80” resides at the
Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
 The Boeing Company
AT:402-L10-P10
The Douglas DC-8 was designed to replace the piston-engine
DC-7 on long-distance routes. The rugged aircraft’s adaptable
design allowed the production of several versions with
extended fuselages. The longest could carry 269 passengers.
Douglas built 556 DC-8s.
AT:402-L11
A Little Means a Lot
Family label
This line is 4 inches (about 10 centimeters) long. Pan Am
insisted that Boeing make the 707 this much wider—which
enabled the airline to add one more seat to every row.
AT:402-L12
“Fuselage” Is French…
Family label
It comes from the word fuselé (fyoo-zeh-LAY), meaning
“spindle-shaped,” which aptly describes what a fuselage is—
the body of an airplane.
November 15, 2007, page 6
Artifact case 4.1
AT:402-L13-M13
Boeing 707
Model
The 707 evolved from the 367-80, or “Dash 80,” the prototype
for the U.S. Air Force’s KC-135 tanker. At Pan Am’s
insistence, the 707 was made 10 centimeters (4 inches) wider
so it could carry 160 passengers in six-across seating.
A19772779000
Gift of Trans World Airlines
AT:402-L14-M14
Douglas DC-8
Model
The first three series of DC-8s were powered by Pratt &
Whitney JT3C or JT4A turbojets. More efficient JT3D
turbofans powered the Series 50 and 60. Over 100 aircraft
were re-engined in the 1980s as DC-8-70s with highly
efficient CFM56 high-bypass turbofan engines.
A19761276000
Gift of Braniff International Airways
AT:402-L15-A15
Artifact: Engine (scale model)
NASM-1564, 1966-0009
Pratt & Whitney JT3
1/4th scale
The JT3 revolutionized air transportation when it entered
service on the Boeing 707 in 1958. The new turbojet engine
was a commercial version of the U.S. Air Force’s J53,
introduced in 1950.
In the early 1960s, the JT3 was modified into a low-bypass
turbofan—the JT3D. The first three compressor stages were
replaced with two fan stages, which extended beyond the
compressor casing to act like propellers. The resulting
increase in airflow lowered fuel consumption, noise, and
emissions. JT3Ds became widely used, especially on longrange Boeing 707-300s and Douglas DC-8s.
Gift of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Division,
United Technologies Corporation
November 15, 2007, page 7
AT:402-L16 Rail panel 410c and artifact case 4.2
Coast to Coast by Jet
American Airlines set a new speed mark when it opened the first
regularly scheduled transcontinental jet service in 1959.
Subsequent nonstop flights between New York and San Francisco
took only 5 hours—3 hours less than by the piston-engine DC-7.
The one-way fare, including a $10 surcharge for jet service, was
$115.50, or $231 round trip—almost 25 percent cheaper than
flying by piston-engine airliners.
AT:402-L17-P17
In the early 1960s, new aircraft brought the comfort, speed,
and efficiency of jet travel to short- and medium-distance
routes. The pioneering design of the French Sud Aviation
Caravelle (shown here) with its two rear-mounted jets, gave
rise to the Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 727.
AT:402-L18-P18
American promoted its new transcontinental jet service in its
timetables for 1959.
AT:402-L19-P19
To compete with the short-range British BAC 111, which was
winning sales in the United States, Douglas produced the
DC-9 in 1965. With the low operating costs of its rearmounted twin-engine design and two-crew configuration, the
DC-9 in its many versions sold extremely well.
AT:402-L20-P20
Modeled after the British de Havilland Trident, with its
distinctive “T” tail and rear-mounted engines, the Boeing 727
was designed to fly on shorter routes and from smaller
airports than the larger 707.
 The Boeing Company
AT:402-L21-P21
The 727 Series 200 had three Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan
engines and could carry as many passengers—189—as the
707. It was the first Boeing aircraft with triple-slotted flaps,
completely powered controls, self-contained aft-mounted
stairs, and an auxiliary power unit to replace ground starting
equipment.
 The Boeing Company
November 15, 2007, page 8
Artifact case 4.2
AT:402-L22-M22
Boeing 727
Model
A19830257000
Found in collection
Boeing delivered the first 727 to Eastern Airlines in 1964.
When production ended in 1983, Boeing had built 1,831 727s,
a jet airliner production record at that time.
AT:402-L23-M23
Douglas DC-9
Model
Airlines have ordered more than 2,200 DC-9s and the
advanced MD-80 and MD-90 versions for short- and mediumdistance routes.
A19780166000
Gift of Allegheny Airlines
November 15, 2007, page 9
AT:403-L1 Upright panel 420
Air Travel in a Changing America
Sweeping cultural changes in the 1960s and 1970s reshaped the
airline industry. More people began to fly, and air travel became
less exclusive.
By the beginning of the 1960s, America was undergoing rapid social
change. The nation was becoming increasingly homogeneous. Retail
franchises were eliminating distinctive regional characteristics.
Television reached into most homes.
The automobile was transforming cities, and suburbs were consuming
huge expanses of rural land. The interstate highway system was
spreading across the nation, and a growing web of jetliner routes linked
the country. Traveling from coast to coast now took as little as five
hours.
AT:403-L2
Who Flew?
Between 1955 and 1972, passenger numbers more than
quadrupled. By 1972 almost half of all Americans had flown,
although most passengers were still business travelers. A small
percentage became repeat travelers, or “frequent flyers.”
“Jetting” across the Atlantic briefly became highly fashionable and
prestigious, and a new breed of travelers—the “Jet Set”—emerged.
But falling fares in the 1970s allowed many more people to fly and
undermined the exclusivity of jet travel.
AT:403-L3-P3
Passengers checking in at the Eastern Air Lines counter, 1949.
AT:403-L4-P4
The heavily crowded ticketing area of the main passenger
terminal at Washington National Airport, late 1960s.
November 15, 2007, page 10
AT:403-L5-P5
Flying Art
Family label
In the early 1970s, to promote travel to South America,
Braniff Airlines hired American artist Alexander Calder to
create a flying work of art. He first experimented on scale
airplane models before painting his final design on a jetliner.
Calder favored bright colors, especially yellow, orange, red,
and blue. He used paint specially made to withstand high
speed, high altitude, and weather.
This photo shows Calder painting one of the engine covers.
Can you find this part in the photo at the top?
AT:403-L6-P6a,b
What’s the Difference?
Family label
What do you notice about these two photos? What do they say
about changes in air travel?
November 15, 2007, page 11
AT:404-L1 Upright panel 421, mannequin case 1 (4.3)
Changing Styles
Airlines were not allowed to set their own air fares, so they used
in-flight amenities and even stylish uniforms to attract passengers.
The growing popularity of air travel provoked fierce competition for
passengers. Because air fares were government regulated, airlines
resorted to attracting passengers, especially businessmen, with such
amenities as better food, drinks, and movies.
Flight attendant uniforms evolved from conservative and military in
appearance to colorful and stylish, reflecting the changing social
attitudes of the 1960s. To appeal to the male majority of travelers,
airlines introduced miniskirts and hot pants, to the dismay of many
flight attendants.
AT:404-L2
“When a tired businessman gets on an airplane, we think he
ought to be allowed to look at a pretty girl.”
