Welcome Letter
Esteemed Delegates,
Welcome to the 2017 session of the North American Model United Nations conference at the
prestigious University of Toronto, in the majestic city of Toronto. NAMUN 2017 is eager to reach students
who are deeply interested in diplomacy, international relations, politics, and the United Nations itself. I
am extremely honoured to have been appointed the chair of NAMUN 2017’s United Nations Security
Council in the Global War on Terror Integrated Simulation and I look forward to an intense but exciting
three days of debate! If you do have any questions regarding the city, history, or the conference itself
please feel free to visit NAMUN’s website and Facebook page.
I want to take this time to introduce myself, my name is Julia Mogus and I am currently studying
Peace, Conflict and Justice with a minor in Indigenous Studies and Sociology at the University of Toronto.
I am very interested in studying both the nature of global terrorism and other non-state actors and the
implications it has on world peace. Particularly, I have centered my research on conceptualizing the rise
of suicide terrorism and have become particular intrigued in its implications for liberal democracies. I
promise to work hard as your chair and I hope that I can bring the same level of thrill and excitement as
I have enjoyed while competing in similar styled crisis committees.
As you may know, the Global War on Terror integrated simulation invites more than one
hundred delegates in five committees to prosecute the most important and widespread conflict of our
lifetimes. In the next ten pages or so I will provide you with the necessary background information
regarding the logistics and application of this committee’s responsibilities. I implore you bring your best
foot forward, as when sessions start you will find yourself thrust into debate over the invasion of Iraq. As
the Security Council, the international community is counting on your intelligences and strength to solve the
current dilemma. Throughout the conference you will be faced with enormous complex and multifaceted
issues regarding global terrorism and insurgency. I urge delegates to work together to develop a
comprehensive solution to impeding crisis. Now before I leave you to read remainder of this study guide I
strongly encourage all delegates to come well prepared for session and this can only happen if you
read the guide thoroughly. You may also go over further readings and key documents, which you may
find on the NAMUN website. For any further questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via
[email protected].
Sincerely,
Julia Mogus
Chair, Integrated Simulation: Global War on Terror United Nations Security Council
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................p. 4
Definitions ...............................................................................................p. 6
Historical Background ...........................................................................p. 7
Issues ........................................................................................................p. 13
State of Affairs ........................................................................................p. 14
Suggested Sources ...................................................................................p. 15
Bibliography.............................................................................................p.16
Introduction
As unrest continues to plague the country of Iraq, tensions rise between member states of
the United Nations Security Council. The date is March 13th, 2003, and with Al Qaeda’s global
insurgency posing a greater threat to the global order each day, pressure from the external
international community on the Council to take action is increasing, and the council is becoming
increasingly polarized. The Council must discuss the consequences of a potential UN authorized
intervention in Iraq and address the nuances of a plan of action if such an entrance were to occur.
Attempts, both militarily and diplomatically, must be made to tackle the enormously complex and
multifaceted issue of global terrorism and insurgency. Actions at levels of national and international
diplomacy must be taken to address the rising threats of military, political, social, and economic
disruption. From full on invasions and occupations of countries to promoting elections and
development to interdicting terrorist groups’ use of the internet and the flow of fighters, weapons
and money between states, the Council must work together to address the instability.
This committee has been afforded the opportunity to work directly several international
non-governmental organizations who have been invited as observers to the council. States are
encouraged to work with the aid of these NGOs to develop a comprehensive solution to this crisis.
Member states should identify the overlapping issues of sovereignty, peacekeeping and global
terrorism and then analyze current legal frameworks for governing Council policies. It would be
beneficial to discuss and analyze the consequences of a potential invasion and occupation of Iraq,
and the integrating of a peacebuilding plan to reduce the country’s vulnerability to non-state
terrorist organizations. Delegates must be aware of the significance of globalization on the spread
of terrorist ideologies. A greater understanding of terrorist’s objectives and as well their target of
democracies will help to develop adequate solutions to this impending crisis. States are encouraged
to examine the potential impact of a terrorist groups’ use of the internet to recruit fighters, purchase
weapons and exchange funds. It is also important to recognize that this committee as a larger part
of the Integrated Simulation must be aware of the actions that will be taken by the Intelligence
Committee, DISEC and the governments of Iraq and Afghanistan. Such cooperation will test the
strength of the international community in combating Al-Qaeda. The UNSC will be making decisions
regarding the allocation of UN resources and the monitoring of UN peacekeeping missions. The
challenges that nation-states will face will test the unity and the strength of this Council.
