OOK
B
WI LLI AM
S
BY
EMER
S ON
RI TTER
HI GH ER USEF LNESS OF SCI EN C E
T H P RO A LE I NFI NI T O F N A T RE
D LI FE
T HE
U
E
B
AN
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Y
B
U
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NIT Y O F TH E O RGA NI SM O R
T H E O RG AN I SMAL C ON C EPT I O N O F
LI FE Tw V l m
Illu t t d
T HE UN I T Y O F T H E O R G AN I C S P E C I ES
WI T H S P E C IAL REFEREN C E T O T H E
HU MA N S P E CI ES
WA R SCI EN C E AN D C I V I LI AT I ON
O RGANI SMAL C ON C EPT I O N O F
AN
C ONS CI OU SNESS
T HE U
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o
o u
es
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s ra e
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RI CHAR D G B A DG ER PUB LI SHER B OS T ON
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,
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Mad e
i e S ta te o f Am eri a
in t he Un t d
The G orham
Pe
r ss,
s
c
Bo s t o n U
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S
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A
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P L A N A T O RY
E!
T hi s
N OT E
bo o k i s a repri n t with a f ew verb al cha n ge s ne ce s
si t a t ed
by it s me c ha n i c al i s o l ati o n o f the la s t c hapter
o
twe
n
ty
f
ur
the
pre
f
a
c
e
a
n
d
the
p
s
t
sc
ript
my
lar
g
o
f
o
r
e
(
)
w o rk T he Un ity o f the Or g a n i s m o r T he O rg a n i s mal
C o nc epti o n o f L i f e T he title o f the c hapte r i s S ket c h
o f a n O r g a n i s mal T h e o ry o f C o ns c i o u sn e ss a n d I wi s h t o
em pha s ize the a v o wedly brie f treatme n t o f the s ubj e c t a s
“
”
i ndi c ated by the term s ket ch
My rea s o n f o r pu bli s hi ng thi s mu c h o f T he Un ity a s a
s eparate bo o k i s s trate gi c al I h o pe the m o v e will co p
tribute t o the wi nn i ng o f earlier a n d wider atte n ti o n t o
the full tre a ti s e by t w o gro u ps O f s tude n t s e s pe c ially :
P hil o s o pher s w ho h ave b ro ke n away f ro m s ubj e c tivi s t ide al
i s m ; a n d phy s i o l o gi s t s w h o h ave deeply s ens ed the me a n in g
o f phy s i c al c hemi s try i n it s a pli c ati o n t o livi ng b ei ngs
p
T o wi n m o re reade r s f o r the full w o rk i s my h o pe
And
s h o uld the thi ng ha ppe n whi c h I realize i s p o ss ible t o wit
the u s urpati o n by thi s c h apter whi c h i s primarily hypo
theti c al o f the pla c e ri ght f ully bel o ngi ng t o the e n tire bo o k
whi c h a s a wh o le i s quite the rever s e o f hyp o theti c al I
s h o uld be cha gri n ed i n de e d
B ut I am c o u n ti ng o n a n i nflue nc e eve n s tr o nger th a n
the s e ns e O f f airn e ss a n d c o ns i s tenc y o f s tude n t s as a guara n
tee a g ai ns t s u ch a n o ut c o me It s eem s t o me we s ter n c ivil
i z a t i o n i s e n teri ng o n a n era i n whi c h i n te grative c o n c e p
ti o ns a n d f o r c e s are go i n g t o determ i n e the f ee li ngs the
th o u ght s a n d the a c t s o f me n mu c h m o re tha n they hav e
A lready te n de n
f o r the pa s t thre e quarter s o f a c e n tury
c ie s O f thi s c a n ha r dly be mi s take n i n i n du s try i n labo r
in s o c i o l o gy a n d i n g o ve rn me n t
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3
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4a
E wpla mzt o r y N o t e
S cie nc e , phil o s o phy
mu c h o f thi s te n de nc y
reli gi o n have n o t a s y e t s h o wn
S pe c ializati o n parti c ul arly i n the
material sc ie nc e s di ff ere n tiati o n a n aly s i s s eparati s m a n d
i s o lati o n h ave d o mi n ated i n the s e realm s H erbert S pe nc er
d i d i n deed m o v e n o mi n ally t o ward phil o s o phi c an d s c ie n tific
u n i fic ati o n B ut hi s s y n theti c phil o s o phy s o c al led par
take s really m o re o f the n ature o f a dep artme n t s t o re tha n
O f a tru ly s y n the s ized b o dy o f n atu r al kn o wled ge
S pe nc er f ailed i n hi s e ff o rt t o make E v o luti o n f u nc ti o n
as a u n iver s ally s y n the s izi ng pri nc iple f o r the s i m le reas o n
p
t hat he f ailed t o pe r c ei v e the fu n dam e n tally i n te gr ati v e n a
ture o f the ev o luti o n ary pro c e s s it s el f
My e n te r pri s e a s a wh o le viewed as o n e i n whi c h the idea
O f s y n the s i s o cc upie s a c e n t r a l pla c e may be s t a ted thu s :
S o f ar a s c o nc e r ns all th at va s t expa ns e o f li vi ng n a ture
whi c h c o me s u n der n atural hi s t o ry a s u n der s t o o d by C h a rle s
D a rwi n a n d hi s immedi ate prede c e ss o r s a n d c o n temp o rarie s
my c o nc epti o n o f bi o i n t e gr a t i o n i s s et f o rt h de sc ri pti vely a n d
f a c tually a n d with a v ery mi n imum o f hy po th e s i s i n the
ch apt er s pre c edi ng the l a s t ( the t we n ty fo urth ) o f T he
Un ity o f the O rg a ni s m T he di s c u ss i o n o f p s y c hi c in t e
r at io n
c
h
apter
s
twe
n
ty
three
a
n
d
twe
n
ty
f
o
ur
pre
s
e
n
t
s
(
g
)
the rele v a n t f a c t s i n s u c h f a s hi o n a s t o dem o ns trate I be
liev e a c o nn e c ti o n betwee n mi n d a n d bo dy whi c h leave s n o
gr o u n d f o r the d o c tri n e o f p s y ch o phy s i c al p a r alleli s m t o
s ta n d o n
T he c au s al hyp o the s i s o f ps y chi c phe n o me n a s ket ched i n
the cha pter here pre s e n te d i s o ne whi c h li n k s the a n imal
o r g a n i s m m o re c l o s ely a n d p o s itively with i n o r g an i c n ature
tha n a n y with whi c h I am a c quai n ted
T he pr o o f o r d i s pr o o f o f th at hypo the s i s i s depe n de n t o n
p s y ch o l o gy a n d bi o c hemi s try primarily H e nc e my pu r
o s e i n maki ng thi s c h apter i n t o a s eparate bo o k m a y b e
p
s tated m o re s pe c i fi c ally a s that o f ha s t e n i ng the pro o f o r
di s pro o f o f my hypo the s i s o f c o nsc i o u sn e ss
a nd
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E xpla n a t o r y N a t e
5
B ut while the wi s h t o pr o m o te the s c r uti n y a n d te s t o f
thi s hyp o the s i s i s my mai n Obj e c t a n o ther Obj e c t whi ch
att a c he s it s el f t o thi s i s hardly le ss i n tere s ti n g t o me
I re f e r t o the que s ti o n o f What e ff e c t o n phy s i c al a n d
c hemi c al c o nc epti o n s them s elve s the ap pli c ati o n O f phy s i c al
chemi s try t o o rg an i c bei ngs i s likely t o ha v e
I f my s urmi s e that phy s i c al c hemi s try it s el f i s at heart
h o s tile t o at o mi s m a s materiali s ti c metaphy s i cs c o nc eive s it
i s j u s ti fied a s till m o re ri go r o u s appli c ati o n O f it t o bi o
l o gi c al phe n o men a a n d e s pe c ial ly i n the p s y chi c a l d o mai n
i s likely t o reveal that h o s tility m o re a n d m o re
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C O NT EN T S
P A GE
PLANA T ORY N O T E
PREFA CE (To Th e Uni t y of th e Organism )
ORGAN I SMAL TH E O RY O F C O NS C I OU SNESS
Re mark s on t he Hyp o the t i c a l C h a r a ct e r O f th i s C h ap t er
The N a tur al Hi s t ory Me th od an d the S tudy O f On e s S elf
Fo rm ul a t i on O f th e C e n t r al Hyp o the s i s
Prelimina ry Jus t ifi ca ti on of the Hyp othe s i s as Such
M ore S y stema t i c Jus t ifi c a ti on of th e Hyp o the s i s
The N a ture O f Ou ter or Objec t iv e an d I nn er or S ubjec ti v e
As t o the Lo w e s t T erms O f S elf C ons ci o u sn e ss
I ns t in c t an d Phy s i c al O rgan i z a ti on
Emo t i on an d Phy s i c al O rgan i z a t i on
G lan ce a t the Eq u i lib r a t i v e I n t er a c t i on Be tw ee n B od y an d S o ul
S upp o rt of the Hyp othe s i s by th e Phy s i c o—
Chem i cal C on cep ti on of
the Or gan i sm
Personality an d Ele men ta ry Chemi cal S ubs tan ces
On the P s y ch ol o gy o f S ubjec t i v e an d Objec t i v e Per sonali ty
Personality and t he Brea th of Life V i ew ed in the Light of Phy s ic al
C he mi s try of t he
S umm ed up S ta te men t of Ju s t ifi c a ti on of the Hyp o the s i s
E!
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25
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25
25
29
30
34s
35
51
53
59
66
67
70
7 4:
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-
79
92
93
P O STSCRIP T (To The U i ty of the Organi sm
“
I
NDE!
n
”
)
95
1 03
P R E FA CE
“
”
)
(
HE ri ght o f a n y b o o k t o live mu s t be determi n ed fin ally
by what i s o n it s pa ge s N everthele ss whe n the auth o r
o f a sc ie n ti fic b o o k u n dertake s s u c h a t a s k a s I have u n der
take n i n thi s o n e hi s n atural an d ac qui red fi t n e s s f o r c arr y
i ng o u t hi s pr o j e c t o u ght t o c o un t i n s o me mea s ure t o ward
the determi n ati o n An attempt t o s peak with s o me de gree
o f o ri gi n ality a n d auth o rity o n s u bj e c t s s o rem o te fr o m o n e
an o ther a s are the c hemi s try o f o r ga m sm s heredity huma n
c o ns c i o u sn e ss a n d the n ature o f k n o wled g e w o uld be s o me
what auda c i o u s eve n i f made by a n auth o r o f s e c ure reputa
ti o n a s a n i n ve s ti g at o r i n o n e o r m o re o f the s e fi eld s When
h o wever the attempt i s that o f a c o mplete s tra nger t o all
the fi eld s a s thu s j ud ged the attemp t i s n o l o nger e n titled
“
”
t o be c alled
s o mewhat auda c i o u s
It i s auda c i o u s o u t a n d
an d i f de f e ns ible at all i s de f e ns i ble i n s pite o f it s
o ut
auda c ity B ut the v ery n ature O f the ta s k I have attempted
s eem s t o require me t o c o n te n d that while it i s auda c i o u s it
i s yet n o t imp o ss i ble an d t o p o i n t o u t s o methi ng o f my o w n
quali fic ati o ns f o r per fo rm i ng it
S u c h p r o fe ssi o n al fi t n e ss a s I have re s t s primarily o n my
bei ng a ge n eral z o o l o gi s t i n t he pr o per s e ns e ; that i s a
s tude n t o f the phe n o me n a O f the a n imal w o rld with o ut ex
cl u s i o n o f a n y a s pe c t o f that w o rld f r o m pr o fe ss i o n al i n
t e r e s t a n d s o me mea s ure o f pr o f e ss i o n al atte n ti o n
T he s e
fa c t s o f my v o c ati o n an d o f my c o nc epti o n o f the n ature o f
t hat v o c ati o n are c ru c ial f o r the quality n o t o n ly o f thi s
bo o k but all my g en eral writi ngs
I f o nc e o n e be c o me s as deeply c o nvi nc ed a s I am o f b o th
the f u n dame n tal u n ity a n d the fun dame n t al diver s ity o f a ll
TO
T H E U NIT Y O F T HE
O R G A N IS M
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9
P r ef a c e
10
n ature ; i f i n o ther w o rd s he b e c o me s c o nvi nc ed th a t the
wh o le o f n ature i s i n deed a n d n o t i n mere expre ss i o n a
s y s t e m the c o n vi c ti o n will c arry with it the per c epti o n that
all s pe c ialized n atural kn o wled g e i s a bs o lutely depe n de n t f o r
mea n i ng o n the relati o n it ha s t o it s appro priate lar ger bo dy
E ither a n alyti c k n o wled g e o r s y n theti c k n o wl
o f k n o wled ge
ed ge o f n ature w o uld be wh o lly v o id o f mean ing were it t o
M o s t me n o f
be c o mpletely wre nc h e d f r o m the o ther
s c ie nc e perh ap s a n d m o s t phil o s o pher s pro b ably w o uld a d
mit that thi s i s true a s a n abs tra c t pr o p o s iti o n B ut what
a b o ut it s tru th whe n b r o u ght t o the te s t o f parti c ular c a s e s ?
T he audac ity o f my e n terpri s e really c o ns i s t s i n my a t
tempti ng t o a c t a cc o rdi ng t o thi s ge n eral truth i n a par
the c a s e th a t i s o f the phe n o me n a o f a n imal
t i cu l a r c a s e
li f e I have g o n e o n the as s umpti o n that k n o wled ge o f
a n imal c hemi s try f o r example at o ne extreme a n d o f
huma n c o nsc i o u sn e s s at the o ther w o uld b e s imple bla nk s a s
t o mea n i ng but f o r the relati o n o f the tw o k n o wled ge s t o
ea c h o ther a n d t o s till m o re g e n eral k n o wled ge o f a n imal
li f e C o ul d we ima gi n e a c himp a n zee p o ss e ss ed o f a s mu c h
la bo rat o ry k n o wled ge o f o r g a n i c chemi s try a s a n E mil
F i s c her that kn o wled ge w o uld be rea lly mea n i ngle ss were
the c reature s mi n d that o f a chi mp a n zee i n all o ther r e
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—
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!
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’
s
p
e ct s
.
s y s temati c de fe ns e o f a c o nc epti o n o f z o o l o gy ba s ed o n
a g e n eral the o r y o f n atural k n o wl e d ge s u c h a s thi s c a n n o t
o f c o ur s e be th o u ght o f i n a pre f a c e
I n deed s u c h a c o n
c e t i o n c a n n o t be f ully j u s ti fi ed by an y ar gume n t merely
p
e
T
o
r
h
o
o
it
j
u
s
ti
fic
ati
n
mu
s
t
b
e
f
o
u
n
d
lar
g
ely
i
n
a
w
rked
f
O ut appli c ati o n o f the c o nc epti o n it s el f I n o ther w o rd s the
very f a bri c o f thi s b o o k mu s t be the chie f j u s ti fic ati o n
s o u ght All I c a n wi s h t o d o i n a pre f a c e i s t o me n ti o n
c ertai n s u bs idiary idea s a n d pri nc iple s that have bee n s pe
ci a ll y i n flue n tial in de t ermi n i ng the pla ns o f my u n dertaki ng ;
a nd c ert ai n meth o d s a n d di s c ipli n ary prep arati o ns a n d pre s
A
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P r e fa c e
11
e n t c o n diti o ns that h ave b ee n s pe c i a lly u s e ful i n c arryi ng
o ut
.
z o o l o gi c al item ha s i n flue nc ed me m o re
the per c epti o n that the ev o luti o n ary i n terpretati o n o f
m a n d o e s n o t mea n that ma n s derivati o n f r o m the l o wer
n o t a n imal
It
a n imal s made him s o methi ng th a t i s n o w
—
mea n s that ma n i s j u s t a s mu c h a n a n imal t o day a s were
hi s prehuman a nc e s t o r s T he tru th i s exa c tly s tat e d by
s ayi ng th at whe n t he tra ns f o rm ati o n t o o k pl a c e by whi c h
ma n c ame i n t o exi s te nc e that tra ns f o rm ati o n wa s fr o m a
l o wer t o a hi gher s ta ge o f a n imal li f e T he a c tu a l pr o blem
c o ns equen tly o f ma n s n ature i s n o t a s t o what ma n i s i n
o f a ni
o p o s i t i o n t o a n imal s b ut a s t o the Mad
s
pe
c
ie
s
r
o
p
mal he i s
With the di s tinc ti o n here made o nc e fully gra s ped c o me s
the revelati o n that ma n i s a n Obj e c t o f z o o l o gi c al re s ear c h
a n d trea tme n t no le ss c ertai nly tha n i s a h o r s e a fis h a
l o bs ter o r a n am o e b a B ut s inc e m an s hi ghe s t that i s hi s
s chi c a l o r s i r i t u al attri b ute s are the o n e s m o s t de c i s ive
p y
p
o f hi s k i nd
it i s the s e attri bute s whi c h make him p arti c ularly
—
i n tere s ti ng z o o l o gi c all y s pe aki ng j u s t a s f o r example it
i s the attri bute s o f a h o r s e a s a ho r s e a n d no t a s a n a n imal
ge n erally that eli c it s o ur p arti c ular i n tere s t i n the h o r s e
! o o l o gy ri ghtly u n der s t oo d i s pre emi n e n t am o n
al
l
the
g
sc ie nc e s a s t he s c ie nc e o f p arti c ular s T hi s impo rta n t truth
s eem s t o have been fir s t appre c iated by A ri s t o tle ; an d the
f a c t that o ne o f the m o s t f un d ame n tal di ff ere nc e s betwee n
him a n d hi s te a c her P lat o c o nc ern ed the d o c tri n e o f P ar
t i cu l a r s a s o pp o s ed t o that o f Un iver s al s i s pr o b a bly c o n
n e c t e d c l o s ely with A ri s t o tle s great i n tere s t i n an d atte n ti o n
t o z o o l o gy
I have n o t s ee n a n y re f ere nc e t o thi s s urmi s e
by writer s o n A ri s t o tle a n d hi s phi l o s o phy yet it appear s
t o me hi ghly s i gn i fic a n t
F r o m the s e per c ep ti o ns relativ e t o the n a ture o f ma n a n d
the s c ie n c e o f a n i ma l li f e , it follows th a t whe n the z ool o gi c al
o
b a bly
no
on e
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P r e fa c e
12
—whe n
s tudy o f ma n i s u ndertake n
the ge n eral z o ol o gi s t
be c o me s f o r the tim e bei ng a n a n th r o p o l o gi c al z oo l o gi s t
a ll
the be s t te s t e d a n d m o s t appr o ve d meth o ds o f that
sc ie nc e are taxed t o their utte r m o s t s imply bec au s e o f t he
great c o mplexity o f the s p e c ie s u n der exami n ati o n N o w it
i s abs o lutely be y o n d que s ti o n I believe that o f the meth o d s
empl o yed i n the bi o l o gi c al sc ie nc e s n o n e are m o re imp o rta n t
e s pe c ially f o r the s tudy o f ma n tha n th o s e o f de s c ripti o n
an d c la ss i fic ati o n with their n e c e ss ary a cc o mp a n ime n t c o m
pari s o n T he e ss ay T he P la ce o f D e s c r ip t i on D e fini t i o n an d
C las si fic a t i o n in P hil o s ophi cal B i o l o gy i n my little b o o k T he
H i ghe r Us eful ne s s o f S cie n c e t reat s o f thi s s u bj e c t s o me
what a t le ngth B ut that t o whi c h I atta c h mu c h m o re
imp o rta nc e i s that alm o s t everythi ng c o n tai n ed i n the pre s
e n t bo o k ex c ept the heart o f Chapter
I re g ard as an
embo dime n t o f the fu n dame n tal p ri nc iple s o f de s c riptive a n d
b
i
l
o gy a s the s e pri nc iple s are e s ta bli s hed b y
cl a s s i fi c a t o r
o
y
m o dern re s ear c h
It s e em s t o me I am privile ged t o c laim that n o reader o f
thi s a n d o ther ge n eral writi ngs o f nnn e Is In p o s iti o n t o p a ss
j ud gm e n t o n them ex c ept o f c o ur s e a s t o u c hi ng t ru st w o rt hi
n e ss o f o bs ervati o n a nd s tateme n t a n d o f depe n dab ility o f
auth o ritie s c ited with o ut havi ng c o ns idered c o ns c ie n ti o u sly
my p o s iti o n a s t o meth o d Fo r ins ta nc e am I r i ght o r w ro ng
i n h o lding ( s ee the a bo ve me n ti o n ed e s s ay ) t hat f ar the
lar ger p art o f what i s u s ually c alled explan ati o n i n dealing
with the phe n o me n a o f n ature i s really p a rt ial o r te n t ative
o r hyp o theti c al de sc ri pti o n a n d c las s i fic ati o n ?