—Mary Wells, mastermind behind Braniff ad campaign,
quoted in Business Week, 1967
AT:404-L3-P3
Before deregulation airlines such as Southwest issued
revealing uniforms featuring “hot pants” and miniskirts to
attract the businessman traveler.
Alan Bond/Hulton Archive, Gerry Images
AT:404-L4-P4
With the advent of large jets, movies became an increasingly
popular way to entertain passengers on long-distance flights.
United Airlines
AT:404-L5-P5
In 1968, United hired noted fashion designer Jean Louis to
create a stylish line of flight attendant uniforms.
November 15, 2007, page 12
AT:404-L6-P6a,b
Innovative advertising executive Mary Wells transformed
Braniff Airways’ image in the mid-1960s through a campaign
announcing the “End of the Plain Plane.” As part of this
change, Braniff broke with tradition and introduced brightly
colored aircraft as well as imaginative new uniforms created
by famed fashion designer Emilio Pucci. The plastic bubble
helmet, to protect hairdos on windy tarmacs, was an integral
part of the Pucci-designed uniforms.
Braniff Collection, University of Texas at Dallas
Mannequin case 1 (4.3)
AT:404-L7-A7
Artifact: Uniform
Stewardess
Braniff Airways, 1965
One of the first airlines to adopt new styles, Braniff Airways
hired noted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to create a new line
of flight attendant uniforms. Pucci designed several outfits
with bold, brash colors, including this uniform worn by
Patricia Cunnington in the mid-1960s.
Gift of Patricia Cunnington
AT:404-L8-A8
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5131, 1975-0813
Stewardess
Northeast Airlines, 1968
Northeast Airlines introduced this loud and revealing lime
green hot pants uniform in 1968. Other airlines resorted to
similar styles to attract male passengers, as businessmen still
accounted for the majority of airline travelers.
Gift of Corine Lobato
AT:404-L9-A9
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-7700, 1988-0527
Stewardess
Air California, 1960s
Air California introduced Mexican-inspired designs that were
meant to reflect California’s Spanish heritage, but which also
incorporated 1960s fashions. Thus, flight attendants ended up
wearing sombreros and capes along with miniskirts and go-go
boots.
Gift of Air California through Nancy Matsui
November 15, 2007, page 13
AT:404-L10-A10
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5496, 1976/1499-1503
Captain
TWA, 1960s
Unlike uniforms for women, those worn by male flight crew
members remained essentially unchanged during the 1960s.
This typically conservative uniform was worn by Trans World
Airlines Capt. George Duvall, who flew Pope Paul VI during
the Pontiff’s visit to the United States in 1965.
Gift of Clipped Wings International
November 15, 2007, page 14
AT:405-L1 Rail panel 431
Aviation Technology
Innovations in engines and other aspects of aeronautical technology
have made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel and cost efficient.
AT:405-L2-P2 Rail 431 and 450
High-Bypass Turbofan Engines
High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine
that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more
efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines.
Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, highbypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline
industry by helping to lower operating costs and, therefore, fares.
Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body
airliners, the most widely used type in service.
Brooke Watts, The Braniff Pages
AT:405-L3-A3
Rolls-Royce RB.211
Artifact: Engine
This high-bypass turbofan engine and its Trent derivatives are
widely used on Boeing and Airbus airliners. Its unique “threespool” construction incorporates one more compressor stage
than two-spool designs. While more complex, the three-spool
design can produce greater thrust with lower fuel consumption
and emissions. The RB.211 was first installed on Lockheed’s
L-1011 TriStar.
NASM-6782, 1982-0072
Gift of Rolls-Royce Limited
Type:
Takeoff thrust:
Bypass ratio:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Three-shaft axial turbofan, 1-stage fan, 7stage intermediate-pressure compressor, 6stage high-pressure compressor, 1-stage
high-pressure turbine, 1-stage intermediatepressure turbine, 3-stage low-pressure
turbine
19,091 kg (42,000 lb)
5:1
3,267 kg (7,203 lb)
Rolls-Royce Limited, Derby, England
November 15, 2007, page 15
AT:405-L4 Rail panel 431
NASA and the Jet Age
NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) has created several
revolutionary aeronautical technologies that have made air travel
safer, more efficient, and less expensive. Today’s generation of
highly productive airliners has directly benefited from NASA’s
pioneering research.
Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb (left) led the development of several key
technologies: area rule in the 1950s and ’60s, supercritical wings in
the 1970s, and winglets in the 1970s and ’80s. All help reduce
aerodynamic drag and therefore increase fuel efficiency and range.
AT:405-L5-P5
Winglets—small vertical fins on wingtips—reduce the
strength of wingtip vortices (air swirling off the ends of the
wings). Most airliners feature some type of winglet to help
decrease drag.
AT:405-L6-P6
A supercritical wing delays the formation and reduces the size
of shock waves over the wing at transonic speeds (just below
and above the speed of sound), the speeds at which most
jetliners fly. All new large jetliners now feature this highly
efficient, drag-reducing wing design.
AT:405-L7-P7
Creating a more consistent total cross section—by narrowing
an aircraft’s fuselage where the wings join the body, for
example—reduces drag at high speeds. This concept, called
area rule, was first applied to jet fighters (producing their
distinctive “Coke-bottle” shape) and later to such airliners as
the Boeing 747, Douglas DC-8, McDonnell Douglas DC-10,
and Concorde.
AT:405-L8-P8
The Convair 990 used NASA-designed antishock bodies, or
“speed pods,” on each wing to reduce drag at high subsonic
speeds. The pods used area rule to improve the aircraft’s
performance and to allow the 990 to cruise at Mach .91, just
below the speed of sound.
November 15, 2007, page 16
AT:405-L9 Rail panel 431
Air Travel and Safety
Airline travel is the safest form of transportation. More people die
in auto accidents in three months in the United States than have
lost their lives in the entire history of commercial flight. It is far
safer to fly than it is to get to the airport.
Because air travel is so safe and accidents so rare, when an
incident occurs it is often highly publicized, which heightens the
unwarranted perception of danger.
AT:405-L10-A10
Safety Equipment
Artifacts: Passenger oxygen masks
Since the advent of high-altitude pressurized airliners in the
early 1940s, airliners have featured oxygen masks as well as
evacuation slides and rafts to aid passengers and crew in
emergencies.
AT:405-L11-P11
A Continental flight attendant demonstrates the proper use of
an emergency oxygen mask.
AT:405-L12-P12a,b,c
Continental Airlines
November 15, 2007, page 17
AT:406-L1 Rail panel 422
The Era of Wide-Body Airliners
A new generation of huge, fuel-efficient airliners that could
accommodate hundreds of passengers helped further drive down
the cost of flying.
Pan American and Boeing again opened a new era in commercial
aviation when the first Boeing 747 entered service in January 1970.
Powered by four efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the huge
aircraft could seat up to 400 passengers (later versions even more) and
had lower operating costs than other airliners at the time.
Other wide-body designs soon followed, such as the three-engine
McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and the twinengine Airbus A300.
AT:406-L2
“The Boeing 747 is so big that it has been said that it does not
fly; the earth merely drops out from under it.”
—Capt. Ned Wilson, Pan Am
AT:406-L3-P3
The Boeing 747 revolutionized air travel by making flying
more affordable. Its high-bypass turbofan engines and
immense seating capacity gave the 747 the lowest seat-mile
costs in the industry. The 747 quickly became the airliner of
choice for long-range service.