Definitions
Counterterrorism Committee (CTC): Developed from UNSC resolution 1371 (2001) with the
primary objective to enhance the UNSC’s legal and institutional ability to counter domestic and
global terrorist activities 1
Demilitarized Zone (DMZ): An area in which treaties or agreements between nations,
military powers or other state actors restrict military activity 2
Iraqi National Congress (INC): The Iraqi National Congress (INC) was formed when the two
main Kurdish militias – the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) headed by Masud Barzani and
the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) headed by Jala Talabani – met in Vienna in June 1992.
The INC has been plagued by the dissociation of many of its constituent groups from the INC
umbrella, a cutoff of funds from its international backers and continued pressure from Iraqi
intelligence services 3
Iraqi No-Fly Zones: In April 1991, claiming authority under Security Council Resolution 688,
the US, UK and France began to patrol the skies over northern Iraq, excluding Iraqi aircraft
from this zone. A few months later, enacted a second ‘no-fly’ zone in southern Iraq. Announced
as a means to protect Iraqi Kurds in the north and Iraq’s Shi’a population in the south, the no-fly
zones have offered dubious humanitarian protection, while engaging Iraq’s government in
ceaseless military pressures. KEY: March 7, 2003, the US and Britain tripled patrols in No-Fly
Zone. 4
Oil-for-Food Program (OFF): On April 14th, 1995, acting under Chapter VII of the United
Nations Charter, the Security Council adopted resolution 986, creating the “Oil-for-Food”
United Nations Action to Counter Terrorism <http://www.un.org/en/counterterrorism/>
Demilitarized zones. English Dictionary <http://englishdictionary.education/en/demilitarized-zone>
3 John Pike, Iraqi National Congress [INC]. Federation of American Scientists, 1998.
<https://fas.org/irp/world/para/inc.htm>
4 Global Policy Forum, No-Fly Zones, New York, 2005-2017. < https://www.globalpolicy.org/previousissues-and-debate-on-iraq/no-fly-zones.html>
1
2
program. This program provided Iraq with another opportunity to sell oil in order to finance
their purchase of humanitarian goods. The program was intended to be a “temporary measure
to provide for the humanitarian needs of the Iraqi people”, [See resolution 687 of April 3rd,
1991]. 5 From 1997 through 2002, oil-for-food generated $67 billion US for the Iraqi regime
which Hussein was allowed to spend with little oversight from the United Nations.6
Office of the Iraq Program (UN) (OIP): By 1991, with growing concern over the
humanitarian situation in the country, the United Nations proposed measures to enable Iraq to
sell limited quantities of oil to meet its citizen’s needs 7 [See resolution 706 (1991) and 712
(1991)].
Peacekeeping: Based on consent of the parties, impartiality and the absence of force,
peacekeeping operations aim to protect innocent civilians, assist in the disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration of combatant and non-combatant members of society and
facilitate the political development of a conflict-inflicted area. UN peacekeepers are able to
deploy troops and police to provide security and establishment frameworks for peacebuilding
to occur 8
Terrorism: involves the use of violence by an organization, distinct from a national government
to incite fear or intimidation among a target audience, and also has a root base, in which the
terrorist organization is able to gain supporters9.
5 Office of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, About the Programe: Oil-for-Food, 2003 <
http://www.un.org/Depts/oip/background/>
6 Foundation for Defense of Democracies: Fighting Terrorism and Promoting Freedom. UN Complicit in
Corruption of Iraq’s Oil-for-Food Program, 2004, <http://www.defenddemocracy.org/media-hit/uncomplicit-in-corruption-of-iraqs-oil-for-food-program/>
7 Office of the Iraq Programme Oil-for-Food, p.1-3 <http://www.un.org/Depts/oip/>
8 United Nations Peacekeeping. What is Peacekeeping. United Nations Peacekeeping helps countries torn by
conflict create conditions for lasting peace.