What j u s ti
fi c a t i o n a n d s c o pe are there f o r my c o n te n ti o n that the m o tt o
“
”
n e gle c t n o thing whi c h ha s l o ng d o n e g o o d s ervi c e i n tax o
n o mi c re s ear c h b a s ed o n m o rph o l o gy mu s t be exte n ded t o
all dep artmen t s o f s tru c tural a n d fu nc ti o n al b i o l o gy ? What
g r o u n di ng a n d appli c a bility are there f o r my di s ti nc ti o n
betwee n s yno pti c an d a n alyti c de sc ripti o n a n d s y n o pti c a n d
a n alyti c c l a ss ific ati o n ? N o t u n til one ha s C o rrie t o see that
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P r eface
13
que s ti o ns o f thi s s o rt are n e c e ss ary c o ns eque nc e s o f pro gre s s
i n i n f o rm ati o n ab o ut a n d i n terp retati o n o f livi ng n ature
i s he able t o a ppre c iate fully what I mea n by c hemi c al a n d
p s y c h o l o gi c al z o o l o gy F o rmal bi o chemi s try a n d a n im al
p s y c h o l o gy that i s the c hemi s try a n d the p s y c h ol o gy o f
la bo rat o rie s dev o ted t o the s e s ubj e c t s are t o my z o o l o gi c al
eye s really quite i nc ide n t a l a n d partial an d c rude al be it
imme ns ely im po rtan t L e t o ne o nc e f eel the ful l w ei ght o f
the i n du c tive evide n c e f a v o rable t o the h yp o the s i s th at every
l
o r g a ni s m whatev e r per f o rm s every j o t a n d tittle o f it s a o
t ivi t i e s thr o u gh che m i c o phy s i c a l a ge nc ie s a n d he mu s t at
the s ame time feel the mea ger n e ss a n d c rudity c o mp ara
t i v ely s peakin g o f eve n the fulle s t and b e s t l abo rat o ry
k n o wl ed ge o f th o s e a ge nc ie s by whi c h he him s el f let u s s ay
o perate s a s he c a r rie s thr o u gh a n d expre ss e s i n w o rd s a n
ar gumen t l ike t ha t now o cc upyi ng u s
T he a bs o lute tru s tw o rthi n e ss o f the mai n fin di ngs o f
lab o rat o r y bi o chemi s try a n d it s i n c al c ulably gre at impo r
t a nc e b ut at the s ame time it s great imp er fe c ti o n a s c o m
pared with n atural bi o c hemi s try are what e s pe c ially imp r e s s
me a s I bri ng my be s t p ower s t o bear o n the deepe s t m o s t
di s ti nc tive pro blem s o f a n thr o po l o gi c a l z oo l o gy ; pr o blem s
i n o ther w or d s o f the human an imal
S u c h an attitu de t o ward bi o c hemi s t r y will I ho pe he
re c o gn iz ed ev e n b y bi o chemi s t s a s c a l c ulat e d t o in du c e at
lea s t a re c eptive f r a me o f mi n d t o ward kn o wled g e i n thi s
“
d o mai n It s h o uld be o ne imp o rtan t quali fi c ati o n f o r read
”
B u t c ertai n it i s th a t s o mething
i ng up i n the d o mai n
m o re tha n a re c eptiv e mi n d i s e ss e n tial t o e n able one di sc i
i
n
e d i n o n e field o f sc ie nc e t o be a s u cc e ss ful glea n er o f
l
p
ripe n e d f ru it i n a n o the r fi eld It i s no t true that all the
d o mai ns o f n at ural k n o wled ge hi ghly devel o ped a s the y n o w
are are e n o u gh alike t o make trai n i ng i n an y o n e a n a d e
quate p reparati o n f o r a c quiri n g s e c o n d ha n d k n o wled ge i n
every o the r At l ea s t a ba ck gr o un d o f sy s te mati c i nst ru c
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14
ti o n i n a p a rti c ular s c ie nc e i s requi s ite t o m ake a hi ghly
s u cc e ss ful reader eve n i n that s c ie nc e
S o f ar the n a s I am a ble t o pa s s up o n my o w n qu a li
fi c a t i o n f o r making s u c h u s e a s I have made o f b i o c hemi s try
—
it i s a que s ti on o f whether I have a s uffic ie n t gr o un d w o rk
o f f o rm al trai n i ng t o make me a s a f e c h o o s er am o ng a u t h o r i
tie s a n d e s t i m a t e r o f the s i gn i fic a nc e o f their re s ult s
Al t h o u gh my c hemi c al p ra c ti c e wa s limited t o three year s
s o mu c h did I live i n the
o n e o f the s e a s a s tude n t a s s i s ta n t
la bo rat o rie s duri ng that p eri o d th a t eve n t o day the o pe n
i ng o f a bo o k o r j o urn a l o n c hemi s try s eem s t o fill my n o s e
with f o ul th o u gh plea s a n tly remi n i s c e n t o d o rs a n d t o e n
—
c ru s t a n d s tai n my finger s with diver s e c o rr o s ive s all o f
whi c h may mea n that I wa s m o re a mu s s er i n c hemi c als tha n
a real s tude n t o f c hemi s try N everthele ss I verily b elieve
the experie nc e e n a bled me t o be a m o re in telli ge n t re a der o f
c hemi c al writi ngs
A s f o r the s c ie nc e o f mi n d I am o bli ged t o o w n that I
h ave n ever s pe n t a day i n a n ex perime n tal labo rat o ry o f
either a n imal beh avi o r o r huma n p s y c h o l o gy B ut I o w n
al s o th at f o r thi s I am n o t re gret ful i f s u c h de fe c t o f trai n
i ng be a n e ss e n tial c o n diti o n o f e s c ape f r o m the n arr o wi ng
”
“
beh avi o r whi c h ha s a t
o f i n tere s t i n a n d c o nc epti o n o f
te n ded later w o rk in thi s fi eld I d o n o t b elieve h o wever that
thi s i s the o n ly way o f s u c h e s c ape ! o o l o gi s t s mu s t re alize
be f o re l o ng I am quite s ure that la b o rat o ry experime n tati o n
i n a n im al behavi o r c a n be o nly a rather mi n o r a ge n t f o r the
ta s k o f u n der s ta n di ng the p s y c hi c al li f e o f the a n imal w o rld
a s a wh o le
T hi s lead s t o the remark I wi s h t o make ab o ut the di s c u s
s i o n o f p s y c hi c i n te grati o n i n the la s t chapter s o f thi s b o o k
O ne o f the m o s t imp o rta n t thi ngs a cc o mpli s hed by that di s
I e s timate the c alling atte n ti o n t o the te n de nc y
c u ss i o n i s
o f i ns ti nct ive a c tivity t o ex c e ss ive ne s s o ver the a c tual n eed s
Why ha s thi s truth ( f o r there c a n
s erv ed by the a c tivity
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P r e fac e
15
be n o que s ti o n th at it i s a truth ) n o t re c eived m o re atte n
ti o n fr o m m o dern b ehavi o r s pe c iali s t s ? T here are pr o ba bly
s everal rea s o ns but a p arti c ularly in flue n ti a l o ne s eem s t o be
the f a c t that the very purp o s e a n d the meth o d o f e xpe r i m e n
t a t i o n i n v o lvi ng the idea o f c o n tr o l by the s tude n t are
s u c h a s t o e nc o ura g e o verl o o ki ng the phe n o me n a a n d t o
Obsc ure their s i gn i fic a nc e eve n i f they are n o ti c ed
Un o rth o d o xly e n o u gh fr o m the s ta n dp o i n t o f pre s e n t
s c h o o l p s y c h o l o gy my e n tra nc e i n t o thi s realm wa s f ro m
the s ide o f the n ature a n d the the ory o f k n o wled ge A n d so
f ar a s my expl o rati o ns i n the realm h ave go n e t w o me n
A ri s t o tle a n d the late P r o fe ss o r G H H o wi s o n have i nfl u
e n c e d me s o v itally that I mu s t s ay a f ew w o rd s o n the
s u bj e c t
F o r ma n y year s A ri s t o tle wa s t w o di s ti nc t pe r s o ns t o me
s o f ar as
an
real
i
n
flue
nc
e
up
o n my thi n ki ng wa s c o n
y
c ern ed O n the o n e ha n d there w as A ri s t o tle the m e t a phy si
c i a n t o wh o m I had bee n f o rmally i n tr o du c ed by H o wi s o n i n
a priv a te o ut s ide o f h o ur s Un iver s ity c o ur s e ( whi c h with
g reat g e n er o s ity he had give n me ) the medium o f the in
t r o d u c t i o n be i ng the D e A nim a
O n the o ther h a n d wa s
A ri s t o tle the z o o l o gi s t a c quai n ta nc e with wh o m wa s at fi r s t
pi c ked up i n the u s ual n aturali s t f a s hi o n but whi c h ha d
la ter ripe n ed i n t o i n tima c y a s I like t o c hara c terize it b y
o u r c o mm o n i n tere s t i n mari n e z o o l o g y hi s go o d de s c ripti o n
o f the a n at o my o f a tu n i c ate bei ng a s pe c ial pa ss p o rt t o my
a ff e c ti o n It w o uld hardly be a n exa ggerati o n t o s ay th at
all my phil o s o phizi ng i n bi o l o gy ha s aimed at fu s i ng the s e
t w o A ri s t o tle s i n t o o n e
I d o n o t mea n that thi s has be e n
my c o ns c i o u s a n d expre ss a im It ha s bee n s o o nly i n s t in c
“
”
“
t i v e l y o r i n tuitivel y o r
at heart o r by w o rking hy
”
p o the s i s
c h o o s e s f o r it
O r by whate v er expre ss i o n o n e
A n d here c o me s the part played by P r o fe ss o r H o wi s o n : A s
I take a bird s eye vie w n o w o f what i s s et f o rth in thi s a n d
o the r ge n eral writi ngs o f mi n e
a n d c o n template the wh o le i n
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P r e fa c e
17
e
re c all that I w a s di s turbed by the rather c avalier
fa s hi o n i n whi c h we di s p o s ed o f th o s e p o rti o ns o f the w o rk
whi c h treat o f r e pr o d u c t i o n nu t r i t i o n an d gr o wth a n d e s pe
A
t
the
p
rti
the
s
ta
g
e
o ns deali ng with the s e ns e s
c i a ll
o
y
o f sc ie n ti fic devel o pme n t I wa s the n i n I k n ew little o r n o th
i ng o f A ri s t o tle s bi o l o gi c a l writings a n d H o wi s o n re ferred
t o them o n ly i n the m o s t c ur s o ry w ay i f i n d e ed he me n
t i o ne d them at all
C ert a i n it i s he did n o thi ng t o ar o u s e
my in tere s t i n them o r t o i n di c ate that he re g ard e d them
a s s pe c ially s i gn i fic a n t i n c o nn e c ti o n with s u c h imp o rta n t
view s o f A ri s t o tle s a s th o s e o n the relati o n o f B o dy an d
S o ul
T he que s ti o n whi c h n o w s eem s t o me i n di s pe ns able
f o r gra s pi ng the e ss e n s e o f the Ari s t o telia n p s y c h o l o gy an d
phil o s o phy that n amely o f why A ri s t o tle w as s o gr eatly i n
t e r e s t ed i n z o o l o gy a n d dev o ted s o mu c h time t o it s s tudy
n ever c ame up duri ng the c o ur s e I am quite s ure I n s c i
e nc e a n d phil o s o phy a s i n everythi ng el s e the chara c ter o f
o n e s i n tere s t s i s a s urer i n dex t o hi s ge n eral view s a n d atti
tude tha n i s a nythi ng he c a n ex pre ss verb ally T here m a y
“
be amb i guity a n d err o r i n A ri s t o tle s the o ry o f s y ntheti c
”
“
”
E n tele c hy
be s et a s
T hi s th e o ry may pr o b ably d o e s
“
H o wi s o n remark s
all i n dividual exi s te nc e bo th b ehi n d an d
”
be fo re there by implyi ng s o me the o reti c al dero g ati o n f r o m
the real n ature o f per s o n ality B ut O ver a g ai ns t thi s err o r
a n d am bi guity s ta n d s i n dubitable pro o f o f A ri s t o tle s pr a c
ti c al f aith i n t he P a r t i cul a r the I n dividual that pr o o f be
i ng the vas t labo r he expe n ded i n learn i ng a n d in terpreting
the li fe o f the a n imal w o rld T he c hie f phil o s o phi c s igni fi
c an c e o f A ri s t o tle s z o o l o gi c al w o rk s i s n o t i n a n y i n f o rm a
ti o n o r the o ri e s they c o n tai n but i n the f a c t that he pr o
d u c e d them at all s i nc e a s me n ti o n ed a bo ve z o o l o gy i s pre
emin e n t a s t he sc ie nc e o f parti c ular s a n d hi s d o c tri n e o f
P arti c ular s a s o pp o s ed t o Un iver s al s wa s very cl o s e t o the
heart o f hi s wh o le phil o s o phi c s y s tem
T hi s prepare s f o r my fin al remark abo ut the i n flue nc e up o n
D Ani m a I
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P r ef a c e
18
my thi nki ng o f P r o fe ss o r H o wi s o n a n d the ideali s ti c phil o
phy g en er a lly T hat phil o s o phi c Ideali s m n o matter o f
what variety c o n t ai ns eleme n t s that are fun dame n tall y e r
r o me o n s s eem s t o me t o be pr o ved m o re c o nc lu s ively by it s
i n adequa c y f o r u nder s ta n di ng the w o rld i n it s e n tirety tha n
by an y parti c ular err o r s o f f a c t o r rea s o n i ng whi c h it c a n
be s h o wn t o c o n tain Were all me n phil o s o phi c al ideali s t s
there w o uld be n o n atural s c ie nc e merely be c au s e i n the
d o mai n o f learn i ng me n w ill n o t c h o o s e a s their prim a ry
li f e w o rk what they fully be lieve t o be o f s e c o n dary im
p o r ta nc e
F alla c i o u sn e ss o r i nc o nclu s ive n e ss o f ar gume n t n ev er de
t e r r e d me h al f a s mu c h f r o m e mb ra c i ng P r o f e ss o r H o wi s o n s
tea chi ngs i n their e n tirety a s did hi s u s u a lly di gn i fi e d but
alway s pre s e n t p re s umpti o n o f pr o fe ss i o n al s el f s uperi o rity
o v er all hi s c o llea gue s w ho did n o t c o me u n der the
t o him
s a c red aeg i s o f P hil o s o phy
T he re a s o n why s i nc ere humility
a n d the s pirit o f dem o c ra c y are alie n t o all f o rm s o f i d e a li s
ti c phil o s o phy be c o me s c lear o nc e o n e a ttai ns a w o rld view
whi c h truly s trive s t o i nclude but m a ke s n o prete ns e o f hav
i ng alre ady i nc luded the wh o le w o rld wh o lly i n that view
T here remai ns the plea s a n t th o u gh diffic ult ta s k o f me n
t i o ni ng the f ew am o ng my n um be rle ss o bli g ati o ns whi c h are
s o per s o n al a n d wei ghty that t o leave them u n a c k n o wled g ed
w o uld be t o bran d me a s u ng rate ful m o re c o ns pi c u o u s ly tha n
I c a n e n dure
F ir s t a s t o th o s e p er s o ns a n d c o n diti o ns whi c h during the
las t te n year s h a ve relieved m e fr o m the r o utin e dutie s o f a
Un iver s ity te a cher a n d al s o f ro m m o s t o f the exa c ti o ns
c u s t o marily att a c hi ng t o a n a dmin i s trative p o s t even i n an
i ns tituti o n o f Sc ie n ti fic re s ear c h a n d have give n me a s tatu s
the c e n tral purp o s e o f whi c h i s sc ie n ti fic w o rk Whatever
be the quality a n d fin al s i gn i fic a nc e o f my li fe w o rk c o uld
the s e I a sk my s el f have rea c hed a s hi gh a level a s they
have rea c hed ha d I n o t c o me i n t o my p re s e n t p o s iti o n ? AI
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P r ef a c e
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m o s t c ertai nly n o t mu s t b e the a ns wer And bey o n d a d o ub t
the rai s ing o f the que s ti o n i n v o lve s p ri nc iple s o f o rg a n izati o n
f o r sc ien ti fic re s ear c h that li ft it hi gh a b o ve mere per s o n a l
c o nc ern
N o f aith o f mi n e i s greater be c au s e n o n e i s r o o ted m o re
deeply i n my s c ie n ti fic phil o s o phy tha n that i n the ultimate
triumph o f p o pular th at is o f dem o c rati c pri nc iple s i n all
a s pe c t s o f c iviliz ati o n I n deed the fa c t s no t the t he o r ie s
o f o r g a n i c u n ity a n d i n te g rati o n whi c h h a ve d o mi n ated all
my later w o rk are the f o u n dati o n o f thi s f aith Whether
my parti c ular hyp o the s e s an d the o rie s o f o r ga nl smal i sm s u c
c ee d o r f ai l there s ti ll are the raw d a t a o n whi c h they re s t
T he s e c a n n o t f ail
I f s u cc e s s d o e s n o t c r own my e ff o rt s in
ha n dli ng the dat a it will c r o w n th o s e o f o the r s w ho s hall
c o me a fter me An d whe n the pri nc iple s f o r whi c h I c o n te n d
s hall have w o rked them s elve s m o re f ully i n t o the f ab ri c o f
c ivilizati o n the o r g an izati o n al the admi n i s trative a n d t he
s c ie n ti fic p o li c ie s aimed at i n the S c ripp s I ns tituti o n f o r B i o
l o gi c al Re s ear c h o f t he Un iver s ity o f C ali fo r n ia will be
re c o gn ized a s f u ndame n ta lly s o u n d I will be s pe c i fi c here
t o the exte n t o f me n ti o n i ng the p o li c y o f pr o vidi ng a s pe c ial
bu s i n e ss ma n a geme n t f o r s u c h i ns ti tuti o ns
Alth o u gh my i n de b ted n e ss t o my pr o fe ss i o n al c o w o rker s
a n d o ffi c ial a ss o c iate s o f the ! o o l o gi c al Departme n t an d the
M u s eum o f V erteb rate ! o o l o gy at B erkeley P r o fe ss o r s C A
K o f o id S J H o lme s a n d Dr Jo s eph G ri nn ell i s i n di c ated
by s pe c ial re fere nc e s i n the bo dy o f thi s bo o k I s h o uld be
s o rry t o have the s e re f ere nc e s take n t o i n di c ate the full e x
te n t O f my o bli gati o n t o them o r t o i n di c ate that the s e are
the o nly membe r s o f th o s e dep artme n t s t o wh o m I am i n
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w o uld be a s o ur c e o f kee n re gret t o me t o o s h o uld my
s ingle s h o rt re fere nc e t o t w o o f my bi o l o gi c al a ss o c iate s o n
the s taff o f the S c rip ps I ns tituti o n Mr E L Mi c hael a n d
Dr C O E s terly be take n a s the f ull mea s ure o f what I
It
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Pr efa c e
20
them I h o pe that my re feren c e t o their w o rk brie f
th o u gh it i s wi ll be re c o gn ized a s i n di c ative o f the hi gh i m
o rta n c e I atta c h t o wh a t they have d o n e a n d are d o i ng
p
B u t wha t a bo ut my in de bted n e ss t o pr o f e ss i o n al a ss o c iate s
here i n the h o me gr o up o f wh o s e w o rk n o me n ti o n i s made
i n my text ? H o w s ub tle a n d f ar rea c hi ng and i nn umera ble
a r e the i nfl ue nc e s whi c h be a r up o n o n e f r o m hi s d a ily c o
w o r kers ! Fo r exam ple by what u n it o f mea s uremen t c o uld
be g au ged t he e ff e c t s o n my treatme n t o f heredity whi ch hav e
c o me f r o m my perpetu a l c o n ta c t with the w o rk o f Dr F B
S umne r and Mr H H C o ll i ns ? B u t the s e me n w o ul d pr o b
a bl
r e s e n t t he a s c ri pti o n t o the m o f re s p o ns i bility f o r my
y
“
mai n c o nc l u s i o ns i n thi s fi eld A g ai n n o t ma n y e nv Ir o n
”
me n tal f a c t o r s h a v e bee n m o r e determ i n ative o f my p res e n t
fe elings ( I ha r dly dare c all them vie ws ) relative t o vari o u s
n
e m eth
eo
r
bl
em
i
y
i
c
s
a
re
l
ati
v
e
t
o
qua
n
titati
v
o
s
h
n
d
s
g
p
p
o d s i n n atura l s c ien c e tha n ha v e Dr G F M cE w e n a n d hi s
e t I he s itate eve n t o me n ti o n thi s
o c ea n o gr a hi c w o r k
Y
p
fa c t l e s t s o me o ne be l ed there by t o h o ld Dr M cE w e n a o
c ount abl e f o r c r ud i tie s, a c t ual o r implied I ma y ma n i fe s t
i n the se d om ain s
N o r a r e my i nd e bt e d ne sse s c o n fi n ed t o the narr o w c ir c le
of m
f
s
o
a
o
I
immediate
l
r
f
e
i
n
al
fic
ia
l
w
rker
s
n
o
s
n
o
c
d
o
y
y p
d e e d I e m keenly c o n s c i o u s o f grea t de bt s bray o nd thi s c ir c le
T he se a r e s o numer o u s and o n the w h o le s o ge n eral a s t o
mak e spe c i fi c a ti o n imp o ssi ble bu t I c ann o t p a ss by with o ut
me n ti o n i n g my deb t t o my l o ng tim e a nd mu c h c heri s hed
f riend P r o fe ss o r G M S t r att o n f or the c o mme n tarie s o n
t he c h a pter s o n
i
o n made by him whi le thi s
s
y
c
hi
c
n
te
g
rati
p
p o r ti o n o f t he bo o k w as i n a n ad v a nc e d th o ugh s till f o rma
t iv e s ta g e
Fo r aid i n s t r u c tu r al l a bo r a s it m ay b e c all ed my d e
n
d
n
o
e
e
c
E
e
M
n
r
up
F
ra
n
k
h
n
e
my
e
c
eta
y
a
n
d
o
s
r
T
A
r
p
s c ie n ti fi c a ss i s t a n t has be e n v a r ie d a n d i n tima t e , and o f a
f
o r whi ch m on e
a n o nl
i
t
l
y
p
l
y
u
a
r
t
a
a
c
q
p y
y
y
ow e
to
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,
,
,
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-
,
,
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,
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-
,
,
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—
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P r e f a ce
21
Dr C hri s ti n e E ss e nberg libraria n a n d mem ber o f the
sc ie n ti fic s t aff o f the S c ri pps I ns tituti o n I am i n debt ed f o r
help o n the i n dex a nd gl o ss ary
A n d fin ally what c a n I s ay a b o ut the p art played i n the
c reati o n o f thi s a n d my o ther w o rk s by her t o wh o m thi s
v o lume i s dedi c ated ? T he exte n t t o whi c h her li f e i s i nv o lved
with mi n e in the s e w o rk s o nly we t w o c a n k n o w ; b ut the
w o rdi ng o f my dedi c ati o n i n di c ate s s o methi ng o f the c har
a c ter o f that i n v o lv eme n t
To
,
.
,
.
,
.
A N O RG A NISMA L T HE O RY O F
C O NS C IO US NESS
R e ma r k s
on
Cha r a c t e r
Hy p o t he t i ca l
t he
YP O T H E S IS
o
f
t hi s
C ha p t e r
a n d the o ry will d o min ate l n the ! ta s k
upo n whi c h we n o w e n ter a n d i n thi s re s pe c t the
pre s e n t c hapter will di ff er s ha rply fr o m the pre c e di ng c hap
ter s F a c t de s c ripti o n cl a ss i fic ati o n a n d re s trai n e d ge n
e r a li za t i o n have bee n the lead ing m o tive s up t o thi s p o i n t
O ne mai n a n d s everal s ubs idiary hyp o the s e s will b e c e n tral
i n t he di s c u ss i o n I n t o the pre s e nc e o f the s e will be s um
m o ne d man y o f t he f a c t s a n d ge n eral izati o ns previ o u s ly s et
T he purp o s e in thi s s umm o ni ng will be o n the o n e
f o rth
ha n d t o te s t the hyp o the s e s by the f a c t s an d ge n erali zati o ns
a n d o n the o ther ha n d t o s e e how the f a c t s will l o ok i n the
li ght o f the hypo the s e s
T hi s a nn o u nc eme n t o f the hyp o theti c al a n d the o reti c al
c hara c ter o f the ta s k n o w be fo re u s will give u s t w o ad v an
ta ge s : It will j u s ti fy a d o gmati c f o rm o f expre ss i o n at time s
whi c h we s h o uld n o t o therwi s e fe el privile ge d t o u s e ; a n d
will j u s ti fy a brevity o f treatme n t whi c h w o uld n o t be p o s
s ible were we aiming at th o r o ugh g en eralizati o n a n d dem o n
H e nc e the j u s ti fi c ati o n o f u n dertak i ng t o deal
st r a t io n
with s o v as t an d vital a s ubj e c t i n the limit s o f a s ket c h
II
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T he N at u r al
Hi s t o r y M e t ho d
an d
t he S t u d y
o
f
O ne
’
s
S e lf
I ns i s te n t a s I have bee n o n t he impo rta nc e o f the n atu r al
hi st o r y w a y o f appr o a c hi ng the phe n o men a o f the livi ng
w o rl d i n e n teri n g up o n the pre s e n t di sc u ss i o n I mu s t em
,
25
’
An O r g ani s ma l T he o r y
26
o
f
Co ns ci ou sne s s
h
a siz e
p
thi s m o re tha n ever a n d mu s t c all atte n ti o n t o the
parti c ular c hara c ter o f thi s imp o rt a nc e i n o u r pre s ent u n
d taki ng
he n atural hi s t o ry meth o d o f viewing o rga n i c beings i s
e r s e t h e c o mprehe ns ive m e t h o d p o n e o f it s be s t m o tt o s
p
“
”
be i ng a s we have repe atedly s ee n n e gle c t n o thi ng T hat
k n o wled g e o f o rga n i s m s s eparate s it s el f s harply in t o de
a r t m e n t s i s n o deterre n t t o the n a turali s t a g ai ns t utilizi ng
p
a n y kn o wled ge he may c o me up o n that will c o n tribute t o hi s
—
mai n aim that o f u n ders ta n di ng o rga n i s m s W ho o r what
sh a ll re s trai n me f r o m o bs ervi ng a n d c are fully t hi nki ng
a bo ut a n y f a c t o f my o w n bei ng whi c h pro mi s e s t o help me
T he f o rem o s t z o o l o
o n my r o a d t o s u c h u n der s ta n di ng ?
gi s t s o f m o der n time s e s pe c ially have amply re c o gn ized a n d
f reely u s ed thi s pri nc iple s o f ar a s all phy s i c al a n d s o me o f
the l o wer p s y chi c al attrib ute s are c o nc ern ed B ut whe n it
c o me s t o ma n s hi gher p s y chi c al attrib ute s z o o l o gi s t s have
u s ually s aid s o metime s expre s s ly s o metime s ta c itly that
the s e bel o ng t o a wh o lly di ff ere n t realm a realm with whi c h
we have little o r n o thi ng t o d o A n d their p o s iti o n o f
“
”
ha n d s O ff a s t o u c hi n g ma n s hi gher p s y c hi c li f e ha s r e
fuller s a nc ti o n i n that it ha s a cc o rd e d
c e i v e d the readier
well w ith the prevale n t view s a n d pra c ti c e s o f th o s e s tude n t s
a n thr o p o l o gi s t s e c o n o mi s t s s o c i o l o gi s t s an d ethi c i s t s w ho
have made the s e hi gher rea c he s o f huma n li fe their s pe c ial
fi eld s o f i n quiry B ut the c o ur s e o f n ature c a n n o t be per
S u c h a n attempt t o wre nc h huma n li fe
m a n e n t l y thwarted
a s u n der i s bo u n d t o f ail fin ally I n the s everal s ubdi vi s i o ns
o f bi o l o gy n o rmal adva nc e ha s te n ded t o s tay the wre nc hi ng
pr o c e ss c o mpar a tive p s y c h o l o gy bei ng n o ta ble i n thi s te n
.