© The Boeing Company
AT:406-L4-P4
The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 answered the need for an
airplane that was smaller than the huge 747 but could seat 250
to 360 passengers. American and United began flying them in
1971.
© The Boeing Company
November 15, 2007, page 18
AT:406-L5-P5
Airbus, a consortium of European aerospace manufacturers,
designed the 300-seat, wide-body A300 for short- to mediumrange routes. The first one flew in 1972. Airbus developed a
wide range of technically advanced aircraft, and by the 1990s
it had become a serious rival to Boeing.
AT:406-L6-P6
The graceful, technologically advanced Lockheed L-1011
TriStar entered service with Eastern Airlines in 1972. To
demonstrate its excellent design and engineering, a TriStar
made the first fully automatic transcontinental flight. But
because of financial problems, the L-1011 marked the end of
Lockheed’s role in the commercial aircraft market.
AT:406-L7 Rail panel 422
Supersonic Dead End
The future of commercial aviation appeared to be the supersonic
transport (SST), an airliner that could fly faster than sound. U.S.
advocates hoped to build a larger and faster SST to compete with
the British and French Concorde and the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144.
But concerns about huge development and operational costs, high
fuel consumption, drastically high fares, and sonic booms and
other environmental issues proved insurmountable. U.S. airlines
placed no orders for Boeing’s 2707 SST, Congress withdrew
support, and the project died.
AT:406-L8-P8
Introduced in 1976, the Concorde was the first and only
operational supersonic transport. It could carry 100 passengers
across the Atlantic in less than four hours, but its airfares were
extremely expensive. All 14 Concordes that went into service
were purchased by the British and French governments for
their national airlines. Concordes stopped flying in 2003.
AT:406-L9-P9
The first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de
Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and New York City now resides at
the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
AT:406-L10-P10
Braniff Airways briefly flew the Concorde in 1979–80 by
temporarily purchasing an aircraft from British Airways or
Air France for the duration of each flight. But flying
subsonically between Washington, D.C., and Dallas–Fort
Worth by Concorde proved more expensive and no faster than
by conventional jetliners. This photo is an artist’s impression,
as the Concorde never flew in Braniff colors.
November 15, 2007, page 19
AT:407-L1 Mannequin case 2 (4.4)
Social Change in the Airline Industry
The dramatic social and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s
profoundly affected commercial aviation. Barriers against the
widespread participation of women and minorities began to fall, and
airlines began to hire women and African Americans as pilots.
AT:407-L2-A2
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-5504, 1976-1529/1534
First Officer
Frontier Airlines, 1973
Emily Howell broke through the gender barrier to become the
first American woman to fly routinely for a scheduled U.S.
commercial airline. An experienced pilot when regional
carrier Frontier Airlines hired her as a second officer in 1973,
Howell soon advanced to first officer (co-pilot) and then to
captain.
Gift of Emily Howell through Frontier Airlines
AT:407-L3-A3
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-8186, 1996-0512/0515
Maternity Uniform
United Airlines, 1990s
In the early 1990s, United became the first airline to issue an
official maternity uniform for its female pilots. By then the
industry and the traveling public had accepted that all
qualified people, regardless of race or gender, could pilot an
airliner. Capt. Cynthia Berkeley wore this uniform.
Gift of Capt. Cynthia Berkeley and United Airlines
AT:407-L4-A4
Artifact: Uniform
First Officer
American Airlines, 1973
Bonnie Tiburzi became the first American woman to fly for a
major carrier when she was hired by American Airlines in
1973.
Gift of Bonnie Tiburzi Caputo
November 15, 2007, page 20
AT:408-L1 Rail panel 440a
Deregulation: A Watershed Event
In 1978, Congress passed a law allowing airlines to set their own
fares and routes, an event that transformed the industry and the
passenger experience.
Regulation by the federal government had enabled airlines to prosper,
but it also kept fares high and prevented airlines from operating as
efficiently as possible. Many thought the Civil Aeronautics Board,
which regulated aviation, had outlived its usefulness.
Congressional investigators compared fares of regulated airlines flying
between states with fares of unregulated airlines flying within states.
They found that unregulated airlines charged far lower fares. Sweeping
change was needed, and Congress took action.
AT:408-L2
“I really don’t know one plane from the other. To me they are
all just marginal costs with wings.”
—Alfred Kahn, airline economist
AT:408-L3
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978
Passed with bipartisan support, the Airline Deregulation Act
phased out the Civil Aeronautics Board and immediately lifted
restrictions on fares and access to routes. Airlines could now fly
where they wanted and charge what the market would bear.
Established airlines rushed to gain or preserve access to the most
lucrative routes. New airlines quickly formed. Fierce competition
resulted and drove fares down. Passengers flocked to airports in
record numbers.
November 15, 2007, page 21
AT:408-L4-P4
Cornell University economist Alfred E. Kahn was among the
first to view the airline industry strictly as a business. He
believed that breaking up the industry structure would create
new airlines, increase competition, and lower fares. President
Carter appointed him chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board
to lead the nation into airline deregulation.
AT:408-L5-P5
Most airlines strongly opposed deregulation and encouraged
their employees to lobby against its passage. Their fears of a
destabilized industry were well founded.
Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum
AT:408-L6-P6
President Jimmy Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act
into law on October 24, 1978, the first time in U.S. history
that an industry was deregulated.
AT:408-L7-P7
The Hub-and-Spoke System
Deregulation lifted restrictions on where airlines could fly. To
increase their efficiency, airlines adopted the hub-and-spoke
system—using a few major airports as central connecting points.
This strategy maximized aircraft use, increased passenger loads,
and kept more aircraft flying. But it also increased airport and air
traffic congestion and eliminated many convenient nonstop flights.
And if one airline dominated a hub, the lack of competition often
led to higher fares.
Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum
AT:408-L8-P8
Hubs and Spokes
Family label
A “hub” is a central airport with flights paths radiating from it
like spokes on a bicycle wheel. In a hub-and-spoke airline
system, most flights connect through a few hub airports. How
might a backup at one hub affect travelers all over the
country?
November 15, 2007, page 22
AT:409-L1 Rail panel 440b
The Flying Experience Today
The wide-open competition among airlines made possible by
deregulation, along with the computer revolution and stricter
security measures, have transformed the flying experience.
Since deregulation, travelers have benefited from low fares and more
frequent service on heavily traveled routes; on other routes, fares have
risen. But in exchange for low fares, passengers have had to sacrifice
convenience and amenities.
Computer technology, in particular the Internet, has revolutionized how
people plan trips, buy tickets, and obtain boarding passes. Heightened
security, especially since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001,
has made the airport experience more restrictive and time-consuming.
AT:409-L2-P2
To offer low air fares, airlines have had to cut costs in other
ways, often by reducing, eliminating, or charging for
amenities that air travelers once took for granted.
AT:409-L3-P3
Home access to airline reservation systems via the Internet
and the shift to electronic ticketing have increasingly made
booking flights and checking in a do-it-yourself experience.
AT:409-L4-P4
Hundreds of millions of passengers now fly each year in the
United States. But that popularity has also brought crowded
airplanes and congested airports and has dulled the luster air
travel once had.