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peacekeeping.shtml
9 FBI. What we investigate; Terrorism. US Government, US Department of Justice.<
https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism>
Demonstrative terrorism: A form of terrorism that is directed at gaining publicity to recruit
supporters
Destructive terrorism : Uses force to coerce the target and mobilize supporters
Suicide terrorism : Most aggressive form of terrorism, pursuing coercion even at the
expense of losing support at home, objective is to kill the largest number of people 10
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD): The FBI under US law (18 USC 2332a) characterizes
WMD as including both of the following:
a) “Any explosive, incendiary, or poisonous gas, including a bomb, grenade, rocket with
an explosive charge of +4 ounces, missiles with an explosive charge of more than 1quarter ounce or mine designed with the intention to cause death or serious bodily harm
b) Involves any weapons containing a disease organism; designed to release radiation
or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life” 11
10 Robert A. Pape, The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. The American Political Science Review, Vol.97,
No.3 American Political Science Association. 2003. P.345 < http://www.jstor.org/stable/3117613 >
11 FBI, What We Investigate. Weapons of Mass Destruction. US Government, US Department of Justice. <
https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/wmd>
Historical Background
The United Nations has played an integral role in the international and domestic affairs of
Iraq, and is increasingly important to Afghanistan. The UN has recognized three significant events
that have fundamentally altered the relationship between Iraq and the international community,
and in particular the United Nations Security Council. These events include the Iran-Iraq War, the
Persian Gulf War and the Iraq disarmament crisis.12
Rise of Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq
On January 16, 1979, the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan and the events that led
to the Iranian Revolution inspired today’s political understanding of an ‘arc of instability’.13 The
relationship between the UN and the Arab World were already becoming increasingly unstable
as a result of Egypt’s decision to conclude a peace treaty with Israel. It was against this backdrop
that Saddam Hussein launched a war with Iran in 1980, placing world’s oil supply at significant
risk.14 The Security Council’s efforts to induce a settlement initially reflected the “superpower
jockeying” and lack of trust among the major powers at the UN between 1948-1986.15
Domestically Saddam solidified his dictatorial rule by expanding security apparatuses, networks
of informers, party militia, and eliminated opponents.16 Former Canadian ambassador to the UN
David Malone argued that Hussein is a pragmatic man, his conduct of Iraq’s international relations
is “virtually incomprehensible without grasping the absolute control he sought to exert on all
aspects of Iraqi political, military and economic life”.17 War serves as Hussein’s purpose
domestically and abroad.
First Phase of UN Involvement: Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988
Between 1980 and 1988, the Iran-Iraq War became known as being the most murderous
of its era, with deaths on each side reaching 100,000. Dilip Hiro argues that this conflict was the
longest conventional war of the century costing $1,190 billion. The conflict became characterized
by its inhumane warfare including wholescale slaughter, bombing, and
12 David M. Malone, The International Struggle Over Iraq: Politics in the UN Security Council 1980-2005.
Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2006, p. 12
13 Malone, 4
14 Malone, 5
15 Malone, 6
16 Malone, 8-9
17 Malone, 9
chemical gas attacks. The conflict also showcased the inadequate military power of the Security
Council (SC). However, it was during this conflict that the UN became increasingly recognized as
the Cold War peacemaker. The UN used it neutral position eventually to broker a settlement
between Iran and Iraq in 1987-8 and then to monitor the agreement it had brokered.