,
,
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.
"
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
d e n cy
.
i
pp
s
iti
n
s
u
c
h
r
g
a
n
c di s u n i o n c o ns i s te n tly
t
o
o
o
o
Th
o
m a i n t ai n ed thr o u gh o ut thi s bo o k re a c he s it s c ulmi n ati o n i n
the s e chapter s o n ps y chi c i n t e grati o n I n what fo ll o w s we
s hall pas s m o re freely tha n ever fr o m o ne pha s e o r a s pe c t
e
.
A n O rg a ni s ma l T he o r y
o
i
C
o
n
s
c
o
u
s
ne s s
f
a n o ther o ver the e n tire g am ut o f p s y chi c li fe bo th i n the
i n di vidu a l a n d i n the a n imal kingd o m I f f a c t s o f my o w n
s ubj e c tiv e li f e will s erv e my pu r p o s e I s hall be a s f ree t o
req u i s iti o n them a s t o requi s iti o n f a c t s o f a n y pha s e o r a s
pe o t o f my o bj e c tive li f e I f the ethi c al o r e s theti c o r s o c ial
attri bute s o f the hum a n an imal will be s t illum i n a te a p o i n t
the s e s hall be br o u ght i n with a s little mi sgiving a s wil l be
a n at o mi c al o r embry o l o gi c al o r phy s i o l o gi c al o r ins ti nc tive
attri b ute s
S o g reat s t o re d o I lay o n thi s c ath o li c ity o f attitude
t o w ard p s y chi c li fe that I s hall s h ow by a s i ngle i ns tanc e
th a t at lea s t a f ew o ther pre s e n t day z oo l o gi s t s have s o me
what s imilar feeli ngs ab o ut the z o o l o gi c al c hara c ter o f p s y
c hi c al phe n o me n a Re ferring t o the c o n tr o ver s ie s whi c h
have i n evitably ari s e n o ver the pr o blem o f i ns ti nc t W M
“
Wheeler s ay s that s u ch c o n tr o ver s y i s p ard o n able at lea s t
t o s o me exte n t s i nc e the s u bj e c t it s el f pre s e n t s n o le ss tha n
f o ur a s pe c t s a cc o rdi ng a s it i s s tudied f r o m the eth o l o gi c al
”
p s y c h o l o gi c al o r metaphy s i c al p o in t s o f view
“
the auth o r c o n tin ue s i n
s t i n ct i s o p e n t o o h e c t i v e b i o l o gi c al s tudy i n the f o rm o f
‘
the i ns ti nc t a ct i o n s , T he s e may be s tu di ed by the phy s i o l
j
o i s t merely a s a re gularly c o Or d in a t ed s erie s o f m o veme n t s
g
depe n ding o n c ha nge s i n the ti ss ue s a n d o r ga ns a n d by the
eth o l o gi s t t o the exten t th at they te n d t o bri ng the o r g a n i s m
i n t o e ff e c tive relati o ns hi p with it s living a n d i n o rga n i c e n
B ut that the s e m o veme n t s h a ve a d e eper o ri gi n
v i r o nm e n t
i n p s y c h o l o gi c al c ha nge s may be i n ferred o n the b a s i s o f
al o gy f r o m o u r o w n s ubj e c tive experie nc e whi c h s h o w s u s
—
the s o c alled
o u r i ns ti nc t s ari s i ng a s impul s e s a n d c ravi ngs
‘
—
i ns ti nc t f eeli ngs ; a n d the s e in tur n yield a bu n da n t m ateri a l
” 1
F r o m the
f o r metaphy s i c al a n d ethi c al s pe c ulati o n
c o n text o f the s e s e n tenc e s we may in fer that Wheeler re c
o n i z e s that t h e f o ur a s pe c t s me n ti o n ed u n der whi c h the
g
s ubj e c t o f i ns tinc t s pre s e n t s it s el f repre s e n t the s ame n um
to
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-
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y
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’
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An O r g ani sma l T he o r y
£8
I
O
C
c
o
n
s
i ou sne s s
f
ber o f valid dep art me n t s o f ma n s me n t a l li fe T he po int
I wi s h t o m ake i s that alth o u gh a z o o l o gi s t may re c o gniz e
with o ut c avil that s pe c ul a ti o n o n p s y ch ol o gi c al ethi c al
a n d metaphy s i c al p ro blem s whi c h ari s e i n c o nn e c ti o n with
ins ti nc t s are le gitimate a c tivitie s o f ma n a n d mi ght pr o p
erly den y that it i s inc umbe n t up o n hi m t o d o mu c h s pe cu
l a ti ng o f t hi s s o rt yet it w o uld be i nc um be n t o n him t o tak e
due c o gni zan c e o f the s e s pe c ul a t iv e a ttrib ute s o f the h um a n
a n imal A truly sc ie n ti fic z o o l o gy c a n n o t j u s ti fy it s el f i n
i ss ui ng a mani fe s t o t o the e ff e c t that c ertain a ttri bute s pr e
s e n ted by s o me a n imals d o n o t f all withi n it s pr o vinc e It
may m o re o r le ss c o ns t a n tly n e gle c t o r re fu s e o n p r a c ti c al
gr o un d s t o deal with c erta i n attri bute s ; but tha t i s a v ery
di ff ere n t matte r f r o m a f o rm al de clarati o n s u c h a s m :
pre s e n t day z o o l o gi s t s make that with the s e attri b
i
z o o l o gy ha s n o thi ng t o d o S u c h a de clarati o n i s s el f s t u t
i ng i f n o t s el f s tulti fyi ng i n that it i s a virtual sel f i nhi
bi t i o n by z o o l o gy o f it s o w n g r o wth
T he s e refle c ti o ns may b e term i n ated by de fin i ng t he mo
t iv e s an d the me n tal attitude with whi c h I appr o a c h the
gre a t pr o blem o f c o ns c i o u sn e ss I c o me t o it n o t as a meta
phy s i c ia n no t a s a p s y ch o l o gi s t n o t a s a phy s i o l o gi s t n o t
eve n a s an a n thr o p o l o gi s t but a s a n a n thr o p o l o gi c al z o ol o
gi s t ; a s a z o o l o gi s t w ho i n c o ur s e o f hi s re gular pro fe ss i o n al
w o rk take s up the an imal g r o up o f whi c h he him s el f i s a mem
ber c ha nc i ng a s he d o e s t o p o ss e ss am o ng o ther attribu te s
that o f k n o wing hi s o w n li f e d i re c t ly that i s thr o u gh s ub
rectl
i
e ct iv e
ous
s
el
f
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i
experie
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wel
l
a
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o
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y
j
t
o bj e c tive experi e nc e
c o ns c i o u sn e ss i n s u c h a n a t
t i t u d e an d f o r s u c h a m o tive it i s imp os s ible t o v i e w it o ther
wi s e than a s o n e a s pe c t o f the lar ger pr o blem o f li f e ge n er
ally Fo r while the p s y ch o l o gi c ally a n d metaphy s i c all y i m
p o rta n t que s ti o n o f whether c o nsc i o u sn e ss i s c o exte ns iv e
with li f e n eed n o t be rai s ed by t he n aturali s t the i ndubit a ble
’
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An O rgani s mal T he o r y
o
Cons ci ous ne s s
f
29
f a c t that at lea s t a large s e c t o r o f li f e i s c o ns c i ou s ; i n o ther
wo r d s y t he f a c t that c o nsc i o u sn e ss i s a part
he c a n
o t i gn o re i f he i s t o deal with c o nsc i o u sn e ss a
n
n at urali s t the n n o hyp o the s i s o r the o ry o f c o nsc i o u sn e s s
a n be s ati s f a c t o ry whi c h i s n o t c learly a n d expre ss ly em
q
bedded i n a n d a n e ss e n tial part Of a n hyp o the s i s o r the o ry
o f li f e ge n erally
O u r c e n tral hyp o the s i s dra fted i n a c
c o r d a n ce with the s e pri nc iple s
m a y n o w b e give n
,
,
.
,
,
Fo r mu la t i o n
o
A ll t he ma nife s t a t i o n s
Li
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t he
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An e s s e n t i a l i mpli cat i o n o f t hi s pr o po s i t io n
r
res
'
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is
t ha t
c he mi
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has
c he mi cal
t he
v a lu e ,
c
su bs t an e .
pro mptly expli c it i n re c o gn izi ng the c hara c ter
o f the t w o pr o p o s iti o ns c o n tai n ed i n thi s hyp o the s i s
T hey
are ma n i fe s tly c hemi c al i n large p a rt a n d a c o mplete dem o n
s t r a t i o n o f their truth i s imp o ss i ble with o ut the aid o f c he m
i c al re s e ar c h f o c u ss ed dire c tly upo n them
B ut th o u gh
clearly chemi c al equal ly c le arly they g o bey o n d f ar b ey o n d
—
pre s e n t c hemi c al k n o wled g e T o s pe a k o f a wh o l e o rg a n
i s m a s equi vale n t t o a c hemi c al eleme n t s eem s at fi r s t s i ght
n o t o n ly u n warr a n t e d b y p o s itive c hemi c a l k n o wled g e b ut
“
F urtherm o re the term r e
o pp o s ed by s u c h k n o wled g e
”
a c ti o n a s u s e d i n the fi r s t pr o p o s iti o n u n d oubte dly s e em s
qui te f o rei gn t o the te c hn i c a l mea n ing whi c h c hemi s try ha s
att a c hed t o the w o rd I n deed s o rem o te t o s a y the lea s t
are the s e f un dame n tal pr o p o s iti o ns o f the hyp o the s is f r o m
de fini te c hemi c al k n o wl e d ge that i f they are e n title d t o ra nk
be
.
,
.
—
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
30
A n O r g an is mal T he o r y
o
f C o ns c i o u s ne s s
c o ns tituti ng a le gitimate s c ie n ti fic hyp o the s i s thi s mu s t
be o n gr o un d s o ther tha n th o s e o f pre s e n t day te chni c al
c hemi s try quite as mu c h a s o n th o s e o f s u c h c hemi s try I n
attempti ng c o ns eque n tly t o e s ta bli s h the pro p o s iti o ns o n a
tru e a n d u s e ful hyp o theti c al ba s i s it will be pe rmi s s ible t o
n o ti c e the s e o ther g ro u n d s fi r s t
as
,
.
-
.
,
,
,
.
P r e lim ina r y
Ju s t ific a t i o n
o
t he
f
Hy po t he sis
as
S uc h
! T he pro p o s iti o n that ea c h li vi ng i n dividual ha s the c hem
i c al v alue o f a n eleme n tary s ubs tan c e will re c eiv e atten ti o n
fi r s t an d the i ni ti a l s tep will be t o i n quire what i n e n eral
g
the c riteri o n i s o f a n elemen tary c hemi c al s ubs t a nc e ? H ere
f o r i ns ta nc e i s a lump o f ph o s ph o ru s
I n virtue o f wh at i s
it de c lared t o be s u c h a s u bs ta nc e ? N o t pri m arily l et u s
s p e c ially n o ti c e be c au s e the ph o s ph o ru s i s s imple that i s
t o s ay i s a n eleme n t i n the s e ns e o f n o t bei ng redu c ible t o
s till s impler s ubs t an c e s Rather the ba s al c riteri o n o f i t s
b ei ng a c hemi c al s ubs ta nc e i s that upo n it s being br o u ght
i n t o c o n ta c t u n der c ertai n c o n diti o ns with c e r tai n o ther
c hemi c al s ubs ta nc e s o xy ge n f o r i ns ta nc e there i s pro du c e d
a t hi rd s ub sta nc e having very diff ere n t attrib ute s f r o m either
T ra ns f o rm a ti o n o f s u bs ta n c e s
o f the o ri gi n al s u bs ta nc e s
c hiefly thr o u gh i n tera c tio n up o n o ne a n o ther i s t he f o u n d s
ti o n f a c t whi c h ha s br o u ght it t o p a s s that s ubs t a nc e s are
de sc ribed a s chemi c al T hat i s the f a c t up o n whi c h the
sc ie nc e o f c hemi s try p rimarily re s t s F a c t s a n d pr o blem s
s impli c ity an d c o mplexity rel a tive a n d abs o lut e a r e
of
“
l a ter a n d s e c o n dary T he ta s k o f c hemi s try c o ns i s t s i n the
i nve s ti g ati o n o f s ubs t an c e s a n d th o s e o f their pr o c e ss e s b y
whi c h the phy s i c al attri bute s o f the s ubs ta nc e s un dergo
”
erma
n
e
n
t
c
h
a nd w br t e r bu ch d er N a t u r w i s s e n
H
a ng e s
(
p
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
’
.
e
c hemi s try an d che mi c al s ub
c o n tai n s t he id ea o f t r an s fo rma
fini t i o n
a
c t i on
o
f
A n O r g an is ma l T he o r y
o
n
i
o
s
C
c
o us ne s s
f
31
)
ti o n i n o ne f o rm o r a n o ther C learn e ss o n thi s p o i n t i s i n
di s pe ns a ble t o o u r purp o s e C hemi s try i s t o o o fte n de fin ed
eve n i n ele me n t ary text bo o k s a n d i n di c ti o n arie s a s t h o u gli
“
”
the c o mpo s iti o n o f matter were it s i n itial a n d m o s t e s
s e n t i a l f u nc ti o n
B ut thi s c o nc e pti o n i s s urely c o n trary t o
the hi s t o ry a nd m o s t e ss e n ti al n ature o f the s c ie nc e T here
i s it s eem s e n ti r e ag reeme n t am o ng c o mpete n t w riter s that
s c ie n ti fic c hemi s try i s a dire c t de s c e n dan t o f Al c he m y a n d
a very imper f e c t k n o wled ge o f the hi s t o ry o f Al c hemy r e
v eal s the f a c t that t he every where pre s e n t n o rm al tra ns
f o rmati o ns i n n ature parti c ularly i n i n o r ga n i c n ature were
the f o u n dati o n phen o me n a o f thi s o l d art O n e ha s o nly t o
re c all the pla c e held by the idea o f the tra ns mutati o n o f
metal s thi s idea havi ng u s ually the pra c ti c al aim o f cha ng
“
“
”
“
”
T he
i ng the ba s e metal s i n t o n o ble metal s
phil
“
”
”
a n d the gre at elixi r were ma gi c al s o me
o s o phe r s s t o n e
thi ngs by whi c h the tra ns mutati o ns c o uld be a cc o mpli s hed
G reatly s i gn i fic a n t fr o m o u r s ta n dp o i n t i s the f a c t that
o n e o f the o bj e c tive s o f R o bert B o yle ( mi ddle o f the s eve n
t e e n t h c e n tury) w h o p e rhap s a s mu c h a s a n y o n e man i s
e n titled t o be c alled the f ather o f experime n tal c hemi s try
wa s t o re c ti fy the f al s e a n d my s ti c al n o ti o ns prevale n t i n hi s
“
”
” “
” “
“
T ell
E ss e nc e s
time a bo ut E leme n t s
P rinc iple s
et c
”
me wh at y o u me a n by y o ur P ri nc iple s a n d y o ur E leme n t s
“
B o yle dema n ded the n I c a n di sc u s s them with y o u a s w o rk
” 2
i ng i ns trum e n t s f o r advan ci ng k n o wled ge
”
“
—
What i s behin d the tra ns f o rmati o ns fo r c e s eleme n t s
or
r
nc
iple
s
e
ss
e
nc
e
s
s
pirit
s
i
p
—
tan t a n d pr o p erly a s ked a le gitim ate
B ut a n d
—
here i s the m o s t vital f a c t o f all i t i s a que s ti o n whi c h c a n
n o t be rai s ed eve n u n til a f t e r the trans f o rm ati o ns have b ee n
n
u
o
erved
c
a
n
a
n
a
ns
wer
bj
e
c
tive
v
alue
b
e
g
ive
n
O
f
no r
o bs
le ss the wh o le r o u n d o f o bs e r ve d phe n o me n a the s ubs t anc e s
previ o u s t o tra ns f o rmati o n the t r a n s f o r m a t o r y pr o c e s s e s
e
a
e
the
s
u
b
ta
nc
e
s
a
cc
e
t
d
at
their
f
c
v
alue
that
e
b
s
n
e
a nd
w
p
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
.
,
/
.
’
.
~
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
An O r g an i s mal T he o r y
o
n
s
C
c i o usne ss
f
33
o
s u c h e vide nc e i s I believ e exa c tly thi s o f p s y chi c li fe And
withi n the g reat ran ge o f thi s li fe the hi gher c o nsc i o u s li fe
o f ma n i s m o s t replete with the evide n c e we s eek
A ga i n
withi n the ra ng e o f ma n s hi gher li f e ea c h i n dividual s ow n
private li f e ev e n hi s s u bj e c tive li fe hi s c o nsc i o u sn e ss i s t he
evidenc e m o s t c ert ai n a n d c o nvi nc i n g T ra ns lating thi s l as t
s tateme n t i n t o f amiliar la ngua ge o ne s ee s that it i s o nly
—
—
a n o ther way the sc ie n ti fic way o f a ffi rmi ng the t ruth ; that
the grea te s t o f all c ertai n tie s o f whi c h ma n i s c apa bl e i s that
o f hi s o w n exi s te nc e
I am s aying virtually that whe n w e
a n al yze a f te r the man n er o f o bj e c tiv e sc ien c e this old f a
miliar affirmati o n a bo ut c ertai n ty a n d c arry the an aly s i s
a s f ar
pre s e n t a ble t o we fi nd t ha t the s e ns e o r
f c ertai n ty o f s el f exi s te nc e a n d s el f
id e n t i t
n a l y s i s o n e o f the e ff e c t s o f a tran s f o rm a
t o ry i n tera c ti o nb fiw e e n o ur s elve s a n d s o me s ubs ta n c e ( o xy
o u r breath a s s tated i n the fi r s t o f o u r t w o pr o po
,
,
.
,
.
’
’
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
’
,
,
-
,
pr o p o s iti o n s eem s the n t o be hardly m o re tha n a
i o n that p s y chi c phe n o me n a c o n tai n i ng at lea s t the
germ o f c o nsc i o u sn e ss i s a ki n d o f c hemi c al pro du ct whi c h
ha s n o t heret o f o re be e n clearly re c o gn ized a s s u c h the l a c k
o f r e c o gn iti o n bei ng due t o the s tra n ge n e s s o f the pr od u c t a s
e x e r i me n
c o mp ared
p
B u t l o o ked at i n
tal c hemi s
a really br o ad a n d deep way i s it a ny m o re d iffic ult f o r me
t o i n terpret a s tate o f c o nsc i o u sn e ss i n my s el f t o b e a re 1t
o xy ge n ? )
I
o f c hemi c al a c ti o n b etwee n me a n d the ai r
(
b reathe tha n f o r me t o i n terp ret the dim green i s h whi te
lumin o s ity o f a pie c e o f ph o s ph o ru s t o be a re s ul t o f t he
chemi c al a c ti o n betw ee n the ph o s ph o r u s a n d the air e ss e n tial
t o the gl o wi ng ? Fr o m a purely chemi c al s tan dp o i n t I d o
n o t be lieve we h av e a n y g r o u n d f o r h o ldi ng that s o me pr o d
n o t s o f c hemi c al rea c ti o n are m o re c o mprehe ns i bl e o r l e s s
c o mpre hens ible than are o ther s :)
,
,
-
,
34
A n O r g a n i s ma l T he o r y
‘o
C
o
n
c
i
s
o
u
s
ne s s
f
C hemi c a lly v iew e d the pro blem n o w o n Ou r han d s i s
—
t i r e ly o ne o f fa c t
f a c t a s de t ermi n ed by o bs erv ati o n
en
by o bs ervati o n with the aid o f experime n tati o n
c a n be s h o wn th at ea c h i n dividual c o ns c i o u s being really d oe s
behave like a c hemi c al s u bs ta nc e i n the pr o c e s s o f re a c ting ;
an d i f the re s ul t o f s u c h rea c ti o n c a n be s h o w n t o have eve n
o ne o f the e ss e n tial mark s o f a c hemi c a l pr o du c t b o th pr o p o
s i t i o n s O f my t w o parted hyp o the s i s are warra nt a ble a n d the
“
—
hyp o the s i s be c o me s ge nui n ely s ci e n t ifi c a gen uin e w o rking
” —
o ne
hypo th e s i s
that i s f o r bi o c hemi s try t o take s eri
an d
.
,
-
-
,
,
o us
ly
.
)
M o r e S y s t e ma t i c Jus t ific a t i on
o
f
t he
H y po t he si s
T hat
the pr o p o siti o ns are dem o ns tra ble t o the ex t e n t o f
t he de man d j u s t in di c ated i s my c o n te n ti o n
T hi s c o nt e n
ti o n I will n o w try t o make go o d a n d will be gi n with a few
remark s o n a que s ti o n c o nc ern i ng t he hyp o the s i s wh i c h
o u g ht t o ar s e i ns ti nc tively i n the mi n d o f every o n e
hat
T
i
que s ti o n i s : D o e s s u c h a c o nc epti o n o f ps y c hi c li fe an d c o n
s ci o u s ne s s a s tha t c o n tai n ed i n o u r hyp o the s i s imply a n y real
i n fri n geme n t up o n o r der o g ati o n f r o m me i n the deepe s t
s e ns e a real e n ti ty pro pe rly de s i gn ated by the te r ms pe r s on
.
.
,
an
d pe r s o nali t y ?
;
s ayi ng th at thi s query o u ght t o ari s e i ns t in c t i v e ly I
ou ght i n the ethi c al s en s e b ut i n the o r g a ni s m al
i s i n a s e ns e whi ch implie s that the v ery n ature
l
o u s o r g a n i s m i s that it i s n o t o n ly s el f e x i s t e n t
i n a mea s ure like every n atural ob e c t but that it i s s el f ide n
t i fi a bl e a nd withi n c ertai n b o u n d s s el f determi n ativ e o f it s
“
N o w re c o gni zi ng it t o be thu s by it s v ery n a
o w n ac t s !