Port of Seattle
AT:409-L5-P5
A rash of airliner hijackings in the 1960s began the trend
toward increasingly tight security measures at airports. The
terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, raised security to
levels never before seen in America. Access to boarding
areas, once open to anyone carrying virtually anything, is now
tightly restricted, and every passenger is carefully screened.
November 15, 2007, page 23
AT:410-L1 Back wall labels
Then and Now
Flying has changed in countless ways since the 1960s and ’70s: how
you buy a ticket, what kind of luggage you bring, where you say
goodbye at the airport, how you board your plane, what you eat during
flight, and who is sitting next to you—to name just a few.
AT:410-L2-P2
They didn’t call it luggage for nothing….
Then
AT:410-L3-P3
Flying was an occasion that called for a suit or a dress.
Then
AT:410-L4-P4
Then
AT:410-L5-P5
You walked across the tarmac to board your plane—rain or
shine.
Then
No bargain fares, but you could purchase your ticket minutes
before your flight.
AT:410-L6-P6
Stewardesses, in fashionable attire, were at your service.
Then
AT:410-L7-P7
Then
You could stretch your legs and enjoy a free meal served on
china and with silverware.
AT:410-L8-P8
Your carry-ons and clothing are carefully scrutinized.
Now
AT:410-L9-P9
Air travel is a commonplace and casual affair.
Now
AT:410-L10-P10
Now
Patience is critical—so is getting to the airport well ahead of
your flight time.
AT:410-L11-P11
Security is paramount; pilots fly behind locked doors.
Now
November 15, 2007, page 24
AT:410-L12-P12
Ticketed passengers only….
Now
AT:410-L13-P13
Now
AT:410-L14-P14
Now
Remember how you used to complain about that free airline
food?
A long wait for your computer-processed, security-screened
baggage often concludes your trip.
November 15, 2007, page 25
AT:411-L1 Rail panel 443
New and Expanding Airlines
Deregulation spurred the creation of dozens of new airlines and
prompted many smaller airlines to expand.
With deregulation, PeoplExpress, Presidential, New York Air, and other
new airlines arose. Local and regional airlines—Air Florida, Frontier,
Ozark—tried to expand nationally. Eastern, Braniff, Delta, Continental,
Western, and Northwest extended their networks to compete with the
largest carriers. Some intrastate airlines, including Pacific Southwest,
Air California, and Southwest, expanded too.
Faced with all this new competition, established airlines tried to lure
passengers with lower fares and curbed costs by cutting cabin service.
AT:411-L2-P2
PeoplExpress epitomized the new airlines when it began
flying in 1981. It made the underused Newark, New Jersey,
airport its hub. By eliminating in-flight services and
maximizing employee productivity, it offered very low fares.
It instantly became popular, especially with budget travelers.
Bob Gerrard
AT:411-L3-P3
New York Air offered low-cost shuttle service in the East
between Washington, New York, and Boston. The nonunion
airline flew bright red McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and MD-80
airliners.
November 15, 2007, page 26
AT:411-L4
Regional Airlines
Since deregulation in 1978, small regional airlines have grown
dramatically. Regional airlines, which include commuter airlines,
serve small cities in local geographic areas and provide substantial
passenger traffic to the large national airlines. Today, regionals
carry more than 20 percent of the nation’s airline passengers and
operate large fleets of small, fuel-efficient, jet-powered aircraft.
Most regional airlines are either owned by or under contract to the
major carriers. Through operating agreements, or code sharing,
regionals carry traffic between small cities and major airline hub
airports, thereby generating substantial traffic for the national
carriers.
AT:411-L5-P5
Formerly known as de Havilland Canada Dash 8s, the
turboprop airliners of the Bombardier Q Series are designed
for the rigors of daily flights and are capable of short takeoff
and landing (STOL) operations. These versatile aircraft seat
40 to 78 passengers.
AT:411-L6
Regional Jets
Responding to passenger preferences for pure jet aircraft, regional
airlines rushed to buy a new generation of airliners powered by
small, highly efficient turbofan jet engines.
AT:411-L7-P7
Derived from the Canadair Challenger business jet, the
Bombardier CRJ revolutionized regional airline service when
it entered service in 1992. The first pure jet regional airliner,
the CRJ series quickly won the acceptance of passengers and
airlines alike. CRJs can seat 50 to 90 passengers.
AT:411-L8-P8
Embraer introduced its ERJ 145 series of regional jets in
1996. Based on the Brasilia fuselage, the ERJ 145 family
consists of four aircraft with seating ranging from 37 (ERJ
135) to 50 (ERJ 145). Seating on the larger E-Jet series ranges
from 70 (ERJ 170) to 118 (ERJ 195). Shown here is an
American Eagle ERJ 140.
AT:411-L9-P9
A United Express ERJ 170.
November 15, 2007, page 27
AT:411-L10 Panel and mannequin case 3 (4.5)
From Stewardess to Flight Attendant
Reflecting the social changes of the 1960s and ’70s, the term
“stewardess” evolved into gender-neutral “flight attendant.”
Conservative uniform styles reappeared due to new laws that
prohibited discrimination in hiring based on age, appearance, and
gender. Men now returned to the profession as well. Free to
compete by offering low fares, frequent service, and more routes,
airlines no longer felt the need to hire only attractive young women
to appeal to male passengers.
AT:411-L11-P11a,b
Stylish yet functional uniforms heighten the sense of
professionalism of the cabin crew.
Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum
AT:411-L12-P12
By 1980, United Airlines uniforms had returned to a more
conservative style.
AT:411-L13-P13
Comfortable uniforms designed for functionality rather than
marketing enhance employee productivity.
AT:411-L14-P14
Business style uniforms returned to the skies following
deregulation.
Getty Images
AT:411-L15-A15
Artifact: Uniform
Flight Manager
PeoplExpress, 1980s
To cut costs and encourage efficiency, PeoplExpress made
every owner-employee a “manager.” By eliminating
traditional barriers to productivity and easing formalities, the
company hoped employees would serve their customers
better. This strategy raised morale but caused confusion and
actually hurt productivity.
This simple uniform, worn by pilot Mike Petrasko, was
identical to that of other managers. It sports no “wings”
typically found on pilot uniforms. The FAA eventually made
PeoplExpress adopt more conventional uniforms to make
flight crew more identifiable to passengers.
Gift of Mike Petrasko
November 15, 2007, page 28
AT:411-L16-A16
Artifact: Uniform
Flight Attendant
New York Air, circa 1983
NASM-7672
A9880296000
Gift of Darlene Stafford
AT:411-L17-A17
Flight Attendant
Republic Airlines, 1986
Artifact: Uniform
1988/0256-0271
Republic Airlines was formed by the merger of North Central
Airlines and Southern Airways in 1979. It quickly grew into a
nationwide carrier after purchasing Hughes Air West in 1980,
but was in turn absorbed by Northwest Airlines in 1986.
Flight attendant Mary Ellen Lipnitz wore this uniform.
Gift of Mary Ellen Lipnitz
AT:411-L18-A18
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-7855, 1990-0322
Flight Attendant
Piedmont Airlines, 1989
Established in North Carolina in 1948, Piedmont was a
popular Southern and Mid-Atlantic regional airline noted for
its excellent service and “southern hospitality.” It merged with
USAir in 1989. This was the last style of uniform worn by
Piedmont flight attendants.