A major cause of the war was the divergence of religious beliefs. The political and cultural
tensions between Iran and Iraq arguably began in 1517 and continued into the twentieth
century.18 Jan Eliasson argued that religious antagonism was a critical casus belli, as was the
discovery of oil through the Shat al Arab waterway.19 Post World War II decolonization raised
concerns of Iranian regional domination. The balance of power was further contested in 1960 with
the rise of the Arab Ba’ath Socialist Party in Iraq, the Iraqi nationalist rejection of Western
inspired balance of power in the Gulf, the threat of Kurdish uprisings and the 1973 Israeli-Arab
war.20 However, it was the replacement of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr with Saddam Hussein as
President of Iraq that had set the stage for war.21 Hussein and Iran’s leader Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini strongly opposed each other. The formation of the Revolutionary Islamic Army for the
Liberation of Baghdad, sparked further tension. In addition, Khomeini’s rise to political power in
Iran proved highly threatening to Iraq at a time when Hussein was strategically seeking to
capitalize on Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel.22
Role of the UN and Humanitarian Assistance Post Iraq-Iran War
The Security Council failed to respond to the acts of aggression by Iraq.23 The US and the
UK, had lost footing in Iran and aimed to remain neutral. France and the Soviet Union remained
neutral despite having arms deals with Iraq. Finally, in 1986, the UN ordered a cease-fire
between Iran and Iraq.24 SCR 598 proved instrumental in creating a new, transformed SC.25 In
1990, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait had also signaled a transformation of the UNSC. With its focus on
weapons inspections, sanctions enforcement, humanitarian relief, and state-building. 26
Malone, 25
Malone, 26
20 Malone, 26
21 Malone, 26
22 Malone, 27
23 Malone, 28
24 Malone, 31 [For further information regarding the actions of the SC and potential resolutions during the
debate see SCR 598]
25 George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998, p.315
26 Malone, 78
18
19
Sanctions Enforcer: Economic Sanctions and the Oil-for-Food Program
Following Operation Desert-Storm, Martti Ahtisaari was sent to Iraq to assess the
humanitarian conditions, and he reported back that the conditions were ‘nearapocalyptic’.27 Sadruddin Aga Khan urged the international community to provide for
essential civilians needs immediately. In response, the SC
adopted SCR 706, on August 15th, 1991. This resolution first
introduced the idea of an ‘Oil-for-Food’ program and allowed
Iraq to export a certain amount of oil. 28 The revenue
generated from the exports was used to purchase foodstuffs,
medicines, and other materials. France, Russia and China had
aggressively opposed the use of sanctions and in 1995 had
attempted to pass a resolution that would end sanctions on
Iraq.29 It wasn’t until 1996 that the council deliberated and
adopted resolution SCR 986, giving Iraq complete control over
the program. On October 17, 1997, the UN Secretariat
created the Office of the Iraq Program (OIP) to oversee the
Figure 1:Office of the Iraq Programme Oil-forFood, p.1-3 <http://www.un.org/Depts/oip/>
program. Initially, OIP developed a ceiling for how much oil
Iraq could export but by 1999 the ceiling was lifted from the $5.2 billion. OIP began to
focus on controlling imports and in May 2002 created the Goods Review List (GRL). While
issues pertaining to the practice of a sanctioned regime were being discussed, UNICEF in
2001 released stats that showed that between 1990-9, Iraq had suffered an increase in
child mortality of 160%. With the release of critics calling attention to the humanitarian
costs of sanctions, the USA and the UK continued to be faced with growing opposition.
Sanctions needed to be reformed. In early 2001, the US began to push for ‘smart sanctions’.
This push paralleled the growing demand of American oil companies to trade with Iraq.
However, after 9/11 concerns shifted to WMD proliferation.30
Malone, 115
Malone, 114-124
29 Kenneth Katzman [Specialist in Middle East Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Division] Iraq: OilFor-Food Program. CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, 2000
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30472_2000.pdf, 1
30 Malone, 114-124
27
28
UNSC Post-Cold War, 1991-2002
Iraq
Washington has announced a plan for forcing the disarmament of Baghdad. The
potential occupation plan is the first time Washington has described in detail how it would
administer Iraq. Consequently, the US would control 11% of the world’s total oil reserves.
President Bush wants to differ his plan in Iraq from the model used in Afghanistan and promise a
unified Iraq. Critics of US military invasion in Iraq, including former secretary of state Henry A.
Kissinger, argue that tensions could increase in the Arab World. However, British Prime Minister
Mr. Blair supports Washington. Britain and France have recently called for a two-tiered approach
to combating the Iraq conflict. The first part calls for the SC to adopt a resolution that would force
Iraq to allow weapons to be inspected, and the second part calls for a military intervention if Iraq
refuses to allow the inspection to occur.
Afghanistan
The rise of Al-Qaeda began in 1988, as a part of the Afghan resistance to the
Soviet Union. Al-Qaeda helped finance, recruit, and train thousands of fighters. Tactics
include assassination, bombing, hijacking, kidnapping, and suicide attacks. Reports have also
indicated the group has intentions to accumulate biological, chemical and nuclear weapons.