”
t ure i s o n ly a n o ther way o f re c o gn izi ng that it 1 8 s o In it s
i ns ti nc t s a s well a s i n it s phy s i c al o rg a n izati o n
B ut s i nc e
i ns tin c t i s m o re f u n damen tal mo re deep ro o ted i n the o r
o g e ni c a n d o n t o g e ni c p sy
a
s
phyl
a ni s m than i s i n telle c t
g
On
,
,
,
-
-
,
-
,
,
.
-
,
,
,
A n O rg an i sma l T he o r y
!
ho l o g y
o
C
n
s
c
i
u
s
o
s
o
n
e
s
f
35
make clear i f a pr o n o unc eme n t implyi ng a de
r o g ati o n f ro m t he reality a n d n a tural prer o ga tive s o f the
i n dividual be i ss ued fr o m the i n telle c t a re s p o ns e o f pr o te s t
a n d a n ta g o n i s m w o ul d be expe c ted f ro m i ns ti nc t T hi s w o uld
be expe c ted a s a n o rdi n a ry o r ga n i c impul s e t o s el f de f e ns e
a nd s el f pre s erv ati o n
c
,
,
.
-
-
.
T he N a t u r e
o
f
“
O u t er
”
O bje c t i ve
or
an d
“
Inne r
”
or
S u bje c t i ng
at we have t o d o c o ns eque n tly is t o sc ru tini ze the co n
sc 1 0 u s i n dividual in o rder t o s ee i f it p r e s e n t s a n y u n ique n e ss
o f attri bute s a n d o f t r a n s f o r m a t o r
o wer i n rea c ti ng with
y p
o ther bo die s that i s o n a p ar with the u n i u e n e s o f a n o rdi
q
‘
n ary c hemi c al s ubs ta nc e i n t he s ame re s pe c t s N ow it i s
a s s u gge s ted s o me p age s ba c k exa c tly i n the c o ns ci o u s the
s ubj e c tive li f e that s u c h u nique n e ss i s m o s t ea s ily dem o n
s trahle There are s everal way s in whi c h the c o nsc i o u s in di
vidual ma n i f e s t s thi s u n ique n e s s A p arti c ularly c o nv m cm g
way I thi nk i s i n the relati o n be twee n what are c o mm o nly
“
”
k n o w n a s the o bj e c tive o r o ute r a n d the s ubj e c ti v e o r
‘
“
”
inn e r s ide s o f me n tal li fe T hi s c o ns eque n tly will be the
appr o a c h t o the s ubj e c t c h o s e n by u s a n d we will e n ter up o n
“
it by returni ng t o R o y c e fi r s t t o hi s O utli n e s o f Ps y c h o l
”
o
e r t o s o me o f hi s s e c i fic ally
h
i
the
a
l
ittle
lat
hi
l
s
n
o
o
p
p
gy
p
c al wr iti ngs
I n the fi rs t chap t er o f the O utli n e s dev o te d t o i n itial d efi
s imply a n d c learly
ni t i o n s a n d e xpla n ati o ns R o y c e s t a te s
“
”
a di s ti nc ti o n betwee n o u r phy s i c al an d me ntal li fe whi c h
he ha s w o rked o u t with great elabo rati o n T hu s :
‘
f a c t s are u s
publ i c pr o perty
A l l s u c h o bs e r v
paten t t o all pr o perly
er s a cc o rdi ng t o o u r c u s t o mary view s ee the s a me phy s i c al
‘
f a c t s B u t p s y chi c al f a c t s are e ss e n tially private pr o pert y
exi s ten t f o r o ne a l o n e T hi s c o ns titute s the very c o nc epti o n
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
’
,
.
.
36
A n O r g a ni s ma l T he o r y .of
C o ns c i o us ne s s
’
‘
i nn er
of
the di ff ere nc e betwee n
ps y c hi c al o r men tal a n d
‘
” 3
phy s i c al o r o uter f a c t s
E ver pre s e n t a n d o bvi o u s as i s the c o mpari s o n here made
it n everthele ss i s o f s o g reat imp o rta nc e that we mu s t s t o p
an d refle c t up o n it f o r we s h a ll s urely f ail t o g ra s p the full
mea s ure o f what i s t o f o ll o w i f we are lukew a rm t o w ard o ne
o f the eleme n t s o f it
T he eleme n t I re fer t o i s the un iqu e
ne s s the e s s e n tiall y p e r s o nal c hara c ter o f i nn er a s c o n tra s t
ed with o uter f a c t s E very n o rmal per s o n i s re a dy e n o u gh
t o ins i s t that hi s th o u ght s hi s f eeli ngs hi s em o ti o ns a n d all
the r e s t o f hi s hi gher p s y c hi c a l experi e nc e s are hi s a n d hi s
al o ne
T he treme n d o u s reality a n d f o r c e o f the ri ght s o f
“
”
“
”
priv a te O pi n i o n o f per s o n al c o nsc ie nc e a nd s o f o rth
am on g c ivilized me n hardly n eed t o be expatiated o n
T he c h a ra c ter o f the u n ique n e ss o f the s e experie nc e s ho w
ever c o nc ern s pra c ti c al livi ng le s s vitally s o we give i t le ss
atte n ti o n T he wh o le v a s t ran g e o f my me n ta l li f e f r o m
the l o we s t s imple s t v a gue s t s e ns ati o ns t o the hi ghe s t m o s t
b e wi lderi ng c o mplex em o ti o ns pa ss i o ns ima gin i ngs a n d
th o u ght s are my o w n a bs o lutely s o far a s o ther per s o ns
are c o nc ern ed I c a nn o t s hare them t o the lea s t exte n t with
a n o ther per s o n O f c o ur s e I c a n let o ther s e s pe c i ally my
m o s t i n timate a ss o c iate s my deare s t f rie n d s k n o w a go o d
deal ab o u t the s e experie nc e s o f mi n e B ut a fter a ll gladly
a s I w o ul d s hare man y o f t he m w i t h the s e frie n d s it i s utter
f
ly imp o ss ible f o r me t o d o s o
My experie nc e s mu s t remai n
wh o lly o ut s ide o f t hei r c o nsc i o u sn e ss N 0 t w o per s o ns c a n
hav e the s am e e xpe r l e n ce a ny m o re th a n they c a n have the
s ame ha n d s o r s t o ma ch s N o r i s thi s all I f me n tal li fe i s
s ubj e c t t o the ge n er al bi o l o gi c al law s o f variati o n i n t o w hi c h
we h ave latterly g ai n ed mu c h i ns i ght I am o bliged t o s up
p o s e that the s e experie nc e s o f min e the wh o le reti n ue o f s e n
f eeli ngs em o ti o ns a n d th o u ght s di ff er s o mewhat
s a t io ns
f ro m the c o rre s p o n di ng experie nc e s o f o ther per s o ns A nd
—
all o bs erv ati o n c o nfi rm s thi s s upp o s iti o n mu c h o f it s tr o ng
,
’
.
-
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
y
.
,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
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,
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,
,
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,
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.
v
‘
.
.
-
,
,
,
,
,
.
r
An O rg a ni s mal T he o r y
ly
o
n
i
C
o
s
c
o
u
s
n
e
s
s
f
I nf ere n tial evide nc e c o uld hardly be s tr o nger tha n that
my parti c ul ar em o ti o n al re s p o ns e t o o pera s ingi ng f o r
example i s quite di ff ere n t f r o m that o f ma n y o ther per s o ns
O bvi o u s ly we are here s kirt i ng the ed g e o f what m od ern
rea li s m i n f o rmal phi l o s o phy c all s plurali s m a n d deal s with
i n part a s the que s ti o n o f whether per c ept s are s tri c tly i ndi
vidual an d per s o n al
N O phil o s o pher with wh o s e view s I
have be c o me a c quai n ted ha s di sc u ss ed thi s que s ti o n s o fully
a n d i n my o pi n i o n s o illumi n atingly a s S ellar s T he foll o w
i ng s e n te nc e s take n fr o m hi s c h a pter T he Ad v an ce of t he
P e r s o na l s h o w c learly it s eem s t o me that the c o nclu s i o ns
he ha s rea c hed w o rki ng f r o m the purely phil o s o phi c al s ide
are e ss e n tially the s ame a s t h o s e arr ived at by me adva nc ing
“
f r o m the bi o l o gi c al s ide :
What may be c alled the se ns o ry
c o n te n t o f o u r per c ept s i s imp o rta n t I d o n o t wi s h t o
—
be u n ders t o o d t o belittle i t but s o are the mea n ings whi c h
ari s e i n c o nn e c ti o n with o u r bo dily a c tivitie s a n d m o t o r ad
j u s tme nt s t o s timuli Here a gai n we are f a c e t o f a c e with
i n dividual f a c t o r s i n per c epti o n whi c h eve n the ideali s t mu s t
re c o gn i s e a n d s o meh o w explai n E vide n tly per c epti o n i s n o t
a mere pa ss ive pre s e n tati o n b ut a c o ns tru c ti o n wh o s e ge n e
ti c eleme n t s c a n be partially tra c ed F i n all y let u s c all t o
mi n d that per c ept s are c o n ti n u o u s with feeli ngs a n d with the
O nc
s o c alled o r g an i c s e ns ati o ns
”
f eeli ng i s n o w c o ns idered s u bj e c tive o r per s o n al
o ther s e n te nc e s a n d p ara graph s o f like purp o rt c o uld b e
qu o ted f ro m thi s auth o r I have s ele c ted thi s f o r the t w o
f o ld rea s o n tha t it in di c ate s the mea s ure o f my a gre eme n t
with hi s view a s t o the per s o n al c hara c ter o f per c ept s an d
the re s t o f c o nsc i o u s li f e ; an d at the s ame time i n di c ate s
—
wherei n I s hall have t o o u t d o him i n the matter o f v al i d a t
A p art o f o u r ta s k t o be rea c hed a little
i n g the i n d ividual
later will be t o s h o w that alth o ugh f eeli ng a n d all the re s t
it i s al s o
o f p s y c hi c li f e i s i n deed s u bj e c ti v ely per s o n al
o bj e c tively per s o n al
In o ther w o rd s it will be my t a s k t o
.
,
,
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,
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,
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,
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-
,
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-
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,
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y‘o f
38
Co ns c i ous ne ss
rem o ve o r at leas t t o s h o w the way t o rem o ve the v a guen e ss
whi c h S ellar s a ss ert s ri ghtly ha s hi thert o c l o uded thi s
s ide o f per s o n a lity T o d o thi s thi ng i s i ndeed o ne o f my
“
m o s t imp o rt a n t c ha nc e s t o c o n tri bute t o a better phi l o s o phy
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
s i nc e o u r p s y chi c al li fe e s pe c i ally o u r c o nsc i o u s li fe
—
—
i s a vas t i nc al c ulably vas t c o mplex o f experie nc e s o f
“
”
c o n te n t s s o u n d s s i ght s mem o rie s f eeli ngs ide as m a n y
o f whi c h are s et o ff very s ha r ply f r o m the re s t
a r e c learly
c hara c terizable a n d a r e w o n der fully per s i s te n t ; a n d s i nc e
i nn umera ble o f the s e are c o mi ng al o ng all the whi le whi c h
have mu c h o f ge nui n e n e wn e ss abo ut them ; a n d s i nc e f urther
the s e c o n te n t s o f c o nsc i o u sn e s s are in tert wi n ed with a n d are
determi n ative o f a va s t c o mplex o f o ther c o n te n t s c alle d v o li
ti o n s whi c h i n turn are li nked up with a n d are m o re o r le s s
dire c tive o f bo dily a c tiviti es o f ma n y ki n d s s o me purely r e
flex a nd s o me i ns ti nc tive it s eem s imp o ss i ble t o es c a pe re c o g
”
“
nizin
eve
n
i
f
o n e wa n ted t o that i f the v er b
o c reate
as
t
h
g
a ny de fin ite mea n i ng at all the n o rm al s el f c o ns c i o u s a n imal
o rg a n i s
i
s
a
b
o ut the m o s t c re ative thi ng we k n o w o r c a n
m
c o nc eiv e /In deed it i s alt o gether likely that the very n o ti o n
whether n atural o r s upern atural c ame i n itially
o f c reati o n
f r o m the c reative a c ti vity a n d the impul s e t o s u c h a c tivity
o f ma n hi m s el f
We may j u s tly s ay I thi n k that we kn o w all c reative n e ss
c hemi c al c reative ne s s wi t h the re s t thr o u gh be ing i n o u r o w n
deepe s t n ature s c reative that i s tra ns f o rm ati ve an d tra ns
fo rm ative i n the way whi c h we c all chemi c al W e learn
ab o u t the pr o c e ss e s o f li f e a n d c all s o me o f the m o s t e ss e n
tial o f them chemi c al j u s t by pe r fo r ming th o s e pr o c e ss e s a s
s o me o f o u r m o s t e ss e n tial attrib ute s A p o rti o n o f the pro
c e ss whi c h g o e s o n withi n u s t o gether with the c o rre s po n di ng
pro du c t c o ns titute s what we c all the s c ien c e o f bi o c hemi s
“
try T hi s m e an s that a cc o rdi ng t o o u r hypo the s i s o bje c
“
”
“
”
”
“
”
tive an d s u bj e c tive o r o u t er a n d i nn er a s applied t o
sBu t
,
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-
,
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‘
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,
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,
—
An O rg ani s ma l T he o r y
li f e ,
o
o
c
i
n
s
u
o
s
C
ne s s
f
39
a re s o me thi n g qui te diff e r en t from wha t they hav e been
l o s o phi e s o r in m o s t at lea s t o f
ei t he r in t rad iti o n
“
r ecent ps y
R o y ce w r i t e s
of
‘
o u r phy s i o l o gical p ro c e s s e s a s inte rnal t he w ord inte r nal
‘
alth o ugh it he r e gene rally implie s hidden in wh o le o r in p a r t
‘
f ro m a c tua l o u t e r o b s e r vati o n d o e s no t i mply di r ectly f elt
” b
by u s o u rs elve s
M y hy po t s i s implie s a deni al o f the
c o r r ec t ne ss o f t hi s s t a t ement
that
in
t
he
s
um
t
o
tal
sa
y
“
”
o f t he c o n t en t s o f c o n s ci o u s ne ss a nethe r s e gm en t a s o ne
“
di r e c tly fel t by
,
,
,
,
’
,
,
,
,
’
,
K
.
.
,
,
i n t e r na l
any o t he r c on t e n t o
ve
t
i
c
j
sub e
.
ne ss w hi c h
an
y
f
i
t
c
ve
j
o r su b e
c o ns ci o u sne s s
A nd p e r c o n t r a t he r e
i s n o t o bje c t i v e t o
,
is
no
in
w ha t
i s in t e r na l
or
c on t en t o f c on s c i o u s
s e ns e
c o nt e n t
o t he r
a c c o rdi n g t o t hi s
i s n o t s o methin g whi ch u s e s
the b r ain o r a ny o t he r pa r t o f the or gani s m me r ely a s a t o o l
w ith whi c h t o make th o ught s and o the r c o n t e nt s o f c o n
s c i o u s ne s s
N o r o n t h e o the r hand i s c o n sci o u sne s s o f t he
n a t u r e o f a s ec r eti o n t he gland f or whi c h i s t h e b r ai n y t ho u gh
u nqu e s t i o nably th e br ain ha s an e ss ential pa r t in t h e p r o
o f t h o ugh t a nd th e highe r c o ntent s o f c o n s ci o u s ne ss
th e c o n s equ ence s o f the re a cti o n be tween t he o r
c o n s c i o u s ne ss with i t s
a nd t he ai r we b r ea the a
ma rv ell o u s ly r ich an d v a ried c o n t e
B u t a t t hi s p o i n t I mu s t s p e c ially r eque s t t h e reade r t o
t o de s c ribe a nd e x pl ain all
n o t ice t ha t I am n o t p r etendin
g
t he c o n t en t s o f c o n s ci o u s ne ss
In o t he r w o r d s i t i s no t a
t he o r y o f know le d g e bu t a t heo r y o f c o ns ci ou s ne s s tha t I
and co n
a m ske t c hi ng ; and kn o wl e dge in th e s t r ict s en s e
T hey di ff e r a cc or di n g t o m y
s ci o u sn e s s a r e v er y di ff e r en t
unde r s tanding much a s the fully de v el o p ed phy s i c a l or gan
i s m di ff e r s f ro m the living s u bs tance or p r o t o pla s m o f
C o n sequently I am no t
whi ch the o rgan i s m IS co mp o s e d
.
,
.
m
.
”
.
,
,
,
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,
,
,
.
,
An O rg an i s mal T he o r y
o
o
i
n
s
u
s
o
C
c
n
e
s
s
f
41
organi s m thi nking i s o ne I n o the r w ord s the the r e
“
”
”
“
f or e in I th ink the r e f or e I am
i s t rue o nly be c au s e I
”
am
the r e f ore I think the r eve r s e p ro p o s iti o n i s al s o t rue
a n d i nc lude s the o the r t ru th
T he le ss e r t ruth i s t r ue be
c au s e i t i s an e ss ential p a r t o f the la r ge r t r uth much in
the s ame way th a t the cell s o f a multicellula r or gani s m a r e
alive be c au s e they a r e e ss ential p a r t s o f the or g a ni s m
W e n eed no t inqui r e h o w f ro m thi s s e ri o u s s h ortc o ming o f
D e s ca r t e s de s c r ip ti on o f p s ychic li f e D e s c a rt e s wen t on t o
“
the c o ncl u s i o n that the r e i s n o thin g r eal ly e xi s tin g ap a r t
”
“
f ro m o u r th o ught a n d that n eithe r e x ten s i o n n or figu r e
no r l o cal m o t i o n n or anything s imila r tha t can be at t r ib
pe r t ain s t o o u r natu r e a n d no thi ng s ave
u t e d t o bo dy
th o ught al on e ; and c on s eque n tly that the no t i on we have o f
o u r mind p recede s that o f a n y c o r p or eal thi ng a n d i s m or e
ce r tain s eeing we s t ill d o ub t whethe r the r e i s any bod y in
” 6
exi s tence while we r e a d i pe r ceiv e that we think
N or
n eed we c o nce r n o u r s elve s with the v o lumin o u s and t edi o u s
r ea s o ning s by whi c h a c o ns ide r able numbe r o f m o de r n s f ol
l o wi ng D e s ca rte s s lead h a ve c o nvinced them s elv e s t ha t they
”
“
have r educed all r eality or at lea s t all r e ali ty tha t r eally
am o u n t s t o a n ythi n g t o qu a n ti t y E n o ugh no w t o r ema rk
that eve ry m o de rn bi o l o gi s t wh o r eal ly a cc ept s th e b a s al data
“
P s ych o phy s ical pa r a l elli sm
o f hi s s c ie nc e mu s t a gr e e th a t
s tan d s t o day a s the s c an dal o u s but i rr e fut able c o ns e
i
p
a
mate
r
al
w
o
r
ld
with
o
u
t
quali
t
ie
s
and
e
f
o s t ul a tin
n
e
o
c
u
q
g
” 7
—
a w orld of mind s th a t lack s pati ality and exi s t s m at che r e
O ne way o f cha r acte rizing my hyp o the s i s w o uld be t o s a y
that it i s a n e ff o rt t o r em o ve thi s s c a n dal by s h o win g wh e r e
in t he p o s tulati on n o ted by D r M on ta gue i s no t t rue
T he gene t ic r el a ti o n s hip s o f my hyp o t he s i s c an be s till
f a rthe r in dica t ed by c o min g o n d o w n f ro m D e s ca rt e s t o
Hume then f ro m Hume t o Huxley and finally t o G F S t o ut
and Jo h n D ewey a s phil o s o phe r s o f t o d ay Hume s no m
e n cl a t u r e f or the s ubj ec t ive and o bj ec t ive s i de s o f ma n s
“
h uma n
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
’
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,
,
,
,
,
,
,
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,
’
,
,
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-
,
-
.
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’
-
.
3
’
42
An O rg an i s mal T he o r y
o
o
n
c
i
s
C
o
us ne s s
f
p s y c hi c li f e i s R ela t i o n s o f Idea s f or th e fi r s t and Ma t
”
t e r s o f F ac t f or th e s ec o nd O f the fi r s t kind s a y s Hume
“
A r e th e s c i e nc e s o f G e o met r y A lgeb r a a n d A r ithm e ti c ; an d
in s h o r t e ve r y a ffi r mati o n whi c h i s in t uitively or dem o n s t r a
“
”
t i v e l y c e r t ain
T ha t t hr e e t ime s fiv e i s e qu al t o ha lf
”
t hi r t y
of
i s a s impl e illu s t r ati on o f the r elati o n o f
“
A nd
ide a s
P ro p o s iti o n s o f this kind a r e di s
c o ve r able by t he me r e o pe r ati on o f th o u ght with
o u t d e pe nde nc e o n wh a t i s a n ywh e r e exi s t ent in the uni
” 8
vers e
A n d f u rthe r o n P a r t 2 s ame s ecti o n we r e a d :
“
It m u s t c e r tai nly be a ll ow ed t ha t n a t u r e has kep t u s a t a
g r e a t di s t ance f ro m all he r s ec r et s an d ha s a ff or ded u s only
th e k no wled ge o f a f ew s upe r ficial qu alitie s o f o bj ects ; whi le
s he c o n c eal s fro m u s th o s e p owe r s and p rinci p le s on whi c h
”
th e in fl ue nc e o f t h o s e o bj ec t s enti rely depend s
T hen Hume
go es in t o a di s cu ss i o n o f the o pe r ati o n s a n d r el a t i o ns o f the
“
”
”
“
s upe rfi cial qualitie s and s ec r et p o we r s o f o bj ect s whi c h
i s s o s imil a r t o my t r e atme n t o f the r elati on o f the or gani s m
t o t h e att r ibu t e s o f c e rt ai n o bj ect s ( c hap t e rs 2 0 a n d 2 1 thi s
9
boo k a n d m o r e pa r ti cula rly my e s s ay Is N a t u r e Infini t e ? )
tha t i t s eem s a s th o u gh hi s w or d s mu s t have been in m y mind
whe n I t h o u gh t o ut wha t I have t he r e w r i tt en th o u gh I c e r
A n d thi s s u b
t ai nl y w as no t con s c i o u s o f Hume s vie w s
con s c i o us i n fl ue nc e appea r s the m o r e p robable in tha t I have
a lm os t conc lu s ive p roo f o f having r ead hi s a r gu men t n o t l o ng
be f or e my o w n wa s w ri tt en I am ce rt ain h o weve r tha t i f
hi s s t a t e men t s w e r e in my mind they we r e o nl y i n it s p ro
con s c i o u s pa rt a n d we r e no t n or eve r had been in it s f ull
con s c i o u s pa rt
In o the r w o r d s if I had r ead hi s w o r d s I
had no t g r a s ped thei r full s i gnificance T hi s p ro bable i n
”
“
“
s tance o f t he sub or p ro c o n s ci o u s I r e fe r t o n o t s o
much becau s e o f i t s i n t e re s t i n thi s in s ta nc e a s bec au s e o f i t s
bea ri n g on my conc ept i on o f t h e na t u r e o f con s c i o u s n e ss
i
a
d
is
c
u
ss
i
on
by
Hume
wh
i
c
h
I
r
e
f
e
r
i
s
t
h
t
in
w
h
c
h
h
e
o
t
e
h
T
”
“
r
o
c
d
s
a
n
a
l
t alks abo u t t he s en sibl e qu itie
th e s e re t p w e s
“
”
“
,
.
,
,
~
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
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,
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,
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,
,
’
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,
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,
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,
.
~
.
-
,
.