Gift of Victoria McLaughlin
AT:411-L19-A19
PeoplExpress Conference Room Sign
Artifact: Sign
Found in collection
This hand-made sign reflects the low-cost approach of
PeoplExpress.
AT:411-L20-A20
The Flying Nosh
Artifact: NY Air objects
Reflecting New York Air’s regional culture, in-flight snacks
were referred to as noshes and served in bags such as this.
Gift of Charles Wolfe
November 15, 2007, page 29
AT:412-L1 Rail panel 445
Survival of the Fittest
Deregulation gave airlines the freedom to compete, but they were
now also free to fail—and many did.
For two years after deregulation, airlines enjoyed widespread success.
But when recession hit in the early 1980s, compounded by an air traffic
controllers strike in 1981, the industry began to suffer losses.
Many airlines had over-expanded and found themselves desperately
fighting for a share of a decreasing market. Large, well-managed, wellfinanced airlines, such as American, United, and Delta, weathered the
storm during the 1980s. But Braniff, Eastern, and many others could not
and were forced into bankruptcy and extinction.
AT:412-L2
Cost-Cutting
Struggling to survive, airlines cut wages and benefits, but this
strategy resulted in strikes and lower productivity. Operations were
streamlined and thousands of employees laid off. Some feared
these efforts would compromise safety, especially if necessary
maintenance was deferred to save money, but these fears proved
groundless.
AT:412-L3-P3
Merger mania swept through the industry. By the late 1980s,
such old names as National, Western, Piedmont, Ozark,
Pacific Southwest, and Air Cal were gone. So were most of
the new airlines, including PeoplExpress and New York Air.
November 15, 2007, page 30
AT:412-L4 Rail panel 445
The Demise of Pan American
Pan Am’s level of service faltered in the 1970s, and the airline
began to lose passengers. To gain a domestic network, it bought
National Airlines in 1980, but the merger proved costly. The
airline began selling its assets, including its lucrative Pacific routes
and the famous Pan Am Building in New York.
The bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, in
1988 dealt a further blow. America’s leading international carrier
since 1928, Pan American ceased flying in December 1991.
AT:412-L5-P5
Pan Am had hoped to resuscitate its transatlantic business
with the efficient Airbus A310 airliner.
AT:412-L6 Rail panel 445 and mannequin case 4 (4.6)
Southwest Airlines
Southwest began as a small carrier flying between Houston and
Dallas. Under Herb Kelleher’s innovative management, it quickly
grew into one of America’s largest, most efficient, and most
profitable airlines.
Emphasizing “no frills” cabin service, and using only Boeing 737s
to minimize costs, Southwest pioneered direct service between
underserved downtown airports in large metropolitan areas and
smaller cities. To sidestep competition, it moved into satellite
airports of major cities. Southwest became a model for a new
generation of airlines.
AT:412-L7
“We never tried to be like other airlines.”
—Herb Kelleher, founder and chairman of Southwest Airlines
AT:412-L8-P8a,b,c
Passengers have benefited from Southwest’s success. Its entry
into a new market dramatically lowers its competitors’ fares—
the so-called “Southwest effect.”
Southwest Airlines
November 15, 2007, page 31
AT:412-L9-A9
Captain
Southwest Airlines, 2000
Artifact: Uniform
Symbolic of Southwest Airlines’ casual efficiency, airline
employees dress in comfortable clothes, a strategy meant to
reduce fatigue, improve morale, and promote higher
productivity. Southwest was the first airline to issue militarystyle leather flight jackets to its pilots.
Gift of Southwest Airlines
AT:412-L10-A10
Boarding Passes
Artifact: Boarding passes
One way Southwest cut costs was by issuing reusable plastic
boarding passes and eliminating assigned seating. The passes
were sequentially numbered; passengers boarded in groups in
the order in which they checked in. This encouraged early
arrivals and speeded up seating, thus allowing Southwest to
return an aircraft to service quickly.
Gift of Southwest Airlines
AT:412-L11 Mannequin case 4 (4.6)
The Death of Eastern Airlines
Eastern Airlines had risen to prominence in the East and South.
After deregulation, and under Frank Borman, it expanded west but
then had to scale back in the face of mounting economic losses.
Frank Lorenzo, who had instituted controversial labor reforms to
salvage Continental Airlines, acquired Eastern in 1986. Faced with
huge losses, he tried to force concessions from Eastern’s
mechanics. This move provoked a bitter strike, which forced
Eastern into extinction in January 1991.
AT:412-L12-A12
Eastern Airlines Sign Board
Artifact: Eastern sign board
This sign board was removed from Eastern’s last gate at
Washington’s National Airport.
Gift of Eastern Airlines
AT:412-L13-A13
Artifact: Uniform
NASM-8169, 1996-0388
Flight Attendant
Eastern Airlines, 1991
This is the last flight attendant uniform issued by Eastern
Airlines before it went out of business.
Gift of Patricia Shatz
November 15, 2007, page 32
AT:412-L14
The PATCO Strike
In August 1981, 13,000 members of the Professional Air
Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) called an illegal
strike, demanding higher wages, shorter hours, and better
retirement benefits. By paralyzing the air transportation
system during a peak travel time, PATCO hoped the federal
government would give in to their demands, as it had during
previous “sick-outs.”
To PATCO’s surprise, President Ronald Reagan fired the
controllers, who, as federal workers, were not allowed to
strike. The FAA replaced them with supervisors, military
controllers, and controllers who did not strike. Airlines flew
reduced schedules until enough controllers were on the job.
AT:412-L15-A15
PATCO Picket Sign, Cup, and Shirt
Artifacts: PATCO items
The animosity between the striking controllers and
management is reflected in the handwritten comments on the
picket sign and the images on the coffee cup and tee-shirt.
Gift of Steve Biddle
November 15, 2007, page 33
AT:413-L1
Safety Wherever You Fly
Every moment of every day, thousands of aircraft safely cross the skies
over the United States. Each is carefully watched and directed to its
destination by an interconnected system of air traffic control along well
chosen routes.
AT:413-L2-P2
Despite the severe challenges of weather—the primary reason
for flight delays—as well as airport congestion, the Federal
Aviation Administration’s professional workforce ensures that
commercial aviation remains the safest form of travel.
Satellite image of Hurricane Epsilon courtesy of the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, MODIS Rapid
Response Team, Jeff Schmaltz
AT:413-L3-P3
Severe weather causes more than 70 percent of air traffic
delays and costs the airlines billions of dollars every year.
Lightning alone causes 33 percent of these losses. Air traffic
controllers work constantly to minimize weather disruptions,
while ensuring that every flight arrives safely.
Time-lapse image of a severe storm over Norman, Oklahoma,
courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, C. Clark
AT:413-L4
Two smaller monitors
AT:413-L5
Large monitor
Program courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration Joint
Planning and Development Office
Program courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Monitor courtesy of Sharp Electronics Corporation
November 15, 2007, page 34
AT:414-L1 Rail panel 450
Aviation Technology
Innovations in engines and other aspects of aeronautical technology
have made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel and cost efficient.
AT:414-L2-P2
High-Bypass Turbofan Engines
High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine
that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more
efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines.
Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, highbypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline
industry by helping to lower operating costs and, therefore, fares.
Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body
airliners, the most widely used type in service.
Airbus S.A.S
AT:414-L3-P3
The Pratt & Whitney JT9D was the first high-bypass turbofan
engine to enter service.
Pratt & Whitney
AT:414-L4 Rail panel 450
NASA and the Jet Age
NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) has created several
revolutionary aeronautical technologies that have made air travel
safer, more efficient, and less expensive. Today’s generation of
highly productive airliners has directly benefited from NASA’s
pioneering research.
Introduced in the 1980s, digital fly-by-wire control systems and
computerized “glass cockpit” displays have made airliners more
reliable, efficient, and safe.
AT:414-L5-P5
Digital fly-by-wire control systems replace hydraulically
driven cables and pulleys with lighter-weight, computerdriven flight controls linked only by electrical wires. The
Airbus A320 (left) was the first airliner to use digital fly-bywire controls. NASA pioneered this technology on its highly
modified Vought F-8C (above).
November 15, 2007, page 35
AT:414-L6-P6
In a “glass cockpit,” digital electronic displays replace
conventional analog instruments. This technology provides
flight crews with far better instrumentation and information
than ever before.
AT:414-L7
The First “A” in NASA
Family label
NASA is usually associated with spaceflight, but its first “A”
stands for Aeronautics. NASA conducts aeronautical research
and works to improve the safety of air transportation.
Below 747 nose
AT:414-L8-A8
Grooved Concrete Runway Section
Artifact: Concrete runway section
During the 1960s, NASA developed grooved runways to
channel away water and improve traction for aircraft. By
reducing the effects of hydroplaning, grooved runways
minimize the chance of aircraft sliding off a wet runway
during landing. This proved so successful that the technology
has since been applied to highway design to improve safety.
This section of concrete runway was used for testing by
NASA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory.
Transferred from NASA
AT:414-L9-A9
General Electric CF6
Artifact: Engine
The first successful high-bypass turbofan, the General Electric
CF6 was originally built as the TF39 for the U.S. Air Force’s
giant Lockheed C-5A Galaxy transport. Its first commercial
use was on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. It has since been
installed on the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas MD-11, and
Airbus A300 and A310 wide-body aircraft.
NASM-5832, 1977-2557
Gift of GE Aircraft Engines
Type:
Takeoff thrust:
Bypass ratio:
Weight:
Manufacturer:
Two-shaft axial turbofan, 1-stage fan, 1stage low-pressure compressor, 16-stage
high-pressure compressor, 2-stage highpressure turbine, 5-stage low-pressure
turbine
18,000 kg (40,000 lb)
5.9:1
3,379 kg (7,450 lb)
GE Aircraft Engines, West Lynn, Mass.
November 15, 2007, page 36
AT:415-L1 Rail panel 450
Computer Technology
Computers have become crucial to the airline industry. They are
used to book tickets, plan flights, schedule aircraft and crew,
oversee maintenance, and set fares.
From ticket reservations to aircraft design and manufacture, computers
have helped airline operations become more efficient and flexible. The
rise of personal computers and the Internet has given passengers
complete control over booking their own flights and seat selections. The
complex and fluid airfare system that computers have made possible
enables savvy travelers to find low fares on many routes.
AT:415-L2-P2
Using the Internet, passengers can search for find the best fare
or flight, choose seats, make reservations, pay for the ticket,
and print receipts and boarding passes.
AT:415-L3-P3
Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture
(CAD/CAM) have greatly reduced the cost of producing
aircraft. Computers produce accurate drawings and can alert
designers to possible conflicts before a design is produced.
They can also manufacture parts more precisely and faster
than humans. Parts for the 747-400 (shown here) are made by
CAD/CAM. The Boeing 777 was the first airliner completely
designed on computer.
AT:415-L4-P4
Computer reservation systems have led to code sharing—
agreements between airlines that allow travelers to fly on
more than one carrier on a single ticket. Code sharing
increases and optimizes the flow of passenger through an
airline’s network. A major carrier may have code sharing
agreements with regional, commuter, and foreign airlines.
Sunil Gupta
AT:415-L5-P5
Computers speed the check-in process.
Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum
November 15, 2007, page 37
AT:415-L6-P6
In the late 1950s, American Airlines pioneered the use of a
computer reservation system, and in 1963 American installed
its Semi-Automated Business Environment, or SABRE. Other
airlines followed American’s lead and developed their own
computer reservation systems.
November 15, 2007, page 38
AT:416-L1 Rail panel 470
Air Express
Rapid transport and delivery of packages has become an important
aspect of the airline industry. Federal Express led the way.
After deregulation of the airline and trucking industries in the late
1970s, air express carriers specializing in rapid delivery of high-priority
packages rose to prominence. In 1973, Federal Express became the first
airline to operate exclusively as an express carrier. Air express airlines
now operate their own aircraft and trucks to provide overnight package
delivery.
AT:416-L2
“We started out with 8 planes and we covered something like
35 or 40 cities and we added each month.”
—Fred Smith, founder of FedEx
AT:416-L3-P3
In a paper for his Yale economics class, Fred Smith proposed
the idea of an express, door-to-door package service using a
centrally located airport hub as a nighttime sorting house.
Although his paper was not well received, Smith pursued his
vision. In 1973 he created Federal Express and used his
hometown of Memphis, Tennessee, as its hub.
AT:416-L4-P4
In the package delivery business since 1907, UPS
experimented with air express in the early 1930s. In 1953 it
began “Blue Label Air” second-day delivery through an
integrated air and ground system. In 1982 it joined the ranks
of air express airlines by introducing “Next Day Air.” The
airline’s hub is in Louisville, Kentucky.
AT:416-L5-P5
UPS routes hundreds of flights carrying thousands of
packages every day through its hub in Louisville, Kentucky.
November 15, 2007, page 39
AT:417-L1 Rail panel 470
Airline Security
Security measures to protect airliners from hijacking and terrorism
began in the 1960s and increased to unprecedented levels after
September 11, 2001.
As flying grew increasingly popular, airlines became attractive targets
for hijackers and terrorists. The hijacking of a National Airlines jet to
Havana, Cuba, in 1961 sparked a decade-long rash of similar acts. By
the late 1960s, political terrorists had attacked airliners and airports to
draw attention to their causes.
In response, the FAA placed armed sky marshals aboard airliners. In
1973 it began using metal detectors and x-ray machines to search for
weapons and explosives. Despite such measures, airlines remained
vulnerable.
AT:417-L2-P2
Combating Hijackings and Terrorism
In the 1980s, the FAA and the airlines instituted further
security measures:
•
Searching the interior of every of airliner before the first
flight each day.
•
Guarding aircraft while on the ground.
•
Inspecting the property of all maintenance and support
personnel.
•
Matching checked baggage with the names of passengers.
•
Questioning passengers to ensure they have not accepted
packages from strangers.
Port of Seattle
November 15, 2007, page 40
AT:417-L3
September 11, 2001
On September 11, terrorists hijacked four airliners and used them
to kill more than 3,000 people. Two airliners destroyed the World
Trade Center towers in New York, a third slammed into the
Pentagon near Washington, D.C., and the fourth crashed in rural
Pennsylvania after its passengers courageously fought back.
These terrorist attacks, the most deadly in U.S. history, caused
even more extensive security measures to be imposed upon
airports, airlines, and air travelers.