Al-Qaeda’s current objective is to establish a Pan-Islamic Caliphate throughout the world by
working alongside allied extremist groups.31 In late 2001, following the 9/ 11 attacks,
American and allied forces invaded Afghanistan and ejected the Taliban regime from
power. Afghanistan is currently attempting to transition into a democracy, with elections
slated to be held next year in 2004. The UN is involved in Afghanistan in the form of the
United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), concerned primarily with
assisting in humanitarian work and economic development. Many member states of the
Security Council are involved in Afghanistan, and should always be aware of developments
in that country and how they might affect the Security Council’s policies and decisions.
31 Barak Mendelsohn. The Rise of ISIS and the Fall of Al Qaeda. YaleGlobal Online.
<http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/rise-isis-and-fall-al-qaeda>
Global Terrorism and WMDs
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) have become an imminent threat to the global
order. This council needs to continue to monitor and investigate the US backed allegations
of WMDs in Iraq.32 Delegates are encouraged to study documents pertaining to intelligence
on the use of WMDs. [See footnotes33] Delegates are encouraged to print two documents:
http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/wmd15.pdf
http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/wmd14.pdf
Security Council Counterterrorism Committee (Sidelined 9/11 – March 2003)
On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda’s terrorists brought down the World Trade Center
and diverted attention away from the production of WMD’s in Iraq. The US quickly centered the
attention to the Al Qaeda network and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Al Qaeda’s rhetoric
drew frequently on the history of American-led –but UN branded-sanctions and military action
in Iraq through the 1990s. The Council announced its support and solidarity with the US post
9/11. On September 28, 2001, the Security Council passed resolution 1371 (2001). All 15
members of the Security Council form the CTC. The intended purpose of this committee is to
enhance member states legal and institutional ability to counter domestic and international
terrorism. Following seven objectives are mandated in the committee: 1. “Criminalize the
financing of terrorism, 2. Freeze without delay any funds to those involved in terrorism, 3. Deny
all forms of financial support for terrorist groups, 4.Suppress the provision of sustenance or
support for terrorists, 5. Share information with other governments on any groups practicing or
planning terrorist acts, 6. Cooperate with other governments in the investigation, detection,
arrest, extradition and prosecution of those involved in such acts; 7.Criminalize active and
passive assistance for terrorism in domestic law and bring violators to justice” 34
32 Jeffrey Richelson. Iraq and Weapons of Mass Destruction. The National Security Archive. National Security
Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 80. Updated February 11, 2004<
http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/>
33Director of Central Intelligence. Iraq’s weapons of Mass Destruction.
http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/wmd14.pdf
Key Judgments Iraq’s Continuing Programs for Weapons of Mass Destruction
<http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB80/wmd15.pdf>
34 Security Council Counter- Terrorism Committee. About the Counter-Terrorism Committee. Our Mandate.
http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/aboutus.html | C.S.R Murthy. The U.N Counter-Terrorism Committee: An
Institutional Analysis. FES Briefing Paper < http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/04876.pdf>
Issues
Role of the United Nations
Within this council delegates will be forced to analyze the multilateralism of all 5
permanent members, the emergence of new threats and questions of legality and
legitimacy, representation and democracy, the underlying evolutionary trajectory of Council
practice. Delegates will be expected to reconstruct and develop a more comprehensive
plan to enforce peace, secure development and promote security. To the United Nations
Security Council, the US and UK appear to be pushing restlessly for an invasion and
occupation of Iraq. London and Washington have been largely ignoring the UN. The
disagreements among the member states have weaken the council’s ability to develop any
cohesive plan to combat Al-Qaeda.
Role of Civil Society
In addition to the political and economic issues of global terrorism, the Security
Council should aim to discuss the potential usefulness of non-state actors. As the balance of
power begins to shift away from state control to a more saturated concept, it is vital that
NGOs, TNCs, and IO’s understand the important role they play in the diffusion of state
power. This will in turn better help to understand the global insurgency of Al-Qaeda. State
power is increasingly determined by the ability of governments to work successfully with
civil society and to exploit transnational and trans-governmental coalitions. Therefore,
understanding the link between states and actors within transnational civil society in shaping
foreign policy is vital.