An O r g an is ma l T he o r y
o
f Cons ci ou sne ss
43
O u r s en s e s in f or m u s o f t he co l o r
o f the br e a d w e e a t
”
“
weigh t a n d c o n s i s t ence o f the b read he s ay s bu t neithe r
s e n s e no r r e a s on c a n eve r in f orm u s o f th o s e quali tie s whi ch
fit i t f o r the n o u r i s hment a n d s upp ort o f a huma n bod y i
T he pa rticula r puzzle u p o n whi c h Hume c o m e s i n thi s
mat t e r i s the f act tha t alth o u gh th e examinati o n her e and
no w o f a n atu r al o bj e ct give s u s a b s o lutely n o c lue a s t o wha t
“
”
la t en t a t t rib ute s ( s ec r e t p o we r s he c all s t h e m ) t he o h
e
c
t
o
may
p
s s e ss whe n we examine a s e con d o bj ec t o f the
j
s ame kind we a ss ume that t he s ame s‘e c r e t p o we r s a r e p o s
“
s e ss ed by the s ec o nd o bj ec t
If a bo dy o f like c ol o u r a n d
c o n s i s t ence with t ha t b r ead whi c h we h a ve f orm e rly eat
b e p re s ented t o u s we make no s c ruple o f r epe atin g the e x
e ri me nt
a
n
d
f
or
e
s
ee
w
ith
ce
r
ta
i
nty
ike
n
o
u
r
i
s
hment
a
n
d
l
p
”
s upp o rt N o w thi s i s a p r oc e ss o f the mind o f th o ught
“
Hum e go e s o n t o s ay o f whi c h I w o uld w illi ngly kn o w the
”
“
”
f o unda t i o n
T he b r ead
he s ay s a little fa rt he r on
“
which f orme rl y I e a t n o u r i s hed me ; t ha t i s a b o dy o f s u c h
s en s ible quali t ie s wa s a t that t i me endued with s uch s e c r et
p o we rs : bu t d o e s it f o ll o w tha t o the r b read mu s t al s o n o u r
i s h me a t a no the r ti me and th a t l ike s e n s i ble qu al i t ie s mu s t
alway s be a tt ended with like se c r e t p o w e r s ? T he c o n se
e
a ckn o w l
n
e
t
s
s
eem
n
o
wi
s
e
n
e
c
e
ss
a
r
y
l
e
a
s
t
it
mu
s
t
be
u
A
c
q
!
ed ged t ha t t he r e i s he r e a c o n s equ e nce d r aw n by the mind ;
t ha t t he r e i s a c e r t ai n s t ep t aken ; a p ro ce ss o f th o u ght
and a n in fe r ence wh i c h wan t s t o be explained ” T hen a fte r
a li tt le fu r t he r a r gumen t t o s h o w the nece ss i t y o f r e co g
l
ni zin
n
s
u
c
h
a
r
oc
e
s
s
we
f
i
d
th
i
s
t
g
y
i
n
t
e
r
e
st
o me e x ceedi n
g
p
“
i ng pa s s a g e :
T he r e i s r equi r ed a medium whi c h may e n
able the m ind t o d r a w s uch an in fe rence i f indeed i t be d r awn
by r e a s on i n g and a rg ument W ha t tha t medium i s I mu s t
c o n fe ss p a ss e s my co mp r ehe n s i on ; an d i t i s incumben t on
th o s e t o p r o du c e i t wh o as se rt t ha t it r eally e x i s t s and i s
”
t he o ri gi n o f all o u r conc lu s i on s c o nce rn in g m a tt e r o f f ac t
s
o
t
r
ea
t
r
e
s
b
y
H
u
m
e
i
s
h
i
s
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
pu
h
o
T he g
merit he
h wn
“
.
,
,
,
,
’’
.
,
,
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,
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,
,
,
,
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,
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44
An O rg an i s ma l T he o r y
o
n
o
C
s
c
i
o
u sne s s
f
the analy s i s o f hi s p ro blem t o the ve ry limi t o f the p o s i tive
in f orm ati o n he had t o g o on r ec o gni s e exactly whe r ei n hi s
in f orm ati o n wa s lackin g a n d then s t o p with o ut runnin g o ff
int o a pu r ely s pecul a tive s ub s titute f o r hi s deficient kno wl
“
”
ed ge A cc ording t o my hyp o the s i s the unkn o wn m e dium
which he s aw mu s t exi s t the r e s ea r che s o f a c e n tu r y a n d a
half s i nc e he w r o t e in c hemi s t ry phy s i o l ogy gene r al z oo l ogy
and b o t any a n d p s y c h o l o gy have enabled u s t o s e e i s the
individual animal or gani s m r eachin g with t he r e s pi r a t or y
s ub s t a nc e ( o xy gen ? ) i t t ake s i n In thi s on e pa r ti c ula r a nd
f ro m t he s tandp o int t o whi ch we have be en a cc u s t o med ve ry
peculia r c a s e the r eacti o n i s a t o n e a n d th e s am e time pa r t
o f t he e s s ence o f bo th idea s and i mp re s s i on s i n the Hume a n
”
“
”
“
s en s e t he r ea c t i on being the medium or th e ce r t ain s te p
by whi c h the in fe rence i s d r awn t hi s in fe rring being p o ss ible
be c au s e o f th e con ti n ui ty o f the organi s m a s a pe rs on or
el f a nd the pe rs i s te nc e o f the r e s pi r at ory s ub s t ance a s the
s ame iden t ical t hing f ro m the p a s t thr o u gh t he p r e s e nt i nt o
the fu t u r e
W e w ill no w no ti c e h o w Hux ley be c aus e o f hi s much m or e
e xt en s ive kn o wl edge o f the s t r u c tu r e and functi o n o f animal s
than Hume p o ss e ss ed wa s abl e t o d r aw s till cl o s e r th a n Hum e
co uld t o t he he a r t o f the o ld Mi n d B o dy puzzle T h e gi s t
o f Huxley s p o s iti o n on and con t r ib ut i on t o th e p r oblem
can c o nveniently be p r e s e n t ed th ro ugh hi s r ema rk s o n th e
que s ti o n o f inna t ene ss o f va r i o u s a s p e c t s o f p s ychi c l i fe
the s e r em a rk s o ccu r ri ng in hi s e s s ay o n Hum e A f te r p o int
a
o
u
t
tha
t
neithe
r
o
cke
no
r
H
u
m
e
s
eemed
t
o
kn
o
w
ex
ct
L
i ng
o
r
f
o
what
D
e
s
ca
r
t
e
s
the
or
iginat
or
t
he
m
o
de
n
c
nc ep t i on
1y
”
“
o f i nn ate i d ea s me a nt by hi s ph r a s e id é e s natu relle s Hux
“
I have u s ed t hi s t e rm in
l e y qu o te s D e s ca r te s a s f o ll o w s :
t h e s ame s e n s e a s whe n we s ay tha t gene ro s i t y i s i nn a t e in
ce rt ain famili e s ; o r tha t c e r t ai n maladie s s u c h a s g o u t or
r
avel
a
r
e
i
nn
a te i n o the r s ; n o t tha t child r e n b o rn in t h e s e
g
f a m ili e s a r e t ro ubled wi t h s u ch di s e a s e s in thei r mo t he r s
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
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,
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-
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,
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,
’
A n O rg an i s m a l T he o r y
o
n
s
c
i
C
o
o u s ne s s
f
45
w o m b ; but bec au s e they a r e b or n with the di s p o s iti o n or
” 10
fa c ulty o f con t r a c ti ng them
T hen a f te r f u rthe r qu o t a
“
ti on s t o the s ame e ff ect Huxley w rite s : W h o eve r denie s
what i s in f act an inc o nceivable p r o p o s iti on that s en s ati o n s
pa ss a s s uch f ro m t he exte rn al w o rld int o the min d mu s t
admit the c o ncl u s i o n he r e laid d o w n by D e s c a rte s that
s t rictly s p e aki n g s e n s ati on s an d a f o r t i o r i all the o the r
con te n t s o f the mi n d a r e i nn ate O r t o s tate the matte r i n
a cco r da nc e with view s p r evi o u s ly exp o unded that they a r e
p rod uct s o f the i n he r e n t p ro pe r tie s o f the thinkin g or gan in
which they lie p o te n tially be f or e they a r e c al led int o e x i s t
”
e nc e by thei r app ro p riat e cau s e s
T he up s h o t o f t hi s c lea rly i s tha t innat e f or D e s c a r te s a n d
Hu xley mean s ha rdly anything el s e than he redit ar y a s a p
plied t o the p s y c h i c al a s well a s t o the phy s ical att ribute s o f
animal s T he ample j u s tificati o n in o u r day o f t he view
tha t p s ychi cal att ribute s a r e he r edita r y s h o uld i t w o uld
s eem r e s t o re t o full s tanding in bi o l ogy the c o ncep t i o n o f
—
inna t e ide a s o nly o f c o u rs e in a ve ry diff e ren t s en s e f ro m
that int o which late r Ideali s t s have pe r ve r ted i t
It i s in thi s di s cu ss i o n tha t Huxley make s one o f the m o s t
di re c t and
t mate riali s m th a t
c a n be ma
ma t e riali s t ic p o s i
ti o n i s
i s t o s h o w that the ideali s t ic
p o s iti o n i s una ss a ilable i f the ideali s t con fi n e s hi m s el f wi th
” 1 1
T h a t i s t o s ay if the
in the limit s o f po s itive kn o wledge
mate r iali s t in s i s t s that all t r ace s o f i nn ate n e ss o f idea s and
o the r c o ntent s o f t he mind mu s t be r epudiated he vi r t ually
c o n t end s t h at he redity o f wh a teve r s o r t whethe r o f phy s i c al
or p s ychic al at t r ibute s mu s t be r e pudiated W ith thi s c o n
c e t i o n o f i nn ate n e ss i n the enti r e p s ychic a s pe c t o f the
p
“
or gani s m be f or e him Huxle y a s k s : What i s me an t by ex
.
»
,
,
,
,
,
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,
,
.
,
,
,
i
e r e n ce
p
.
I
It i s t he c o nve r s i o n he replie s by u n k now n c au s e s o f
” 12
the s e i nnate po tent i alitie s int o a c tu al ex p e r ience s
N ow
”
“
,
“
,
,
.
46
Cons ci ou s ne s s
A n O r g an i sma l T he o e
“
”
the s e unkn o wn cau s e s a r e acc or ding t o my v iew e ss en tial
“
”
ly the s ame a s th e medium which Hume r ec o nized mu s t
g
“
”
“
exi s t f o r maki ng the s tep p o ss ible f ro m the s upe rfici a l
”
“
”
qualitie s t o the s e c r et p owe r s o f natu r al o bj ect s an d f ro m
“
”
the s e c r et p o we r s o f on e o bj ect t o th o s e o f an o the r T hey
a r e t o re peat the r ea c ti on o f the or gani s m in it s laten tl y
“
”
p s ychical a s pe c t wi th the br eath o f li f e tha t i s with the
o xy ge n or whateve r be the g a s e o us con s titue n t o f the ai r
whi c h i s a ctive in r e s pi r ati o n A n d I believe we can s ee t o
a c o n s ide r able e x te n t why Huxley c o n s ide r ed thes e c au s e s a s
wh o lly unkn o wn It wa s becau s e phy s i o l o gy a n d bi o chemi s
t ry i n hi s day we r e n o t yet able t o view the or ga ni s m f ro m
B e c au s e o f th i s i n a
t h e s ta n dp o i n t o f phy s ical chemi s t r y
bili t y Huxley n or any o the r phy s i o l o gi s t o f hi s pe ri o d had
a n adequate s t ru ctu r al g ro und w or k f or thinking o r a n i s
g
mally ab o ut living thi ng s T hey we r e cons eque n tly obli ge d
r eally t o think o f all p s ychic phen
with the r e s t a s bein g r e s t ricted t o the ne rv
we
u xl e y s view at a n y r a te
0 on e wh o i s c o gni s a nt o f the f act s o f the
“
that the roo ts of ps y c h o l
”
og y lie in the phy s i o l o gy o f the ne r v o u s s y s t em
t he s i s c all s
p or t ant r evi s i o n o f thi s s tate men t whi c h o u r hy po
f or i s that while the r o o t s o f p s ych o l o gy a r e indeed in the
ne rv o u s s y s t em they a r e by n o mea n s in th at s y s tem al o ne
T hey pa ss th ro ugh i t t o a mu c h deepe r level s o t o s pea k and
in pa ss ing d r a w gr eat nut r iment f ro m it
I n a brie f but imp o r ta n t p ape r s ta r ti ng o ff with t he p ro p
o s i t i o n that a phil o s o phe r c a n no t le giti mately que s ti o n the
—
exi s tence o f the exte rn al w o rld th a t all he can r ightly d o i s
t o inqui re wh a t that w o r ld i s a n d h o w we c a n kn o w i t a t all
G F S t o ut c o me s t o the ke r nel o f the p ro blem i n c o n s d e r a
“
bly the s ame way that Hume and Huxley c ame t o it a F or
p ri mitive c o n s ci o u s ne s s and f or o u r o wn u n r e fl e c t i v e con
“
”
he s ay s s en se expe ri e nc e an d t he c o rr ela t ive
s cio u sne s s
,
,
'
.
,
,
,
,
,
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-
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-
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’
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-
,
°
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,
,
?
~
A n O r g a n i s ma l T he o r y
o
n
s
c
i
C
o
o
u
s
n
e
s
s
f
a g e nc y
c o nditi o n s it c o ale s ce in on e unanaly s ed t o tal
—
o bj ect
co ale s c e in s u c h a way that the s en s e p r e s ent a
ti o n app ea r s a s p o ss e ss ing the independence o f the no t s elf
and the independent n o t s el f s eem s t o be given with the s ame
“
”
immedia c y a s the s en s e p r e s entati o n
thi s c o mplex
An d
”
but unan aly s ed c o gniti o n S t o ut con ti n ue s
f ro m whi c h o u r det a iled kn o wled ge o f matte r
I f p ro ved t ru e my hyp o the s i s w o uld be a c o n
“
wa rd s tep I be lieve in a n aly s i ng thi s u n a n aly s ed c o gu i
“
”
ti o n
F or alth o u gh S t o u t s a ss e r ti o n the independen t no t
”
s el f i s no t matte r s eem s at fi r s t s igh t t o exclude o xy ge n or
a n y o the r con s titue n t o f o u r b r eath f ro m s u c h a pla c e in
the exte r nal w o rld o f hi s conc epti on a s th a t whi c h it ha s in
that w o r ld a cco r ding t o my c o ncepti o n thi s exclu s i o n i s I
think o nly s eemingly s o f or a s entence f a r the r on the auth or
“
s ay s matte r e ss e n tially include s the quali fi c ati on o f the i n
”
—
depe n de n t n o t s el f by the c o n te n t o f s en s e expe rience
The
s eemin g di s c repancy i s p ro bably due t o the ge n e r ality o f the
“
te rm matte r I t o o w o uld s ay th at the independent no t
”
s el f i s n o t matte r we re I t o mea n by matte r the t o tal s u b
s ta nc e o f the exte rnal w orld B u t in the s en s e that t he e ff e c
tive re s pi r a t or y g a s ( o xy gen s upp o s edly ) i s matte r my
hyp o the s i s w o uld r equi r e me t o h o ld tha t t he n o t s el f ha s an
e ss ential m a t e ri al c omp on e nt which co mp on e n t i s r eally t he
att ribute o f the ga s in vi r tue o f which it re act s with the
o r ga n i s m in the p e c ul ia r way i t d e e s t o p ro duce c o n s ci o u s
“
ne ss It s eem s t o me that what S t o ut s eek s i n the quali
—
fi c a t i o n o f the i n depe n de n t n o t s el f by the c o ntent o f s en s e
”
expe ri ence i s the im me d i a t e ly c o n s ci o u s ne ss p ro ducing a t t r i
bute o f the r e s pi r at or y ga s W e might s t ate the p o int thi s
5
way : O xy ge n ( or the e ff ective r e s pi r at ory ga s ) ha s a d o uble
s tatu s in human con s c i o u s n e ss F i r s t and m o s t fu n dame n ta l
l y it ha s the s tatu s o f an i mmediate and e ss ential pa r ti c i p ant
in p ro ducing a ll c o n s ci o u s ne s s whateve r ; a n d s ec o nd it ha s
the st at u s o f an indi rec t pa r ti c i pa n t in p r o ducin g the pa r
.
-
,
-
-
,
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,
,
,
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’
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!
,
,
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-
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,
-
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-
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,
.
A n O r g an i s mal T he o r y
o
o
n
s
u
i
s
C
c
o
ne s s
f
49
s ci o u sn e s s
i s a n inciden t al o ut co m e o f e xpe rience o f a v i t ally
o bj ective s or t ; it i s no t it s s o u r ce U n de rgo i ng h o wev er
i s neve r me r e pa ss ivity T he m o s t p a tie n t p a tient
m o re
—
o
H
i
t
than a r ecept r
s al s o a n a e n
e
eac t or
r
a
g
A gai n the ita l ic s a r e mine
I t ake the libe r t y t o e n d
o
u
q
“
”
t a t i o n at
r e a c t o r th o u gh t he r emaining pa r t o f the s en
t e nc e i s imp or tan t f or D ewe y s p a r t ic ula r pu rp o s e But my
aim i s di ff e rent I wan t t o fi x a tt en ti o n o n t he t w o s t a t e
ment s itali c i s ed f or the pu r po s e o f s h o wing h o w my hy p o
the s i s c o nnect s with D ewey s gene r al c o nce p ti o n o f e xpe r i
e nc e When D ewey s ay s li fe endu re s o nly a s s up p o rt ed by
the envi ro nment he i s s peakin g in v e ry gene r al t e rm s havin g
re f e r ence I ima e m o r e t o s o cial and o the r bul k a s p e c t s
o f envi ro nment
y hyp o the s i s o n th e c o nt r a r y make s the
depe n de nc e o f li f e on envi ro nment e x ceedin gly s p ecific i n tha t
it unde rt ake s t o s h o w the p a r t ic ula r t hi ng in t h e en v i r o n
m e n t namely the r e s p i r a t ory pa r t o f the a tm o s phe r e whi ch
i s phy s i o l ogi c ally ba s al t o s el f devel o pmen t and s el f p re
s e rvati o n T he S el f whi c h t r adi t i o nal phil o s o phy h as s t ru g
gled s o ha r d t o unde r s tand li t e r ally the human o rg an i s m
acc ording t o my hyp o the s i s An d when in th i s di s c u s si o n I
s peak o f i t a s r eacting w it h th e r e s pi ra t o ry a i r t o pr od u c e
con s c i o u s n e ss I am u s i ng t he v e rb t o re ac t in a v e ry s p e c ifi c
—
p h y s i c o c hemi c o bi o l ogi c al s e n s e while D ewe y i s u si ng i t i n
a gene r al s e n s e and e xpli c itly a t lea st wi t h o nl y a psy
)
cho l o i c a l implica t i o n
g
“
”
s el f wh i c h I am s u gge s ti ng d o e s indeed i mp l y
T he
“
”
”
“
a no the r no le ss unequiv o cally than d o e s t he s el f o f a d
”
“
“
”
ch o l o gy B u t t he s el f and the o the r
v a n c e d s o cial p s y
implied by my hyp o the s i s di ff e r fro m th o s e o f cu rr en t phil o
s o phi cal the ory i n tha t the r oo t s o f bo th a r e no t o nly in
the s o cial r elati o n s hi p s o f the human s pecie s but e xt end
—
ri ght on th r o u gh the s e int o s u b huma n rela t i o n s hi p s even
d own in t o the ve ry c o n s tituti o n o f in organ i c natu r e T he
”
“
”
“
s el f a n d the o the r o f my conc ep ti on a r e m or e per s o n ally
'
.
,
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-
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,
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.
50
A n O r g a n i s ma l T he o r y
o
D
n
o
s ci o u s ne s s
C
f
o bj ective and m o r e c o s mic in thei r a ffi nitie s than a r e the
“
”
“
”
s el f a n d the o the r o f s o cial p s y c h o l ogy
C o ntinuing n ow with o u r examinati o n o f the f o und ati o n
o f my hyp o the s i s I find it conve n ie n t e s pecially becau s e o f
my r efe r e nc e a f e w page s back t o Huxley s u n a n s we r ab le
c o ntenti o n f o r a n e ss ence o f t r uth in bo th mate riali s m and
ideali s m t o call atte nti o n t o a natu ral hi s t or y f act i n the
highe r mental li f e o f man which I take t o be a s t r ong con
fi rm a t i o n o f the c o ntenti o n
T hi s f a ct c o nce r n s the ge n e r a l
di ff e rence between Wh a t a r e co mm on ly k no w n as the mate
r i al i s t i c and the ideali s tic attitude s o f mind
T hi s di ff e r ence
c o me s I believe t o the s ame thing finally a s the diff e r ence
be tween the o bj ective a n d s ubj ective at titude s a n d i s al s o
t he di ff e rence at b o tt o m between wh a t in r athe r l oo s e t h o ugh
p r ev a lent exp re ss i o n i s c alled the di ff e rence between the
s cientific and the phi l o s ophi c at titude s It w o uld s eem that
the phil o s o phe r w ho decla r e s him s el f t o be a n A b s o lute Ideal
i s t a s R o yce d o e s i s unde r heavy o bligati o n e s pecially if
he ente r s the field o f p s y c h o l ogy t o explain the f a c t that t he
o riginat or s o f gr eat inte r p r etative idea s o f n atu r e have i n
“
”
va riably r ec o gn ized that thei r hyp o the s e s mu s t be p r o ved ;
that i s that the s ubj ective expe r ience which con s titute s the
hyp o the s i s mu s t be f o und t o have it s co u n te r pa r t in the ex
“
”
t e rn al w o rld o f s en s e I f R ea s o n c r eate s the w o rld eve n
in the r e con dite me a n i ng o f R o y c e s phil o s o phy h o w hap
“
”
pened it that N ewt on s h o uld have been s o r e s tle ss f or evi
dence o f a n o bj ective a n exte r nal co u n te r pa r t t o the su bje c
t ive r e s ult he had r ea ched by m a thematical r ea s on i ng that
he held b a c k hi s rea s o ned c r e a t i o n f o r s ix t een ye a r s waiting
f or the p roo f the s en s e p e r ceptual or a t lea s t the s e ns e
pe r cep t i ble expe r i e nc e that s h o ul d ro und o ut hi s r ea s oned
t r uth ? M a y no t I a s k the ve r y ke r nel o f the di ff e r ence
between s cience at i t s be s t and phil o s o phy at it s be s t be in
“
thi s tha t t he typi c al s cienti s t i s s o mewhat deficien t in r e s t
”
ad o p tin g Ro y c e s te rm in o l o gy f o r in t e r nal or s ub
l e ss ne ss
,
,
.
,
’
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
,
A n O r g a ni s ma l T he o r y
o
n
o
s ci o u s n e s s
C
f
51
i
r
eality
wh
le the phil o s o phe r o f the s ch oo l s i s s o me
;
j
what deficient in r e s tle ss ne ss f o r exte rnal or o bject i ve r ealit y ?
W e co uld s ay with alm o s t lite r al chemical accu r a cy that the
cu ri o s ity a n d eage rne s s o f the n atu r ali s t f o r yet un o bs e rved
o bj ec tive t ru th i s due t o an un s at i s fied a ffinity which i s weak
o r in s o me in s tance s wh o lly lacking i n the s ubj ective ideali s t
T he f act s whi c h s eem t o j u s ti f y o u r che m i c o o r g a ni s mal
hyp o the s i s o f c o n s ci o u s p s yc hi c li f e s eem al s o t o imply a
c o mple t e in t e rpe net r ati o n o f obj ective s c ie nc e and ideali s ti c
e ct i v e
,
,
,
.