AT:417-L4-P4
© 2001, The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission.
AT:417-L5-P5
In response to September 11, the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) was created by the Aviation and
Transportation Security Act of November 2001. TSA soon
took over airport security and installed a new federal
workforce to screen passengers and baggage. TSA became
part of the newly formed Department of Homeland Security in
2003.
AT:417-L6-P6
Items confiscated from departing passengers at San Francisco
International Airport.
Katy Raddatz, San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis
November 15, 2007, page 41
Mannequin case 5 (4.7)
AT:418-L1-A1
Artifact: Uniform
Captain
United Parcel Service, 1998
Patrice Clarke-Washington wore this uniform while flying for
UPS, where in 1994 she became the first African American
woman to serve as a captain for a major U.S. airline.
Gift of Patrice Clarke-Washington and United Parcel Service
AT:418-L2-A2
Artifact: Uniform
Captain
US Airways, 1999
The military style of the captain’s uniform has changed little
since uniforms were introduced in the early 1930s. This one,
worn by Capt. James Webster of US Airways, is typical.
Gift of James Webster
AT:418-L3-M3
Boeing 737
Model
Introduced in 1967, the 150-seat Boeing 737 was designed to
serve short routes. After deregulation, the slow-selling aircraft
became a best-seller, thanks to its twin-engine efficiency and
low operating costs. Well over 6,000 have been sold, more
than any other jetliner.
A19761535000
Gift of Frontier Airlines
AT:418-L4-M4
Airbus A320
Model
The European company Airbus entered the market for narrowbody aircraft in the mid-1980s. The 150-seat Airbus A320
was designed to compete with Boeing’s 737. The A320
pioneered the computerized “glass cockpit” and introduced
such innovations as winglets. It was also the first civil airliner
built with digital “fly-by-wire” flight controls.
Gift of Airbus
AT:418-L5-M5
Boeing 777
Model
Introduced in 1995, the Boeing 777 is the world’s largest
twin-jet airliner. The wide-body airliner can carry up to 440
passengers and has a maximum range of 13,350 kilometers
(8,300 miles). It was designed to replace early versions of the
four-engine Boeing 747.
T20050082004
Gift of The Boeing Company
November 15, 2007, page 42
Beneath 747 nose
AT:419-L1
How Does Air Travel Affect You?
Air travel affects your life, even if you don’t fly.
Can you imagine a world without airplanes?
How does it affect you?
Explore the baggage to find out some of the many ways.
AT:419-L2
Family labels, luggage pile
Jet transportation combined with refrigeration allows people
around the world to enjoy foods that used to be available only
in certain regions. Someone in landlocked Kansas can enjoy
fresh Maine lobster, shipped live.
Where do your favorite foods come from?
Courtesy of East Coast Seafood, Inc., Lynn, Massachusetts
AT:419-L3
People in the northern hemisphere in the winter can enjoy
grapes harvested in Chile or pears from Argentina. We are no
longer limited to eating only what is “in season.”
Where do your favorite foods come from?
Courtesy of Whole Foods, Inc., and Washington’s Green
Grocer
AT:419-L4
The speed of jet travel and low airfares enable more people to
travel than ever before. Today it is not uncommon to fly
across the country for a few days of recreation, or to travel to
an exotic location for vacation.
Where do you think these people have been?
Courtesy of Blue Sky Tours Hawaii, Amanda Padilla, Ethan
Brennan, and Dennis Odom
AT:419-L5
The speed of jet travel and low airfares enable more people to
travel than ever before. Today it is not uncommon to fly
across the country for a few days of recreation, or to travel to
an exotic location for vacation.
Where do you think this person is going?
November 15, 2007, page 43
AT:419-L6
Some vacation spots, such as Walt Disney World in Orlando,
have become popular in part because they have worked with
airlines to make themselves easily accessible by air.
Have you traveled by airplane on a vacation? Where did
you go?
AT:419-L7
Today, a sports team’s biggest rival may not be the
neighboring team but one thousands of miles away.
With the coming of jet travel, major league baseball expanded
into new markets west of the Mississippi River. The New
York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers found new homes in
California.
Who is your team’s biggest rival?
Courtesy of the Washington Nationals
AT:419-L8
The speed of jet travel and low airfares have contributed to
family members living farther apart. People are more willing
to move to distant places for a new job or to attend college
because they are just a flight away from friends and family.
Do any of your family members live an airplane ride
away?
Photograph courtesy of National Air and Space Museum
intern Shannon Turner and the Woodsen and Fountain
families
AT:419-L9-P9
My family traveled from all over the country for our annual
reunion in Roanoke, VA.
AT:419-L10
Jet travel helps doctors to save lives. Donated organs can be
quickly transported over long distances to people in need of
organ transplants. The easiest organ to ship is the kidney—
more and more kidneys are donated each year.
Do you know anyone who needed to travel by airplane for
their health?
Courtesy of the Washington Regional Transplant Consortium
AT:419-L11
Although jet travel allows germs to spread faster and farther,
air travel also allows health officials to rapidly transport vials
of vaccine anywhere in the world.
Have you ever gotten sick after riding in a plane?
November 15, 2007, page 44
AT:419-L12
Jet travel helps shape politics by making it easier for our
representatives to stay in contact with the people they serve,
especially during election years. A politician’s schedule may
include stops across the country in just one day.
Have you ever met your member of Congress?
Courtesy of Boise State University, Frank Church Collection
AT:419-L13
Online shopping combined with jet travel allows you to order
items from far away right from your home computer. If you
are willing to pay the cost, you can receive them the next day.
What do you order online?
November 15, 2007, page 45
AT:420-L1 Upright panel 400b (back of one 400 intro panel)
The Computer Revolution in the Cockpit
To manage the complex technology of modern airliners, flight crews
rely on computers to fly aircraft and to monitor aircraft systems.
The first autopilots were used on airliners in the mid-1930s. In the late
1950s, electronic computers became small enough to be used aboard
aircraft. Sophisticated digital computers can now fly aircraft in virtually
any situation, while ensuring that all systems are functioning properly.
Digital technology has enhanced safety and efficiency and reduced the
flight crew’s workload.
AT:420-L2
Fly-by-Wire
“Fly-by-wire” technology translates the pilot’s actions into
electronic signals, which computers use to manipulate flight
controls. The computers constantly monitor pilot input and prevent
the aircraft from exceeding its flight envelope, thereby increasing
safety. And because fly-by-wire replaces heavy, complex
mechanical linkages with lighter electrical wires, it is more
efficient.
Invented by NASA in the 1970s and first used in fighter aircraft,
this technology was a direct spin-off from the space program,
which used fly-by-wire systems to maneuver the Apollo lunar
module.
AT:420-L3-P3
In 1972, NASA research pilot Gary Krier became the first to
fly a digital fly-by-wire aircraft when he piloted NASA’s
highly modified F-8C Crusader jet fighter.
AT:420-L4-P4
The General Dynamics (now Lockheed) F-16 Fighting Falcon
was the first production aircraft designed to fly with digital
fly-by-wire controls.
November 15, 2007, page 46
AT:420-L5-P5
The Airbus A320 revolutionized commercial aviation by
introducing digital fly-by-wire technology in civil airliners.