State of Affairs
The United Nations has recognized that terrorism flourishes in environments with grave
human rights abuses, political oppression, poverty, and profits from weak state capacity. Human
rights, the rule of law, protection of innocent civilians, peaceful resolution making have been
severely undermined as a result of the rise of Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda exemplifies the power that
an armed non-State force can have. Attacks have already been made on a number of member
states. Al-Qaeda’s entities pose a universal threat both to the members of the UN and the UN
itself. In public statements, Al-Qaeda has singled out the UN as a major threat to its plan.
Terrorism systemically ignores borders laws and sovereignty and will seek to cause mass
casualties and create unprecedented levels of danger to achieve its goals. The council must
control access to WMD material including nuclear, radiological, chemical, and biological. The
committee should aim to restore political stability in Iraq amidst the cabinet changes,
unconstitutional and violent upheavals of the Ba’ath regime.
Finally, the council should aim to develop a comprehensive, global strategy figuring out
whether to focus entirely on military, police and intelligence measures or maintain some level of
good governance and human rights. States need to work together to strengthen their capacity to
fight terror. It is imperative that this council develop a global strategy of fighting terrorism that
addresses not only the root causes of this widespread attraction of terrorism but also calls for the
strengthening of State power and the rule of law. In the past, the UN has opted to develop plans
around dissuasion; working to reverse the causes of terrorism, controlling defense, counter
extremism and intolerance and improving infrastructure including legal frameworks that upholds
civil liberties and human rights.35
35 United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. General Assembly > Sixth Committee. Agree
Definition of Term ‘Terrorism’ said to be needed for Consensus on Completing Comprehensive Convention Against
It. 7 October 2005 <http://www.un.org/press/en/2005/gal3276.doc.htm>
Suggested Sources
1. Leo J. Blanken, Hy Rothstein, Jason J. Lepore, Assessing War: The Challenge of Measuring
Success and Failure. Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C, 2015
2. Terry H. Anderson. Bush’s Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013
3. Richard J. Regan. Just War: Principles and Cases. Washington D.C; Catholic University of
America Press, 2013
4. Micheline Centilvres-Demont. Afghanistan: Identity, Society and Politics since 1980. London:
I.B Tauris & Co Ltd, 2015
5. Global Policy Forum, Airstrikes in Southern Iraq “No-Fly Zone Mount by Veron Loeb,
Washington Post, 2003
<https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/168/36755.html>
6. Global Policy Forum, US and Britain Pound Iraqi Defenses by Raymond Whitaker,
Independent, Feburary 23, 2003
https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/168/36756.html
7. Global Policy Forum, Britain and US Triple Patrols in No-Fly Zone by Raymond Whitaker,
Independent, March 7th, 2003
<https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/168/36757.html>
8. Elaine Sciolino, ‘CIA Asks Congress for Money to Rein in Iraq and Iran’, New York Times,
April 12, 1995
9. George A. Lopez, ‘Toward Smart Sanctions on Iraq,’ , Kroc Policy Brief #5, April 2001,
www.nd.edu/~krocinst/polbriefs/pbrief5.html
10. Marc Lynch, ‘Smart Sanctions: Rebuilding Consensus or Maintaining Conflict?’, MERIP
Online, June 28, 2001, www.merip.org/mero/mero062801.html
11. Peter Wallensteen, Carina Staibano and Mikael Eriksson (eds), Making Targeted
Sanctions Effective: Guidelines for the Implementation of UN Policy Options: Results from
the Stockholm Process on the Implementation of Targeted Sanctions (Uppsala: Uppsala
University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, 2003).
12. Simon Chesterman and Beatrice Pouligny, The Politics of Sanctions, IPA-CERI-RIIA Policy
Brief, May 1, 2002
13. Michael Soussan, ‘The Cash-for-Saddam Program’, Wall Street Journal, March 8, 2004
14. William Clinton, ‘Statement on Iraq’, November 14, 1997
<www.fas.org/news/iraq/1997/11/97111407_tpo.html.>
15. UN Security Council Resolution 1368, September 12, 2001. Council members reported
privately that France wanted to have the Council authorize the use of force against Al
Qaeda, but Washington refused
16. UN Security Council Resolution 1371, September 18, 2001. The CTC proved ineffective in
its ability to combat terrorism
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