-
,
A s t o t he L o w e s t T e r ms
o
f
S e lf
-
Co n s ci o u sne s s
Let
u s no w vee r o u r c o u r s e in examinin g s el f c o n s ci o u s li f e
and s e e what can be made o ut ab o ut it s roo t s and roo tlet s
o f abo ut i t s f ruitage
that o u r kn o wledge a b o ut o u r i n
t e rnal or gan s o u r hea r t live r lung s e t c ete r a c o me s only
th ro ugh o b s e rvati o n s by the an at o mi s t a n d phy s i o l ogi s t ;
tha t we a r e quit e u ncon s c i o u s o f t he s e organ s in ou r o w n
bo die s e s pecially i f they a r e w or king n o rm ally
N ow I
p o in t o ut th a t t o be pe rc eptu al ly c o n s ci o u s o f a liv e r let u s
a
s
a
s
ecialized
m
r
ph
o
l
o
gic
al
e
n
tity
pe
r
or
in
it
s
sa
f
o
m
y
p
g
app ro p r i ate f uncti o n s i s a ve ry di ff e rent matte r f ro m being
c o n s ci o u s o f th o s e p rimal undi ff e r entiated p ro ce ss e s which
a r e ba s al t o li f e i t s el f and s o a r e co mm on t o all t he ti ss ue s
whe the r l ive r mu s c le br ain or wh a t no t s o l o ng a s they a r e
T hat that which i s t ru ly or ganic in the
a c t ually l i v i n g i
s en s e o f pe rtai ni ng t o the f ully con s tituted organi s m mu s t
be r e ga rded f ro m thi s s t andp o int a s well a s f ro m the s tand
p o int o f thei r final s t ate o f di ff e rentiati o n i s o n e o f the
c o mm o n place s o f m o de rn bi o l o gy L e t a pe r s o n in as nea r
ly pe r f ect health a s he eve r expe r ience s d o hi s be s t t o cli mi
n a t e all exte rn al and inte r nal s tim ul i o f hi s s pe c iali z ed
s e n s o r y pa rt s ; al s o all re membe r ing al l feelin g o f t he u s ual
-
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
.
,
,
52
O
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y
o
c
o
n
s
i
C
o us ne s s
f
kind all ima ginin g and al l thi n ki n g T he n le t him an s we r
the que s ti o n : H o w d o I kn o w I am al ive ? An unde r takin g
o f thi s s o r t i s wh o lly int ro s pective in the s en s e o f be i ng
s uch that e ach p e r s o n mu s t e ng a ge in it f o r him s elf al on e
He can no t s h o w hi s re s ult s t o a nyb o dy el s e A goo d bit o f
ingenuity may be exe r ci s ed o n it and the o u t co me will be
f o u n d t o be r athe r s u r p r i s ing i f n o t ve ry c o ncl u s iv e as t o t he
pu rp o s e f o r whi c h the expe r iment w a s t r ied B ut th e r e s ult s
a s r ep or ted may be o f s o me value Pe r s o nally I believe I
c a n f o ll ow my c o n s ci o u s ne s s d o w n t o whe r e I can r ec o gni z e
“
”
it s m o s t ba s al r em a ining c o ntent t o be an awa r
wh a t I may call exten s i o n with o ut defini t e limi t ati
s eem s t o me I c a n detec t s o methi n g t o which I co ul d no t
“ ”
fr o m i t s nat u r e al o ne apply t he te r m s I or
s ome
thi ng di ff e r enti a ted f ro m eve rythin g el s e P o ss ibly what I
n o te i s wh o lly f anci ful bu t I s eem t o f eel my s el f in a bo u t
the c o nditi o n o f p s ychical li f e whi c h I imagine a s ta r
O f co u rs e I r ealize h o w f a r s u c h a s tateme n t i s f r
pu rified o f all th o u gh t and o the r o r di n a r y me nt al el e me n t s
N evert hele ss I believe it t o b e o f s o me v a lue a s evidence
tha t c o n s ci o u s ne ss i s an att r ibute o f the org ani s m a s a
wh o le a n d can n eithe r be held t o con tai n an element whi c h
c a n exi s t s epa r ately f ro m the o rg a n i s m n or be r e s t r ic t ed
t o a n y p a r tic ul a r pa r t o f the o r g a ni s m a s t he br ai n or the
“
ne rv o u s s y s te m T he r e s eem s t o be s o me evidence di r ectly
”
f elt by u s o u r s elve s and that evidence p o int s
“
”
s ea t
cl u s i o n a s t o the n atu r e and
p o int i s s u s ceptible I am quite s u r e
me n tal examinati o n
H o weve r t he fu r the r expe rimen t s
whi c h have s u gge s ted them s elve s t o me inv o lve difficul t ie s
m or e f or mid able than I h a ve thu s f a r been in p os iti o n t o
at t emp t
!
a
r
eade
r
a
c
qua
i
n
t
ed
with
J
me
s
s
no
t
a
b
l
e
C
ha
p
t
e
r
T he
”
“
l
o
P
s
c
h
o
i
l
e
s
n
o
r
i
T
h
e
S
C
o
n
s
ci
o
u
s
ne
s
s
elf
P
c
f
o
T he
gy
f
y
p
(
e
c
s
r
o
n
t
i
ff
wil
r
e
co
g
n
i
z
e
t
he
di
e
r
ence
b
e
t
we
e
n
s
uch
l
V ol 1 )
p
,
,
.
.
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
’
,
,
.
A n O rg an i s ma l T he o r y
o
n
o
s
c
i
o
u
s
C
e
n
s
s
f
53
tive e xp e riment ati o n a s that he r e indicated a nd that s o il
l u m i n a t i ngly de s c r ibed by J ame s a s t r ied on him s el f
Whi le
J ame s s unde r takin g wa s t o give a n a cco u n t o f the t ho u g h t
a nd o t he r
r o c e s s e s in c o n s ci o u s ne ss a s he co uld o b s e rv e them
p
in him s el f what I want t o a cco mpli s h r equir e s me t o ge t rid
of
to
s ible the ve r y thi ng s whi c h Jam e s
“
wa s s t
find whethe r a n y con t e n t o f con
”
s ci o u s n e s s
e o the r u s ual men
tal con ten t s a r e o ut o f t
I believe h o weve r
tha t Jame s o pe n s the w a
h yp o the s i s a s mi n e
“
T hu s in a foo t n o te we r e ad
T he s en s e o f my b o dily exi s t
e nc e h o weve r obs c u r ely rec o gnized a s s u ch ma y then be the
ab s o lu t e or iginal o f my c o ns ci o u s s el f h oo d the fundamental
A ll app r o p ri ati on s m a y be m a de t o
Th o u gh t no t a t the m o me n t immediately c o gnized by
W he t he r the s e a r e n o t o nly l o gic al p o ss ibilitie s but
f act s i s s o methi ng n o t ye t d o gm a t ically decided in
” 15
t
f or a li t tle mi s givin g a ri s i ng fr o m u nce r t ain t y a s
”
“
ct meanin g o f Th o u gh t in t hi s qu o t a t i o n I be
hyp o the s i s d o e s what Jame s s ay s h is t e xt l eave s u n
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
—
f o o t n o te o f Jame s s may s e r v e a s a s wi t ch key t o
shi f t t he c u rr e n t o f o u r di s cu ss i o n f r o m the p s ych o c o n
s c i o u s pha s e o f li f e th ro ugh the p s y c h o phy s i c al t o the pu r ely
—
phy s i co c hemi c al pha s e T he c o u rs e al ong which thi s s hi f ting
will r un can be de s ign a t ed t hu s : f ull fl e d ge d in telle c t ( al
examined ) in s tinct em o ti on bi o phy s ic o chemical o r
’
-
-
.
-
-
,
,
iz a t i o n
-
,
.
In s t in c t
a nd
P hy si c a l
O r g a ni z a t i o n
The di s cu ss i o n f ro m whi c h we have j u s t t u r ned o f the
”
“
”
e r be t wee n s ubj ective
,
e
re
i
u
q
54
A n O r g a n i s ma l T he o r y
o
n
o
c
s
i o us ne s s
C
f
ment s o f t hi s s ke t c h s o fa r a s the fi r s t membe r o f t he s e ri e s
i s c o nce rn ed ; and the r elati on be t w een in s tinct a n d phy s ic al
o r ga n i z ati on will n o w r eceive attenti o n The evide nc e o f
vital c o nnecti o n he r e i s s o a bun da n t and c lea r c ut a nd the
view s o f c o mpete n t obs e rve rs a re s o unanim o u s th a t the s ub
e
c
t
f
o
can
be
di
s
p
o
s
ed
quite s umma r ily P r ob a bly the m o s t
j
i ndu bit a ble s ingl e bl o ck o f evidence c o me s f ro m ne s t —
building
a n d cocoon s pi nn i ng in s ect s M a n y o f th e fa c t s f ro m t hi s
field have been s o much expl o i t ed f o r t h e ve ry pu rp o s e s t o
whi c h we no w inv o ke them that a f e w qu o ta t i on s f rom a nd
r ema r k s up o n the w riti n g s o f na t u r a li s t s ge n e r all y a ckno w l
edged f o r lea rn ing a nd j udici o u s thinking will s uffice
W e t u rn fi r s t t o W M W heele r a n d t ake
w o r d s whi c h he in t u r n qu o t e s f ro m B e r gs o n :
”
‘
s ay s we r ead
It ha s o f ten bee n r ema rked
s t i n c t s a r e the p ro l o ngati o n
or bette r th e a
t he w o r k o f o r g a n i z ati on it s elf Whe r e d o e s t he a c t ivi t y o f
in s t inct begin ? W he r e d o e s tha t o f n a t u r e e nd ? I t i s im
p o ss ible t o s ay In t he me t am orph o s e s o f t he la rv a i n t o t he
n ymph a n d in t o t he pe r fec t in s ec t me t am orph o s e s whi ch
o f ten r equi r e app r o p r ia t e adap t ati o n s a nd a kind o f ini ti a
tive on the p a r t o f th e la r va the r e i s no s h a rp l ine o f de
o f the animal a nd t h e o r ga ni z
m a r c a t i o n be
i ng w ork o f the
I t i s imma t e rial whe the r we
s ay that in s tinc t
i n s t rume n t s which it i s go in g
t o u s e or that t he or ganizati o n p ro l o ngs i t s el f in t o t h e i n
A n d W heele r c o n t in ue s :
s t i n c t b y whi c h it i s t o be u s ed
“
T he s pinning o f the c o c o o n b y t he l a r val a n t i s a go o d
ex ample o f the kind o f in s tinct t o whi c h B e r g s o n re f e r s
F ro m on e po i n t o f vi ew thi s i s me r ely an ac t o f devel o pment
and th e c o c oo n or r e s ult o f the s ec r etive a c tivi ty o f the s e r i c
t e r i e s a n d o f t he s pinning m o vemen t s o f the la rv a i s a p r o
B u t an e n vel o pe w i t h t he s ame p ro t ec t ive
t e c t i v e envel o pe
fu nc ti on m a y be p r o duced by o the r in s ect la r va s imply as a
thi c k chi tin o us s ec r e ti o n f ro m t he wh o le o u t e r s ur f a c e o f t he
.
-
,
.
-
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
~
,
,
’
.
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
A n O rgani s mal T he o r y
’
o
n
o
c
s
i
o u s ne s s
C
f
55
hyp o de rm i s He r e t oo we h a ve a n activity whi ch th o u gh
man ife s ted in a ve r y di ff e r ent way i s even m o r e clea rly o ne
of
gr o wth and devel o pment A nd when the w o r ke rs o f
E c o p hy i l a or P o ly r ha chi s u s e thei r la rv ae f o r weaving the
s ilke n envel o pe o f the ne s t a s de s c ri bed in C hapte r ! III
we have a fu r the r exten s i o n a n d m o di fi c ati on o f the cocoon
s pi nn i ng a ctivitie s I n thi s ca s e the s pinning p o we rs o f the
la rv a a r e utilized f o r the pu rp o s e o f p ro ducing a n envel o pe
n o t f or it s individu al s el f but f o r the wh o le co l on y In
c o nventi o nal w o rk s thi s latte r activity w o uld be a ss i gned a
p ro m
inent place a s a typi c al i n s ti nc t the s pinning o f the
coc o on might al s o be included u n de r thi s head bu t the f orm
a t i o n o f the pupa ri um or pupal s kin w o uld be excluded
r ely phy s i o l ogi c al or devel o pmental p ro ce ss ye t thi s
le ss tha n the t w o o the r ca s e s ha s all the fu n dam e n tal
” 1“
e ri s ti c s o f a n in s tinct
The n immedi ately f o ll o w s thi s s t a t ement e s pecially si gni
fi c a n t f o r t he pr o p o s iti o n o f o u r hyp o the s i s whi c h a ss ign s t o
the i ndividual o r g a n i s m the chemical value o f an elementa r y
“
s ub s tance : V iewed in thi s light the r e i s n o thing s u rp ri s i ng
a bo ut the c o mplexity and r elative fi xi t y o f an in s tinct f o r it
i s i n sepa r a bly c orr elated with the s t r u c tu r al o r g a n i z ati on
and in thi s we h a ve l ong been f amilia r b o t h with the de
e n c e o f the c o mplexity and fi xi t
o
f
p
a
r
t
s
on
he
r
edity
e
n
d
p
y
and the m o d ifi a bili t y o f the s e pa r t s du ring the li f e cycle
t he individual F ixed or in s tinctive be havi or ha s it s
of
c o unte rp a r t in inhe r ited m o r ph o l ogi c al s t r uctu r e a s d o e s
m o difiable or pla s tic behavi or in well kn o wn on t oge n eti c
”
a n d f uncti o nal ch a nge s
T he s tateme n t tha t s u r p ri s e IS la r gely take n away f ro m
s u c h ela bo r ate mani f e s tati o n s o f in s tinct a s th o s e he r e de
“
l
by
r
ec
o
gnizing
that
the
in
s
tinct
s
a
r
e
in
s
epa
r
ab
y
i
ct e d
p
”
c orr elated with s t r u c tu r al or ganizati o n and have thei r
”
“
co u n te rpa r t in inhe rited m o rph o l o gi c al s t r uctu r e will no
d o ubt r e c eive the a ss ent o f m o s t z oo l ogi s t s a s will al s o t he
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
-
.
-
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
A n Ory ani s mal T he o r y
o
.
n
o
s
c
i
C
o
u
s
n
e
s
s
f
0
man Hi s te s tim o ny s upplement s W heele r s in that it i s
m or e exclu s ively and r adi c a lly obje c tive tha n i s Whee le r s ;
t hat i s it ve rge s le ss t o wa r d the s ubj e c t iv e type o f p re s enta
ti o n a n d d r aw s nea r e r t o the bi o c hemi c al g r o u n d w o r k Al
th o u gh Whitma n w r o te r elatively little o n animal beh a vi or
little s eem s t o me t o con t ai n s o me o f the m o s t imp or tant
d c o nclu s i o n s which have be e n p ro duced in
z oo l o gy W hat I utilize i s take n f r o m hi s
B eha vi o r
T he a n imal s up o n whi c h W hit
s chie f s tu di e s we r e made we r e lee c he s o f the genu s C lep
s ine ; a s al amande r ( N ec t u r u s ) ; a n d pige o n s o f s eve r al s pe
cie s O u r pu rp o s e will be be s t se rved by qu o ting a few s e n
t e n ce s which g o di r ec t t o the hea r t o f the que s ti o n in hand
namely o f the vital conn e c ti on o f in s tinc t and ba s al
“
”
W hitma n w rite s
o tu r e
T he view he r e taken
e p rima ry r oo t s o f in s tinct in the c o n s tituti o n al a c
o f p r o t o pla s m and r e g a r d s i n s t i nc t in eve r y s tage o f
i t s ev o luti o n a s a c ti on depending e ss entially up o n o r g a n i z a
” 17
ti on
T hen app a r ently t o cla ri f y and emph a s iz e the la s t
c lau s e ab o ut the depen de nc e o f i n s ti nc t or o r g a n i z ati on he
“
s a f oo t no te thu s :
P ro f e ss or L o eb r e fe r s i n s ti nct ba ck
p
o
la
r
di
e
r
ence
s
in
the
c
hemi
c
al
con
s
titu
t
i
on
in
t
he
ff
1
( )
s ub s tance and
t h e p r e s ence o f s uch s ubs tance s in the
a s dete r mine heli o t ro pic c hem o t r o pi c s te r e o t ro pic an d
A cc o rding t o thi s view
i l a r phen o men a o f i r r ita bility
p o we r t o re s p o nd t o s timuli lie s in un or ganized chemical
s tance s and the s ame p o we r s exi s t in the adult a s in the
the sa me che mical s ub s t a nce s a r e p r e s ent O r
o n s e r ve s at all s t age s me r ely a s a me c h a n i c al mea n s
g definite di r ecti o n s t o re s p o n s e s
view I have taken r ega rd s in s tinctive a c ti on a s
acti o n whateve r be the s t age o f m a ni fe s tati o n T he
e r s f ro m the ad ul t in havi ng an or ganizati o n o f a
ow
r
ima
r
y
or
de
r
a
n
d
c
orr
e
s
p
o
ndingly
s
im
le
p p
p
tw o
’
.
’
-
,
-
.
,
.
.
’
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
58
A n O r g a ni s m a l T he o r y
o
n
o
s
c
i
C
o u s ne s s
f
a s pe c t s o f o ne a n d the s ame thing hence bo th have on t o
”
genetic a n d phyl o genetic devel o pment
T he s e s tateme n t s s h o w a s d o th o s e given i n o u r d i s cu s s 1 0 n
o f the c ell the o r y
h o w fa r W hitma n went away f r o m f ull
fl edged elementali s m a n d t o wa r d o r a n i s m a l i s m
B
u
t
h
i
s
g
t r e a tme n t o f in s tinct a n d animal behavi o r r eveal s what hi s
t r eatme n t o f the cell the or y d o e s n o t a t lea s t s o c lea r ly ;
n amely h o w fa r he al s o we n t o n the way t o the natu r al hi s
t or y m o de a s c o nt r a s ted with the me c ha n i s ti c m o de o f phil
o s o hi z i n
i
o
n
b
o
l
og
i
c
al
phen
o
mena
thi
s
give
s
me
a
A
n
d
p
g
plea s ant o pp or tunity t o te s tify t o the genuinely natu r ali s t
cu rr ent that r an th r o u gh hi s li f e and w ork A n u n f o r getta ble
vi s it which I had with him am o ng hi s p i ge o n s n o t l ong be f o r e
he died pe rmitted me t o s ee s o mething o f the c ha r a c te r and
depth o f hi s inte r e s t in th o s e animal s Hi s wh o le attitude
—
t o wa r d the m hi s w o n d e r q y b ro ad i n f o rm a ti on a bo ut and
unde r s tanding o f thei r gene r al w ay s o f li f e and pe rs o nal
idi o s ync r a s ie s hi s s o licitude f o r them and hi s mea s u red a f
—
f e c t i o n f o r them wa s s uch a s i s neve r di s played by any
o ne wh o ha s n o t ve r y mu c h o f the real n a tu r ali s t ab o ut him
in hi s pe rs on ality a s well a s in hi s k no wled ge The individua l
pige o n s many o f them at any r ate appea r ed t o be r ealitie s
“
t o him in a deep s en s e a n d n o t me r ely me c ha n i c al mean s f o r
”
giving de fi n ite di r e c ti on s t o r e s p o n s e s o f chemic al s u b
s tance s B u t afte r all thi s i s s aid it mu s t al s o b e s aid t ha t
the r e i s n o evidence that W hitma n eve r gr a s ped fully the con
”
“
c
o
n
s
tituti
o
nal
a
c
tivitie
s
o
f
p
ro
t
o
pla
s
m
in
c e t i o n t h at the
p
whi c h he believed i n s ti nc t s t o be r oo ted mu s t be the c o n s ti
t u t i o n a l a c tivitie s o f p r o t o pl a s m s ( p ro t o pla s m in the plu r al
be c au s e n o individual pi g e o n i s eithe r a n y o th e r i n
n umbe r )
dividual no r even exa c tly like a n y o the r ; and al s o that the
exi s te nc e o f p ro t o pla s m s i s depe ndent up on the or gani s m s
t o whi c h they bel o n g a s well a s up on the chemical s u b s t anc e s
o f which they a r e c o mp o s ed W hitma n we n t s o fa r o n the
r o a d t o wa r d o r ga ni s m a l i sm a s t o believe ge n ui n el y i n t he
,
.
,
-
,
.
-
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
An O r gan i sma l T he o r y
o r g an i
c and
or
g
an i s a t i o n ,
o
n
o
s
c
i
o
u
s
C
ne s s
f
but n o t f a r e no u gh
to
59
make hi m
accept un r e s e rvedly i nd i v id u a l o r g a ni s ms
W e a r e able t o s tate definitely whe r ei n lie s the gr eat and
r athe r unique me ri t o f W hitman s inve s tigati o n s o n a n im al
behavi or ( 1 ) B y a j udici o u s comb i n ati on o f pu r e o b s e rva
t i o n a n d o b s e rv a t i o n aided by expe riment an d c o ncepti o n he
pu s hed p s y c hi c phe no me n a in the f or m o f i ns tinct d o wn a l
—
m o s t t o the phy s i co c hemi c al level ; that i s t o the p ro t o
p la s mic level
He a t the s ame time r emai n ed p o s itively
wi thi n the o rg a n i c the living r ealm Hi s me r it i s that o f
r e s t r ain t a s well a s o f p o s itive achieve ment He did no t pe r
mi t hi s enthu s ia s m f or phy s i c al explanati o n t o be t r ay
him in t o ad o pti n g a ph r a s e o l ogy whi c h while s o u nd in g like
am o unt s in r e ality t o a d e nia l o r
a n e x planati o n o f in s tinct
a r e pu d i a t i o n o f it
S o much f o r the e v idence o f vital conn e c ti on between i n
and o r g a n i z ati on A cc ording t o the s chedule indi
s t i n ct
ca t e d a few p a ge s b a c k f or r eviewi ng s y s tematically thi s con
we have
n e c t i o n th r o u gh the enti r e range o f p s y c hi c life
ne xt t o glance a t the conn e c ti on be tween the em o ti on s and
or gani z a t i o n
.
'
’
.