Featuring a glass cockpit with a unique side-stick controller to
fly the aircraft, the A320 set a new standard for safety and
efficiency. Every new airliner designed since it entered
service in 1988 has incorporated glass cockpit and fly-by-wire
technology.
AT:420-L6-A6
Airbus A320 Simulated Takeoff and Landing
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
Artifact: Simulated cockpit
Airbus A320 simulated cockpit gift of Airbus
AT:420-L7
computer interactive
Shown here is a computer-simulated takeoff and landing of an
Airbus A320 from Ronald Reagan Washington National
Airport.
Use the track ball to change your point of view.
Airbus A320 simulated cockpit gift of Airbus
AT:420-L8
Glass Cockpit
A modern airliner typically features a “glass cockpit”—
computer monitors that show flight, engine, and aircraft
performance data in easily understood displays. A set of up to
six computer monitors can replace hundreds of gauges and
switches, greatly simplifying the tasks of the flight crew.
Pioneered by NASA and the aerospace industry, the glass
cockpit was introduced in 1982 and is now the industry
standard.
Gift of Airbus
Near glass cockpit
AT:420-L9-MI9
Flight Control Then and Now
Aircraft control systems interactive
Aircraft Control systems have changed over the past 100
years. Each system has advantages and disadvantages.
•
Try out the three systems below.
•
Which would you rather fly?
November 15, 2007, page 47
AT:420-L10
Mechanical, 1920s and ’30s
A system of cables and pulleys was used to control the
airplane in flight.
Today, mechanical controls are used only on small aircraft.
Advantages:
• Simple, inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Requires frequent adjustment
• Depends solely upon the pilot’s strength to operate
AT:420-L11
Curtiss JN-4
1920s
AT:420-L12
Hydraulic Boost (1940s–1980s)
In the 1940s, aircraft became larger and faster.
Hydraulics helped pilot control the airplane.
Advantages:
• Safe
• Easier to operate
Disadvantages:
• Heavy and complex
AT:420-L13
Douglas DC-7
1950s
AT:420-L14
Digital, 1980s to Present
In “fly-by-wire” systems, as the pilot moves the controls,
computers send signals through wires to electrical motors,
which adjust the aircraft’s control surfaces.
Advantages:
• Much lighter, more reliable, and more precise
• Safer and more efficient
Disadvantages:
• Complex and costly
AT:420-L15
Airbus A-320
1990s
November 15, 2007, page 48
AT:421-L1
The Leading Edge
Air Transportation Today and Tomorrow
AT:421-L2
Monitor courtesy of Sharp Electronics Corporation
November 15, 2007, page 49
Bridge to Boeing 747
AT:422-L1
Boeing 747
Designed for Pan American to replace the 707, the giant Boeing
747 revolutionized long-distance air travel when it entered service
in 1970. Carrying 400 passengers—two and a half times more than
the 707—it offered far lower seat-mile costs. Propelled by four
powerful and efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the “Jumbo
Jet” spawned a new generation of wide-body airliners from Airbus,
Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and later Boeing.
AT:422-L2-P2
The Boeing 747 generated great public interest because of its
huge size. Airlines offered spacious legroom, piano bars, and
lounges aboard their 747s to attract passengers. These
amenities were soon replaced by revenue-producing seats.
AT:422-L3-P3
Jennings Heilig
AT:422-L4-P4
The 747’s cockpit was located well above the main cabin
floor, because the aircraft was originally designed as a cargo
transport. Pan Am suggested that passengers could sit in the
area behind the cockpit. This inspired Boeing to connect the
upper level with the main cabin by a graceful spiral staircase
similar to the one used in its 377 Stratocruiser.
© The Boeing Company
AT:422-L5
Did You Know?
Family label
The entire fleet of 747s has logged many tens of billions of
kilometers—enough to make more than 70,000 trips to the
Moon and back!
AT:422-L6
Did You Know?
Family label
The Wright brothers could have flown their first powered
flight within the 45-meter (150-foot) long economy section of
a 747-400.
November 15, 2007, page 50
AT:422-L7A7
Boeing 747-151
Artifact: 747 nose section
This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing
747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for
Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific.
It was retired in 1999.
Second of three panels
Gift of Northwest Airlines, Inc.
Wingspan:
Length:
Height:
Weight, empty:
Weight, gross:
Top speed:
Engine:
Manufacturer:
59.6 m (195 ft 8 in)
70.5 m (231 ft 4 in)
19.3 m (63 ft 5 in)
158,220 kg (348,816 lb)
333,400 kg (735,000 lb)
958 km/h (595 mph)
4 Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3, 19,730 kg
(43,500 lb) thrust
Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.
AT:422-L8
747 Superimposed Over the Museum
Family label
If the entire Boeing 747 were on display, its tail would extend
all the way back to the far wall of the Milestones of Flight
gallery.
AT:422-L9
Did You Know?
Family label
Four World War I vintage JN-4D “Jenny” airplanes could fit
on each of the Boeing 747 wings.
AT:422-L10-P10
Third of three panels
Boeing and Airbus “Jumbo Jets”
The Boeing 747 design has evolved through a series of models
with greater range or capacity. Airbus, Boeing’s chief competitor,
has responded with its own cutting-edge jet airliners.
AT:422-L11-P11
The 747-400 can carry 416 passengers and fly 13,450
kilometers (8,360 miles). It has an extended upper deck and
winglets. The fuselage of the 747-8, the latest version, is
about 5.6 meters (18 feet) longer and has engines derived
from the Boeing 787. It can carry 467 people and fly 14,800
kilometers (9,200 miles).
November 15, 2007, page 51
T:422-L12-P12
The Airbus A380, the world’s largest passenger airliner, can
carry 525 passengers on two full-length decks. Designed to
ease congestion along the world’s most heavily traveled
routes, it can fly 15,200 kilometers (9,450 miles).
AT:422-L13-P13
An Airbus A380 above the National Air and Space Museum
and the National Mall.
AT:422-L14-P14
The Airbus A350 is made mostly of composite materials and
can seat 270 to 350 passengers. It’s designed to compete with
Boeing’s 777 and 787.
AT:422-L15-P15a,b
The Boeing 787, the first airliner built mostly from strong,
lightweight composite material, may revolutionize airliner
construction. It can seat 210 to 330 passengers and can fly
direct, long-distance routes—thus avoiding crowded hub
airports.
© The Boeing Company
AT:422-L16
Did You Know?
Family label
The 747 fleet has flown 3.5 billion passengers—the equivalent
of more than half the world’s population.
November 15, 2007, page 52
Artifacts displayed in 747 nose.
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Artifact: Uniform
Captain’s Uniform
Northwest Airlines
Northwest Airlines pilots wear typical naval style uniforms
first pioneered by Pan American in the 1930s. In recognition
of Northwest’s roots as one of the earliest contract air mail
carriers, pilots wear wings patterned after the original U.S. Air
Mail badges.
Gift of Capt. Darrel F. Smith
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Artifact: Uniform
Flight Attendant’s Uniform
Northwest Airlines
This uniform was worn by Northwest Airlines flight attendant
Tami Tucker during the late 1990s.
Gift of Tami Tucker
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Boeing 747-100
Model
Braniff Airways was one of 22 customers who purchased the
initial Boeing 747-100 series aircraft.
A19761277000
November 15, 2007, page 53