,
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
E mo t io n
and
Phy s ic al
O r ganiz a t i o n
A p p r o aching thi s s ubje ct a s we n o w a r e f r o m the di recti o n
o f p s y c h o l ogy p ro pe r the well k no w n Jame s L a nge i n t e r pr e
t a t i o n o f em o ti o n c o me s immediately t o mind
It will be
adv a n t age o u s f o r our s ketch no t t o f oc u s atte n ti on t oo cl o s e
ly o n a n y the o r y or di s cu ss i o n but t o take in a s mu c h a s we
can o f t h e e n ti r e field keeping i n the fo r e g r o u n d o u r o wn
e
r
s
on
al
e
x
pe
r
ie
nc
e
s
a
n
d
o
b
s
e
r
vati
o
n
s
a
s
con
t
r
a
s
ted
with
the
p
de s c ripti o n s and view s o f auth ori tie s What I mea n i s that
the r e ade r s hall take him s el f in ha n d f o r s e r i o u s s tudy as t o
hi s em o ti o nal li f e watching him s el f f r o m h o u r t o h o u r day
t o da y and ye a r t o y ea r u nde r all t he v a r ied co n dit i on s ,
-
-
-
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
60
'
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o ry
n
i
e
C
c
o
u
s
s
o
s
n
s
of
happe n i ng s pu r p o s e s a n d i mpul s e s t o which he i s
In d o ing thi s a s pecial p o int s h o uld be made o f l oo k
s c ru tinizingly at expe rience s o f p a r
ti on j o y s orro w i rr itati o n a nge r
a n d s hame a s s oon a fte r thei r occ u rre nc e
they m a y be fr e s h i n mem o r y B u t i nc ide
o f on e s r em o te r pa s t which s tand o ut wit h
f ro m the in t en s ity o f the p a r ticula r em o ti o n s whe n they
expe r ienced o r be cau s e o f re s ul t s whi c h fl owed f ro m t
will b e f o u n d illumin a t in g
T o what exten t and i n what p a rt icula r f a s hi o n wa s
bo d il y o r ga ni s a t i o n implicated in the f eeli ng s and
we expe rienced i s o u r p roblem F or t una t ely o n e
“
”
”
o ve r again a s we s ay ; can w o r k him s el f i n t o r a
n o u n ce d em o t i on al s tate s
a n d imagina t i o n T hat i s he can be much o f a genuine
a s t o u chin g eve n t s a n d s cene s o f
a t i s t whe n all al on e
o w n pas t expe r ience W hat happen s t o y o u r b o dy when
d o that s ort o f thing ? i s the cent r al que s ti o n be fore u s
ve ry c ri te r i o n by which y o u an s we r thi s que s ti o n y o u
find will be t hat o f h o w f a r the bo dy ma n ife s t a ti on s app ro
r i a t e t o the p a r ti c ul a r em o t i on s a r e eli c ited t h r o u gh y o u r
p
e ff or t s If y o u r ha n d s d o n o t c l inc h s o mewhat i f many o f
y o u r a r m le g and abd o minal mu s cl e s d o n o t con t r a c t s o me
what i f y o u r r e s pi ra ti on d o e s n o t qui c ke n s o mewh a t and
o the r mani f e s ta t i o n s va ri o u s c o rp ore al in di ce s o f ange r d o
no t appea r quite independently o f di r ec t intenti o n on y o u r
pa r t y o u will be s u r e y o u have
s tate o f ange r The o nly r e a l k
I n orde r t o be a t r ue
li v e d k no wled g e o f that em o ti on
y o u r body p a r t s mu s t a c t di rectly aut o mati c ally
d
i
s
s
o
fa
r
a
s
a
n
y
r
at
i
on
al
pu
r
p
o
s
e
c
o
nce
r
ne
s
e
o
l
a
u
n
t
y
what i s t rue o f ange r i s clea rly t rue o f all o the r em o
O u r em o t i on al a ctivitie s may
r efl ex a
a nd
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
.
-
.
,
,
.
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,
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-
,
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,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
An O rg ani s ma l T he o r y
'
o
n
c
i
o
s
u
s
C
o
n
e
s
s
f
61
—
in
t
elli
ence
i
s
f
g
in t elligence b u t i s n o t o
n o t un de r
t he di r ect guid a nce and c o nt ro l o f intelligence A cc or ding
t o t hi s inte rp r etat i o n n o anim a l n o matte r h ow hi ghly c o n
s t i t u ted a s t o i n s ti nc t s and r efl exe s c o uld have em o ti on u n
l e s s it had intelligence
E m o ti on al activity i s i n s ti nc tiv e and
r e fl e x activity o f an intelligent o rga n i s m with h o weve r the
el emen t o f int ellec t e li mi n ated or in a be ya nc e f o r t he time
be in g a s re gar d s th e s e p a r ticula r a c t s Thi s i s wha t I w o ul d
call the n a t u r a l hi s t o r y de s c ri pti on o f e m o t i on And I be
lieve i t i s in e ss ential acc ord with Jame s s conc ep ti o n o f e m o
t i o n but hi s de s c rip ti o n i s a p s y c h o phy s i ol o gi c al r a t h er
th a n a n a t u r al hi s t ory de s c r ipti on I am qui te s u re tha t
wha t h av e j u s t s aid me a n s vi rtually th e s ame a s t he f oll o w
‘
ing :
If w e fanc y s o me s t r o ng e mo t io n and t he n t r y t o a b
fr o m ou r c ons ci o us ne ss o f i t a ll t he fe e lin gs o f i t s
bo d il y sy mp t o ms w e find w e ha v e no t hi ng le f t be hi nd n o
‘
mind s t u ff o ut o f whi c h the em o ti on c a n be c o n s ti t uted
al s t a t e o f i n t e lle c t u al p e r cep t i o n
and t ha t a
i s all tha t
I will now p o in t o u t wh e r ei n I believe the n atu r al hi s t ory
de s c ri p t i o n a n d in t e rp r e t a ti o n o f em o ti on a r e s o mewha t t rue r
and be fl e r than t h o s e given by Jame s a n d o t he r physi o l o gi
—
c al p s ych ol o gi s t s and I may add v e r y mu c h t ru e r and
be tt e r t han th o s e given by ce rtain w r ite rs w ho app ro a c h t he
s ubj ec t f ro m the phy s i o l o gical s ide pu r e and s imple Jame s s
epi gr amma ti c s t a t eme n t s a bo u t being a f r aid be c au s e w e
t remble whe n w e mee t a be a r in the w ood s ; ab o u t be in g s o rr y
be c a u s e we c r y ; abo u t bein g a ngr y b ecau s e w e st r ike d o hi s
o wn po s iti o n s o me in j u s tice I think T hi s i s a n in s t an ce i n
whi c h hi s gi ft f o r piquan t w rit i ng s u c ceeded t o o well B u t
t he f a ct o ugh t t o be no ti c e d t hat wha t he a c tually s ay s i s
t ha t a s be tween the u s ual s tateme n t namely th at we t r emble
be c au s e we a r e a f r aid c r y be c a u s e w e a r e s o rr y s t ri ke be
c au s e we a r e a ng ry a n d hi s way o f s t ating the ca s e hi s w ay i s
”
“
f
m o r e r a ti o nal
I t i s on ly r elative no t ab s ol u t e t ruth h e
t hr o u gh
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
’
-
,
'
.
,
,
,
-
’
,
—
,
’
.
,
.
,
.
k
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
An O r g an i sm al T he o r y
62
o
n
o
s
c
i
C
o
u
s
ne s s
f
i s aiming at in the s e s tatement s N eve r thele ss a f t e r du e
l o wa nc e i s made f o r a n exp r e s s i o n al mi s cue t o s o me e xt e
th e r e i s ye t s ub s t antial de f ect in hi s
i n gene r al te rm s the de f ectivene ss i s n o t s o mu c h in the
an t ithe s i s s e t u p a s in the r e s t rictedne ss implied O r b ri ng
ing the c r iti c i s m a r o un d t o wa r d o u r pa r t icula r
t he s t ateme n t f all s s h o r t o f being o r gani s mal
W B C ann o n ha s I beli eve in dic a ted the
whi c h the adequ ate s tatement lie s He w rit e s :
‘
f eel s o r ry bec au s e we c ry a s J ame s c o ntended but
becau s e when we a r e s o rr y o r o ve rj o yed o r
—
ful l o f te n de r a ff ecti o n when any o ne o f the s
—
the r e a r e n e r v o u s di s ch
t i o n al s tate s i s p r e s ent
p athetic channel s t o va ri o u s vi s ce r a i n cludi ng t
gl an d s In t e rro r a n d r a ge an d in t en s e ela t i on f o r exa
t he r e s po n s e s in the vi s ce r a s eem t oo u ni f o r m t o o ff e r a s ati s
f a c t o ry m e a ns o f di s tin gui s hing s tate s which in man a t lea st
a re ve ry di ff e r ent in s ubje c tive quali ty F or thi s r ea s o n I
am in c lined t o u rge t hat t he vi s ce r al c ha nge s me r ely c o n t ri
bu t e t o an em o ti o nal c o mple x m or e or l e s s i n de fi n i t e bu t
s t ill p e rt inent
a nc e in organ s o f whi c h
we a r e n o t u s ually con s c i o u s
What C
c ritici s m
l angu age
am o u n ts t o e x p r e ss ed in 0
g r an t ing th a t o r g an s and fu nc ti on s in the u
s
v
i
s
en
s
e
lay
a
n
e
ss
entia
p
a
r
t
in
em
o
t
i
on
neithe
r
t
he
l
c al
p
r a n s i s s u ffi c ie n t t o a c c o u n t
c er al n or a ny o the r singl e s e t
g
V i s ce r al c ha nge s c o n t ribu t e
f or the w h ol e
”
“
t o t h e e m o ti on al co mple x bu t t h e r eal s o u r c e o f t he f eel
ing s inv o lved i s emb edded el s ewhe r e and m o r e b r o adly in the
“
o r g a n i z a ti on C a nn o n sugge s t s : the n a tu r al r e s p on s e i s a
“
”
h
e
T
e
r
e
r
fl
x
s
e
like
inb
or
o
f
l
o
w
or
d
n
a t t e rn r e a c t i o n
p
“
”
t ypi c al f acial and b o dily exp r e ss i o n s he w ri t e s a u t o m a t i
call y a ss umed in diff e r en t em o t i o n s indica t e di s ch a rge o f pe
”
f
f
g
ro
uping
s
neu
ro
ne
s
in
the
s
eve
r
al
a
ective s tate s
o
f
c ul i a r
r
il
u
o
it
h
u
t
t
o
pp
in
e
x
a
i
e
t
hi
s
la
n
g
u
a
g
e
in
de
t
a
n
o
m
t
s
o
W
g
,
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
’
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
A n O rg a ni s mal T he o r y
o
n
o
s
c
i
o
u
s
C
ne s s
f
63
a im
will b e a c hieved by p o i n ti n g o u t that the m o r e cl o s ely the
v a r i o u s e m o ti o n s a r e s c r uti nized a n d the m o r e e ff o r t the r e
i s m ade t o r efe r them t o thei r c a u s e s the m o r e va r ied a r e they
f o u n d t o be a n d the m o r e widely a r e we led t o s e a r ch i n the
o r g a n izati o n f o r c au s al f a c t o r s
T he m e n t a l attitude o f pe r
f e c t o pe nn e s s t o wa r d a ny a n d all fa c t s b o th o f e ff e c t a n d
o c c u r i n a give n o r g a n i c s itu a ti o n
c a u s e whi ch m a
i
s o ne
y
o f the leadi n g c h a r a c te r izat i o n s o f the o r g a n i sm a l c o n c epti o n
T he a s s e r ti o n that the o r ga n i s m a s a wh o le i s the c au s al ex
”
“
pla n ati o n o f a n e m o ti o n o r a n e m o ti o n c o mplex i s j u sti fied
by t wo c o n side r ati o n s : ( 1 ) E x c ept f o r the o r g an i sm viewed
alive a n d wh o le a n d u nde r bo th i t s o n t o gen i c a n d phyl o ge n i c
a s p e c t s the em o ti o n w o ul d n o t exi s t ; a n d
s o wide s p r ead
a n d s ub tle d o e s c o mm o n o b s e r vati o n r e c o gn ize the p a r t s o f
the o r ga n i sm i nv o lved t o be i n m a n y o f i t s e m o ti o n a l a ct i v i
tie s that f o r p r a c ti c al pu r p o s e s it i s b ette r t o w o r k o n the
hyp o the si s that a ll p a r t s o f the o r ga n i s m a r e i m pli c ated th a n
t o ad o pt the alte r n ative hyp o the s i s th a t c e r t a i n pa r t s o nl y
a r e i n v o lved ; that i s that s o m e p a r t s a r e n o t i n v o lved
A s a matte r o f fa c t I believe th a t i n s pi r it J a me s hyp o
the s i s i s o r g a ni sm a l eve n th o u gh p r o b a bly fr o m hi s t r a in in g
phy s i o l o gy a n d p sy ch o l o gy
a n d c a r e e r i n f o r m a l a n at o m y
—
he n eve r be c a m e e n ti r ely f r ee f r o m the B o dy S o ul a n tithe s i s
“
”
n e rv e phy s i o l o gy
whi ch have s o
a n d t he d o gmati s m s o f
d o mi n a ted m o de rn phy s i o l o gy a n d p s y ch o l o gy T hi s o pi n i o n
I b a se o n the ge n e r al te n o r o f hi s di s c u s si o n s pa r ti cula r ly
o f the em o ti o n s r a the r th a n o n hi s di r e c t f o r mulati o n o f hi s
the o r y o f em o ti on I will qu o te a few pa s s a ge s that s eem
“
pa r ti cula r ly t o t r e n d i n thi s di r e c ti o n
N 0 r eade r o f the
la s t t w o chapte r s ! T he P r o d u c t i o n o f M o v e me n t an d In
e
ct s d o
b
a
a
c
will
b
e
i
li
ed
t
o
d
u
b
t
the
f
t
th
t
o
n
o
n
c
s t in c t ]
j
o r the
e xci t e bo d i ly c ha ng e s b y a p r e o r g a n ized me ch a n i s m
f a r the r fa c t that t he cha ng e s a r e s o in d e fini t e ly nume r o u s
u
n
d
s
l
a
l
e
e
d
c
a
s
a
b
m
i
a
n
m
r
o
o
r
e
n
t
i
t
e
t
t
h
e
h
a
t
l
e
an d su b
y
g
r
e
o
s
n
s
s
s
c
o
o
f
o
e
c
o
w
hi
c
h
ev
r
y
ha
ng
c
n
i
u
e
h
w
ve
e
ing b a r d
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
,
.
,
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
.
:
,
,
-
,
,
A n p r g a ni s ma l T he or y
o
n
C
c
o
s
i
u
s
o
n
e
s
s
f
65
0
de s c r ipti o n A n d n o whe r e pe r hap s i n the wh o l e b i o l o gi c a l
r e a lm i s the r e a b ette r cha n c e f o r de s c r ipti o n o f the ge n ui n e
—
ly n atu r al hi s t o r y o r g a n i sm al ki n d
the ki n d a c a r di n al
“
”
m o tt o o f whi c h i s n e gle c t n o thi n g th a n i n thi s ve r y fi eld
o f hu m a n e m o ti o n s
e s pe c i a lly o f o n e s o w n e m o ti o n s
Nor
c a n I r ef r ai n f r o m r e m i n di n g the r eade r that o n e o f t he
ma s te r w o r k s i n thi s field i s Da r wi n s T he E xp r e s s i o n o f t he
E m o t i on s i n M a n and A ni m a ls a n d th a t whi le a lead i n g
m o tive o f i t s auth o r w a s t o i n te r p r et the em o ti o n s i n a o
c o r d a n c e with the the o r y o f de s c e n t a n d the n a tu r al s ele c
ti o n hyp o the s i s p r o b ably the m o s t l a s ti n g v a lue o f the w o r k
i s f r o m i t s full n e s s a nd ex c elle n c e a s a n atu r al hi s t o r y d e
s c r ipti o n o f the em o ti o n s a n d thei r ob j e c tive exp r e s s i o n
A s t o the fa c t o f vital in te r depe n de n c e b etwee n p s y c hi c
life a n d phy s i c al life th r o u gh the e m o ti o n s pe r s o n al e xpe ri
e n c e a n d o bs e rv ati o n ba c ked u p a n d s upplem e n ted by ma n y
auth o ri tativ e w r iti ng s am o ng whi ch th o s e o f D a r wi n a n d
J a me s s ta n d o u t s t r o n gly th e r e s ee m s n o l o n ge r an y r o o m
”
“
f o r que s ti o n
T he r ole o f the e m o ti o n s a s betwee n B o dy
“
”
a nd
S o ul may b e c r udely like n ed t o the s pli c e whi ch a s k ill
ful s ail o r we a ve s i n t o t w o pie c e s o f r o pe i n j o i n i n g them s o
that the r e shall be n o k n o t a n d a s gr eat s t r e n gth a s i n a n y
I n the r e c e n t pe r i o d o f p sy ch o l o gy
o the r p a r t o f t he r o p e
—
w e have f r eque n tl y
o f so c all ed phy s i o l o gi c al p s y c h o l o gy
“
hea r d a b o ut p sy ch o l o gy with o ut a S o ul a n d s u ch a n id e a
B ut if we c o uld
ha s s eemed r epu gn a n t t o m a n y pe r s o n s
”
“
w ith o ut a B o dy
by
s h o w that thi s m od e r n p s y c h o l o g y i s
“
”
the s ame t o ke n tha t it i s with o ut a S o ul the le gitimate m i s
givin gs ab o ut the s o ulle s sn e s s o f the p sy ch o l o gy o u ght t o be
all a yed And r eally the o r ga n i sm a l c o n cepti o n o f p sy chi c
life i s s e e n e spe cially whe n we ex a min e it i n the pha s e o f t he
em o ti o n s t o am o un t t o s u c h a c o mp o siti o n o f the B o dy S o ul
”
“
a n tithe s i s
B o dy we c a n se e a s it figu r ed in the o l d psy
e
s
r
o
s
vi
tually
i
gn
if
ed
what
we
u
ually
mea
n
b
y
c
p
i
s
r
o
l
o
h
c
gy
.
,
,
,
,
’
,
.
’
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
-
—
.
.
,
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
A n O r g a n i s ma l T he o r y mf
66
“
Co ns c i o us ne s s
”
T he
B o dy i n that s e n s e w a s n o t a live at all
It w a s n o t alive be c a u s e all the life w a s t a ke n o u t o f it ( by
“
”
the the o r eti c al a n tithe s i s ) a n d put i n t o T he S o ul
or
c adave r
.
,
.
.
G l a nce
at
t he E qu i li br a t i v e In t e r a c t i o n B e t w e en
‘6
S o ul
“
B ody
”
a nd
’ ,
G o in g f o r w a r d f r o m s u ch p r ed o m i n a n tly o b s e r vati o n al
de s c r ipti o n s o f p s y chi c life in it s e m o ti o na l ph a s e a s th o s e o f
D a r wi n a n d Jame s t o s u c h expe r im e n tal de s c r ipti o n s a s
th o s e be i ng p r o du ced b y the i n ve s ti g ati o n s o f P awl o w o f
C r ile a n d e spe c i a lly o f C a n n o n we a r e getti n g c o n s ide r able
“
”
“
”
i n s i ght i n t o the r a ti o n ale o f ho w B o dy a n d S o ul vitalize
ea ch o the r M o de r n r e s e a r che s o n the phy s i o l o gy o r the
p s y ch o l o gy ( whi ch o n e c all s it depe n d s e n ti r ely o n the d i r e c
ti o n o f hi s a pp r o a ch ) o f p s y chi c life i s r eve al i ng s o methi n g
“
o f the why a n d ho w o f the p o et s i n s ti n c tive pe r c epti o n
S o ul
”
n eed s B o dy a s mu c h a s B o dy n eed s S o ul
O n ly o n e a s pe c t
“
”
o f thi s
why a n d ho w n eed be n o ti ced i n the p r e s e n t di s c u s
si o n
T h a t i s the f a c t o f the ba la n c i n g o f o f a n ta g o n i s ti c
e m o ti o n s t o m a ke the n o r m al e m o ti o n al life j u s t a s r e flex
a c ti o n s
a nd
i n s ti n c tive a cti o n s a r e l a r gely phe n o me n a o f
equili b r ati o n o r b al a n c in g o ff
It sh o uld be r e c a ll ed th a t we h a ve f o u n d thi s a n ta go n i s ti c
equi li b r ative p r i n c iple t o r u n th r o u gh the e n ti r e n eu r o ps y
I n the s t r i ctly r eflex pha s e the m o de o f o pe r a ti o n
chi c life
the flex o rs a n d exte n s o r s o f the
o f the o p p o s i n g m u s cle s
lim b s a s b r o u ght o u t b y S he r r i n gt o n w a s c ited a s a go o d
illu s t r ati o n o f the p r i n c iple A m a n ife s t a ti o n o f the p r i n
ci l e i n a b r o ade r way a s m ea s u r e d by the exte n t o f o r g a n i c
p
p a r t s i nv o lved w a s s ee n in the r el a ti o n o f the v a ga l ( c r a n ial )
a ut o n o mi c s
a s e m ph a
a n d s pl a n c hni c ( t h o r a c i c o lum b a r )
B C a nn o n ( C h a p 1 9 thi s b o o k ) thi s illu s t r a
s ized b y W
ti o n bei n g chiefly i n the r eflex ph a s e In a yet hi ghe r
ph a s e we s a w a g ai n f r o m C a nn o n s w o r k the p r i n ciple
,
,
,
,
-
.
’
,
.
.
-
,
.
-
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
.
.
,
.
’
,
,
A n O r g ani s ma l T he o r y
in
sc
i
o
n
u
s
n
e
s
C
o
s
of
67
pe r ati o n th r o u gh the e m o ti o n s ( C h ap
thu s bri n g
i ng it u p t o the pha s e o f l o we r c o n s c i o u s life
T he r e a de r s h o uld n o t f o r g et the i n s i s te nc e th r o u gh o ut
o u r p r e s e n t a ti o n o f the s e a n t a g o n i s ti c phe n o me n a
that a l
w a y s the o pp o siti o n s a n d a n ta g o ni sm s a n d c o mpe titi o n s a r e
fu nd a m e n t a lly c o n s titutive a s t o the n o r m a l o r ga n i sm E ve n
the m o s t p r o n o u n c ed o f the m a r e yet i n the i n te r e s t o f t he
o r g a n i s m a s a wh o l e
T hey a r e a lw a y s pa r ti a l phe n o me n a
r el a tive t o the wh o le o r g a n i s m
T hey have ev o lved i n s t ri c t
a c c o r da n c e with a n d s u b o r di n a ti o n t o t he fu n dame n t al n a
tu r e o f the o r ga n i sm i n i t s t o ta l ity T he o pp o s i ng mu s cle s
Of o u r limb s c a n n o t b r e a k o r te a r o n e an o the r u n de r n o r mal
E ve n a n ta g o ni sm s a m o n g t he pa r t s o f the o r
c o n diti o n s
a n i s m a r e p o s s i ble be c au s e the p a r t s bel o ng t o the o r g a n i s m
g
T he a n t a g o n i sm s o f the p a r t s d o n o t p r o du c e the o r g a n i sm
p r i m a r ily but a r e them s elve s p r o du c ed by the o r ga n i sm o r
at lea s t a r e a p o r ti o n o f the m ea n s o r meth o d s by whi ch the
All thi s
o r g a n i s m live s a n d e n la r ge s devel o p s a n d fun c ti o n s
be it n o ti c ed h o ld s n o t me r ely a s t o u chi n g pu r ely phy s i c al
”
but a s t o the e n ti r e g a mut o f p sy chi c life
o r g a n izati o n
at lea s t up t o a n d i n cludi n g i n s ti n c tive a n d em o ti o n al li f e
o
.
.
,
.
.
.
-
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
S u pp o r t
of
H y p o t he s i s by
t he
ce p t i o n
o
t he
f
t he
Phy si c o C he mi ca l
C on
-
O r g a ni s m
T hi s
p r epa r e s u s f o r the fin a l s tep o f swit chi ng the dis c u s
s i o n f r o m the p s y c h o c o n s c i o u s a s pe c t o f life t o t he b i o
phy s i c o c he m i c al a spe c t T he pla c e i n o u r di s cu ss i o n t o
whi ch thi s r etu rn n atu r a lly take s u s i s that whe r ei n we c o n
s i d e r e d the o r g a n i s m s chemi c a l n a tu r e a s i n te r p r eted by phy
s i ca l chemi s t r y
T h a t i n te r p r et a ti o n h a s bee n p r e s e n ted by
s eve r al phy s i o l o gi s t s b ut with s pe c i a l i n s i ght a n d c o ge n c y b y
F G H o pki n s Fo r ex a m ple o u r c itati o n i n C h a pte r 4
fu n cti n l i nt g t i n ch p
T h di s u si n
f g wth nd h m i
-
-
.
’
.
.
t
.
.
c
e
e rs
1 7, 1 8 ,
ti
c o n ne c
on.
s
a nd
o
s o
,
ro
1 9 , Th e U ni t y
c
a
o
f
e
co -
is m
t he O r g a n/
o
s
a
h ou ld
e
be
ra
o
re a
d
a
,
in
thi
s
A n O rg ani s mal T he o r
y
68
f T he Uni t y
n
s
i
c
s
C
o
o
u
s
n
e
s
of
t he O r g ani s m,
a
m
o
n
the
s
t
te
e
n
t
tha
t
t
h
e
c
of
“
c e t i o n o f the o r g a n i s m a s a che m i c al la b o r at o r y
apid
i
s
r
p
”
1y g ai n i n g g r o un d
s h o uld b e r e c alled
o the
a s s h o uld al s
“
the che m i c a l r e s p o n s e o f the ti s s ue s
o pi n i o n o f H o pki n s :
t o the c he m i c al s tim ul u s o f f o r ei gn s u b s ta n c e s o f s i m ple
”
i s o f p r o fo u n d b i o l o gi c al s i gn i fi c a n c e
c o n tituti o n
a nd
s
“
th a t fu r the r s tudy o f the phe n o m e n a m u s t thr o w vivid
” 22
li ght o n the p o te n tialitie s o f the ti s s ue labo r at o r ie s
S o f a r thi s c he m i c al l a bo r ato r y c o n c epti o n o f t he t i s
s ue s m ay be s ai d t o b e s t r i c tly c hem i c al ; b ut let u s r e c a ll
what the i n t e rp r etati o n i s whe n it p a s s e s fr o m c he mi s t r y i n
the e xclu s iv e s e n s e t o phy s i c al chemi s t r y an d be c o me s m o r e
a s o n e may s a y
s p e c i fi c as t o the la b o r at o r y app a r atu s
“
”
th r o u gh whi c h the ti s s ue s w o r k In o the r w o r d s r e c all
t he c o nc e pti o n o f the c ell a n d i t s m o de o f o pe r ati n g a s
viewed by phy s i c al c hemi s t r y
T he qu o ta t i o n s give n i n
C hap te r 4 may well be r epe at e d i n p a r t :
the livin g
c ell a s We n o w k n o w it i s n o t a ma s s o f m a tte r c o mp o se d o f a
but a hi ghly diff e r e n tiat e d
c o ng r e g ati o n o f like m o le c ule s
s y s tem ; t h e c ell i n the m o de r n ph r a s e o l o gy o f phy s i c al c hem
i s t r y i s a s y s tem o f c o exi s ti ng pha s e s o f di ff e r e n t c o n s ti
” 23
tuti o n s
T he n f r o m thi s r eview o u r o w n c o n te n ti o n s e t
f o r th e s pe c ially i n C h apte r 7 th a t whe r eve r i n s u ch s t a te
“
men t s a s th o s e j u s t qu o ted fr o m H o pki n s the te r m ce ll o c
”
c u r s t he te r m o r g an i s m r eally o u ght t o be u sed
I t i s imp o r ta n t f o r o u r c au s e ge n e r ally th a t t he f ull
wei ght o f o u r a r gu me n t i n supp o r t o f the view that o n t he
e
l
l
c
r
e
r
a
t
i
tly
phy
i
c
al
pla
e
the
th
tha
n
the
r
n
i
s
m
a
o
n
s
s r c
g
o
s
r
o
s
i s r e a lly t he equili br ati o n y stem t wa d whi c h phy i c
o
n
r
c
s
a
e
r
t
h
n
e
i
he
i
al
k
n
wled
g
e
te
n
di
ng
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
de
s
s
i
o
m c
c
o
t
s
o
s
n
i
s
n
thi
p
i
t
if
n
s
eque
tly
t
hi
o
c
o n
s
At
s c i o u sn e s s
r
s
e
C
o
h e i s u r ge d t o r ead what i s s aid n t he p o i n t i n hapt
4 a n d 7 e s pe c ially
s
r
t
h
e
o
o
t
s
c
e
t
a
pu
p
e
h
w
that
g
a
n
i
mal
i
s
o
o
s
w
r
n
o
r
l
n
O ur
hyp o t he si s o f c o n s c i o u s ne s s a r ti c ulate s di r e c tly a nd n a t u r
o
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
'
,
.
,
’
,
,
.
'
.
,
,
An O rganis ma l T he o r y
o
f
Cons ci o u sn e s s
69
C
ally with t he s am e c o nc epti o n o f the o r g an i sm U n d o ub t edly
it i s i n the e m o ti o n al pha s e o f p sy c hi c li fe th a t t hi s a r t i cu
lati o n i s m o s t o pe n t o c o mm o n o b s e r v a ti o n Co m p a r e f o r
“
example Jam e s O u r wh o le c ubi c c ap a city i s s e n s ibly aliv e ;
a n d e a c h m o r s el o f it c o n t r i b ut e s i t s pul s a ti o n s o f fee li n
g
dim o r s ha r p ple a sa n t pai n ful o r dubi o u s t o that s e n s e o f
pe r s o n ality that eve r y o n e o f u s u n fa m ili a r ly c a r r ie s with
”
“
him with H o pkin s O n ultimate a n aly s i s w e c a n s c a r c ely
s peak at all o f livi n
m
atte
r ate
we
r i n the c ell ; at a n
g
y
c a nn o t w ith o ut gr os s m i su s e o f te r m s speak o f t he c ell
life a s bei ng a s s o c i a ted with a ny o ne pa r ti c ula r type o f m o le
l
c ule
It s life i s the exp r e s s i o n o f a p a r ti c ula r dyn a m i c eq m
‘
i bri u m whi c h o b tai n s l n a p o lypha s i c s y s tem
l ife a s w e
i n s ti n c tively de fin e it i s a p r o pe r ty o f the c ell a s a wh o le
be c au s e it depe n ds up o n the o r g a n iz ati o n o f p r o c e s se s up o n
the eq ui li b r ium di spl a yed by the t o t a lity o f t he c o e xi stin g
” 24
pha s e s
A l s o c o m p a r e H o pki n s s t ateme n t th at am o n g
“
”
the di ff e r e n t pha s e s o f the c ell i n whi ch i t s l ife i n he r e s
“
a r e t o b e r e ck o n e d n o t o n ly the di ff e r e n t i a t e d
a r t s o f the
p
bi o plas m s t ri c tly de fin e d ( if we c a n de fin e it s t r i c tly ) the
—
ma c r o a n d mi c r o n u c lei n e r ve fibe r s mu s c le fibe r s etc b ut
t he mate ri al s whi c h s upp o r t the c ell s t r u c tu r e a n d whi c h
”
hav e bee n te r m ed met a pla s ti c c o n st itue n t s o f the c ell with
“
“
”
Jame s ea ch m o r s el o f o u r c u bi c c a pa c ity c o n t r i bu t e s i t s
”
pul s ati o n s o f feeli n g et c
T he c o ng r uity o f the s e s t ateme n t s i s app a r e n t eve n whe n
taken a s he r e exhi bited ; th a t i s e a c h a s s ta n di ng by it s elf
a t abo ut the t w o ext r eme s o f the s c ale o f life Wh e n h o w
eve r they a r e viewed i n c o n n e c ti o n with my ge n e r a l a r gum en t
“
”
that c ell i n Ho pki n s s tate m en t o u ght t o be r epla c ed by
”
“
d
a
r
c
n
e
c
ti
with
what
we
have
le
n
e
n
a
i
n
o
o
n
n
d
o r gan i sm
;
f r o m C a n n on a n d o the r s a b o ut the me chan i s m by mea n s o f
whi ch the o r g a n i sm o pe r ate s i n the pha s e o f c o n s ci o u s e m o
ti o n it s eem s a s th o u gh o u r o rg a n i s mal hyp o th esis o f co n
as
r
o
f
a
s
A
n
d
r
s
c
me
n
a
t
o
a
dem
n
t
ati
o
n
o
r
s
e
e
s
s
o
s ci o u sn
.
.
,
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
’
.
,
l
-
,
-
-
,
,
,
.
,
,
’
,
.
,
.
,
’
,
.
,
,
70
A n O r g an i s ma l T he
or
y.
o
C
o
o
n
s
c
i
u s ne s s
f
di a r y de s c r iptive n atu r al hi s t o r y i s c o n c e r n e d I be liev e
thi s t o be t r ue H o weve r I r e c o gn ize kee n ly e n o u gh that
r
f o m t he s ta n dp o i n t o f bi o chemi s t r y a n d phy si o l o gy a nd
al s o f r o m th a t o f p hi l o s o phy i n the t r aditi o n al s e n s e th a t
dem o n s t r ati o n i s n o t o nly f a r away b ut i s atta i n a ble if at
all o n ly b y s u rm o u n ti n g ve r y f o r m ida ble diffi cultie s S o I
r e a s s u r e the du bi o u s r e a de r that a ll I am c laimi n g i s that
my tw o p r o p o s iti o n s a b o ut the n atu r e o f c o n s ci o u sn e s s t o
g ethe r c o n s titute a le gitimate s c ie n ti fic hyp o the s i s
n
or
,
.
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
P e r s o n a li t y
a nd
E l e me n t a r y
C he mi ca l
—
W ith b th the phy i c he m i al
S u bs t a nce s
pe c t a n d the p sy c hi c al
a s pe c t o f o u r hyp o the s i s n o w b ef o r e u s m o r e fully a n d
s ha r ply th a n they h a ve b ee n hithe r t o we will exa m i n e a n o b
e c t i o n t o it whi ch I app r ehe n d will be the m o s t s e r i o u s the
j
hyp o the s i s will meet ; n amely th a t t o the p r o p o siti o n that
ea ch i n dividual o r g a n i s m ha s the value i n a che m i c al s en s e
o f a n e l eme n ta r y s u b s ta n c e
A n d s i n c e thi s o b j e c ti o n will
p r o b a bly be m o r e i n t o le r a n t a n d s tubb o rn f r o m the s ide o f
phy s i c s a n d c hemi s t r y tha n f r o m that o f n atu r a l hi s t o r y a n d
p s y ch o l o gy I will ad j u s t my r ema r k s with r efe r e n c e t o the
o pp o s iti o n a s thu s a n ti c ipated
T he c o n s ide r ati o n s I am g o i n g t o p r e s e n t mi ght have b ee n
i n s t r i c t exp o s it o r y c o he r e n ce p r e s e n ted a s a p a r t o f m y
di s c u s s i o n o f t he u nique n e s s o f the i n d iv i d u a l c o n s ci o u sn e s s
a s ma r ked b y i t s n e c e s s a r y p r iva c y a n d i t s di ff e r e n c e f r o m
i n dividu a l c o n s c i o u sn e s s W hat we a r e n o w t o
a ll o the r
e m ph a s ize i s the fu n d a m e n t a lity o f o bj e c tiv e a s c o n t r a s t ed
with s ubj e c tive pe r s o n ality o f s u ch hi ghly devel o ped a n i m a l s
as s o n g bi r d s d o m e s ti c a ble a n i m a l s a n d c ivilized m a n
“
”
A c o mplete de fin iti o n o f pe r so n ality i s n o t o bli g a t o r y
O n ly thi s mu ch n eed be s a id a b o ut the
f o r o u r pu r p o s e
mea n i n g w e s hall give the w o r d : F i r s t we de n y the r i ght
c laimed by s o me auth o r s t o make pe r s o n a lity pu r ely psy
o
s
o c
c
as
.
.
,
,
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,
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,
A n O rg ani s ma l T he o r y
n
c
i
C
o
s
o u sne s s
of
—
pi itual
thin g
”
“
71
”
“
c hi cal o r s r
a
i nn e r o r deepe r
o f the
“
”
s elf
S elf that i s i n a th o r o u gh g o i ng s ubj e c tivi s ti c se n s e
It i s o n thi s g r o u n d a s I u n de r s t a n d th a t s o me ps y cho l o
2
5
gi s t s a s G F S t o ut a n d ap pa r e n tly C L l o yd M o r g a n
de n y pe r s o n ality t o a nim a l s A ll I will s a y o n thi s que s ti o n
he r e i s that I am quite s u r e that eve r y cl o s e o bs e r ve r o f the
hi ghe r a ni m als will r e c o gn ize that if he u n de r tak e s t o give a
t r uly full r ep o r t o f hi s o bs e r vati o n s o n thei r be havi o r he will
have t o s peak o f the pe r s o n ality o f s o m e at lea s t o f them
j u s t a s he w o uld o f the pe r s o n ality o f o bse r v e d huma n be i ng s
o r he will b e o bli ged t o c a ll the s ame thi n g by s o me o the r
—
n ame a ki n d o f p r o c edu r e a g ain s t whi ch we hav e s p o ke n
s t r o n gly th r o u gh o ut thi s v o lu m e
F o r u s whateve r pe r s o n
ality m a y be we mu s t c o n c eive it t o be fo u n ded up o n a n d
“
”
O r g a n i s m mu s t be the m o r e
c o n f o r m a ble t o the o r g a n i s m
”
“
”
“
i n clu s ive te r m
P e r s o n m u s t s t a n d t o O r g a n i s m i n the
l o gi c a l r elati o n o f s pe cie s t o ge n u s
A n o the r me a n i n g o f pe r s o n ality i n thi s p a r ti c ula r d i s
c u s s i o n will c o n c e r n the u n ique n e s s o f ea c h o r g a n i s m a s t o i t s
p s y chi c a l att r i bute s r e ga r ded i n thei r t o tality B y u n ique
n e s s I m e a n n o t me r ely the f a c t tha t ea c h o r g a n i sm is i t s e lf
pe r c eptually r e ga r ded b ut that it i s n o t a r epli c a a dupli
c ate o f a n y o the r It i s n o t o nly a n o the r o r g a n i sm but it i s
i n s o m e m e a s u r e a d ifi e r m t o the r o r ga n i sm Fo r the be n e fi t
o f th o s e phy s i c a l a n d metaphy s i c al mi n ded r eade r s w ho have
n eve r i n f o rm ed them s elve s mu ch a b o ut the fa c t s o f n atu r al
hi s t o r y a nd h a ve n eve r t r i e d s e r i o u sly t o thi nk i n the n at
u r a l hi s t o r y m a nn e r I w o uld r ema r k that what I have j u s t
s a id c o n c e r n i n g the u n ique n e s s o f the i n di vidual o r g a ni s m
i s o nly r e a s s e r ti n g i n a m o r e r e fi n ed way what b o ta n y a nd
z o o l o gy h a ve r e c o gn ized m o r e o r le s s de fi n itely s i n c e D a r
wi n s tim e at lea s t an d have p a r ti a lly exp r e s s ed i n the te rm s
”
“
”
“
i n di vidual diff e r e n c e an d i n dividu a l va ri ati o n
W ith thi s we c o me t o the c a r di n al p o i n t : If i nd i vid u a l
,
,
-
,
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,
,
'
,
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,
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,
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,
,
,
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-
.
-
’
,
.
ma l
an i
or
g
a ni s
ms ,
es
ci a ll y
e
p
i nd i v id u al hum an s
u nd e r
ci v i
A n O rg a/
ni s ma l T he o r
y
‘
o f Co ns ci o us ne s s
.
73
!
keepe r a n s we ri n g
o
u
,
y
if
ou
y
as
k ho w
s
he
k n o w s a ni c kel
wh a t thi s me a n s A ctu a lly a s i s well k n o wn t o
eve r y be gin ni n g s tude n t i n a n alyti c al c hemi s t r y the s e t w o
metal s a r e ve r y s i mila r i n c o l o r a s well a s i n o the r phy si c al
—
r
att i bute s s o mu c h s o i n fa c t that s o m e auth o r s apply
“
”
t he s am e t e r m s i lve r white t o bo th
What a h o u se keep e r
r e a lly m e a n s w he n s he s ay s s he k n o w s o n e impleme n t t o be
o f n i c kel be c au s e it i s b r i ght a n d the o th e r t o b e o f i r o n
be c au s e i t i s bla c k i s that she i s d e pe n di n g o n a c hemi c a l
r ath e r tha n a phy s i c al att r i bute f o r a di s ti n gui shi ng ma r k
;
t he att r i bu te that i s i n vi r tue o f whi c h i r o n i s a c ted up o n
mu ch m o r e r e a di ly by o xy ge n i n the p r e s en c e o f m o i s tu r e
tha n i s n i ckel T he mu c h gr eate r lia bility o f i r o n th a n
n i ckel t o ta r n i s h a n d r u s t i s a c hemi c a l r athe r tha n a phy
s i c a l di ff e r e nc e be twee n them
T hi s f a c t n amely that o f
the depe n de nc e o f di s ti ngui s hi n g di ff e r e n c e s be twee n su b
s ta n c e s m o r e up o n c hemi c a l tha n up o n phy s i c a l att r i b ute s i s
o f ve r y wide a pp l i c a b ili ty i n n a tu r e
an d i s gr eatly imp o r
ta n t bo th s c ie n ti fic ally an d philo so p hi c ally
N o w t u r n fr o m c o mpa r ing the s e t w o eleme n ta r y c hemi c al
s u b s ta nc e s t o a c o mpa r i s o n o f a n y t w o hum a n o r g a n i sm s o r
pe r s o n s w ho mi ght be membe r s o f a h o u seh o ld t o whi c h
the implem e n t s mi gh t be l o n g An d make the c o mp a r i s o n fi r s t
o n the b a s i s o f t he phy s i c al att r i bute s j u s t a s we be g a n
c o mpa r i n g t he impleme n t s o f n i ckel a n d i r o n D o e s an y
r eade r d o u b t th a t h e w o uld fi n d it mu c h ea s ie r t o di s t i n gui s h
the pe r s o n s tha n the m et a l s ? A s t o pu r ely m o r ph o l o gi c al
th a t i s ph y s i c al diff e r e n ce s betwee n alm o s t a n y t w o p e r s o n s
with
the
p
o s s i ble ex c epti o n o f c e r t a i n r a r e i n s ta n c e s o f
(
”
“
iden ti c al twi n s ) the r e i s n o r o o m f o r que s ti o n Ge n e r al
fa c e a n d fe atu r e s a n d the s ize a n d p r o p o r
s h a pe o f head
ti o n s o f the v a ri o u s pa r t s o f the b od y fu r ni s h man y unmi s
taka bl e di s t i ngui sh i ng a tt ri bu te s
See
no w
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,
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~
.
74
O n t he
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y .
P s y cho lo gy o f
S ub je c t i ve
n
c
i
C
o
s
u
o
s
n
e
s
s
of
O bje c t i ve
an d
P e r s o n al i t y
B ut u n e r r i n g a s a r e the di ff e r e n tiati n g m a r k s o n the
phy s i c al s id e s u ch m a r k s a r e few a s c o m pa r ed with th o s e
o n the p s y c hi c al s ide
N o ti n g fi r s t c e r ta i n me r ely phy s i c o
p s y c hi c al diff e r e n c e s thi n k o f the ma nn e r s o f s pee ch an d o f
h a n d w r iti ng t o me n ti o n o n ly t w o ite m s ! U n d o u b t e dly the s e
diffe r e nc e s a r e t o a c o n s ide r a ble exte n t phy s i c al b ut n o o n e
w o uld s e r i o u s ly que s ti o n th a t p s y chi c al fa c t o r s c o me i n all
al o n g the li n e T hi s i s pe r hap s m o s t o bvi o u s i n s pe e ch a s
evide nc e d by v o i c e m o dul ati o n s i n t o n ati o n s ge s ti c ulati o n s
a n d fa c ial a n d b o dily exp r e s s i o n s
A g a i n diff e r e n tial s a r e
e ve r ywhe r e
r e c o gn iza b le
i n r e s p o n s e s t o s e n s o r y s timuli
e s pe c ially i n the m a t t e r o f r e a c ti o n ti m e
T he r e a r e t he
qui c k a n d a cc u r ate pe r s o n s a n d the qui c k an d i n a c c u r a t e
o n e s ; a n d the r e a r e the s l o w a n d a cc u r a te a n d the sl o w a n d
in a cc u r ate t ype s t o g o only a s tep i n de s c ri pti o n a n d c la s s i
fi c a t i o n o n thi s b a si s
T he n w e p r o c eed t o c o mp a r e t he u n equiv o c al p sy c hi c a l
pha s e s o f life : the f eeli n g the em o ti o n al the e s theti c the
a n d the i n telle c tual pha s e s He r e we pa s s i n t o
r eli gi o u s
a r ealm o f what mi ght p r o pe r ly be c alled o bj e c tive p r iva c y
i n p sy c h o l o g y i n dividual s f o r the s tudy o f whi ch w o ul d be
la r gely t he s tude n t s m o s t i n timate a n d m o s t en du ri ng fr ie n d s
an d a s s o c i a te s huma n a n d a n im a l
S u c h a p s y ch o l o gy w o ul d
b e u n de nia bly s o pa r ti cul a r a n d i n timate that mu ch o f it
w o uld be u n publi s h a bl e eve n if it had a n in te r e s t b ey o n d
A t the s ame time the r e a r e s o me
t he f e w pe r s o n s c o n c e r n ed
p o r t i o n s o f it o f gr e a t pu bli c imp o r ta n c e o n e s u ch p o r
ti o n be i n g e x a c t ly what we a r e i n n e e d o f i n t he p r e s e n t d i s
I r efe r t o the ex c eedi ngly fam ili a r b ut s c ie n ti fic all y
c u s si o n
mu ch n e gle c ted de fin ite a n d s u s tain ed p sy chi c al diff e r e n c e s
o f i n dividu a l s w h o b y r ea s o n o f be i n g membe r s o f the s a me
h o u s eh o ld o r s ame s mall c o mmu nity a r e s u bj e c t t o n ea r ly
id e n ti c al i n flu e nc e s o f a r a s c o nc e r n s s u c h fun dame n tal e n
,
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,
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-
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’
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,
.
'
A n O rg a ni s mal T he o r y
n
s
i
c
C
o
o u s ne s s
of
v i r o ni c
75
’
fa c t o r s a s f o o d i n the n a r r o w s e n s e d r i n k a i r li ght
a n d tempe r atu r e
T he duty b ef o r e u s i s that o f te s tifyi ng t o
o f v i s e i/
ng the o bj e c tively p s y c hi c al i n dividual a s w e did the
s u bj e c tively
p s y chi c a l i n dividual e a r lie r i n thi s s ket ch
“
”
“
What i s n eeded w r ite s S ella r s i s n o t va g ue s tatemen t s t o
the e ff e c t that i n dividu a l s c a nn o t be s epa r ated o r that they
” 2"
a r e a s pe c t s o f o n e a n o the r b ut de fi n iti o n s a n d a n aly s e s
S ellar s 1 s he r e r ai s ing hi s v o i c e a g ai n s t t h e te n d e nc y i n
—
p r e s e n t d a y s o c ial p sy ch o l o gy t o m ak e the i n di vidual a ki n d
o f i nc ide n t i n the s o c ial o r de r
p
It
a b
r o du c t o f S o c iety
y
i s a s ati s fa c ti o n that the r e gul a r c o u r s e o f my p s y c h o l o gi c al
a r gu m e n t ha s b r o u ght m e t o whe r e I al s o m a y c o n t r i b ute
t
o
the
de
fi
n iti o n a n d a n aly s e s e s s e n ti a l t o c he c k
s o methi n
g
If it c a n be sh o w n
i ng the te n de n c y i n di c ated by S ella r s
bi o l o gi c ally a n d p sy c h o l o gi c a lly all i n o n e th a t pe r s o n ality
i s i n du bita bly o bj e c tive bo th s ub s ta n tively a n d ki n eti c ally
n o t o n ly t he I n dividu a l b ut S o c iety will b e the g ai n e r I am
ve r y s u r e Fo r my c o n t r ib uti o n we will e xami n e i n o utli n e
what m ay a pp r o p r iately be c alled the a c ti o n sy s tem ( ad o pt
i n g a n d expan di n g Je nni n gs t e r m ) a s it ma n ife s t s it s elf i n
O u r s tudy will
a s mall h o m o ge n e o u s g r o up o f huma n be i ng s
b e i n o th e r w o r d s o ne i n d o me sti c a n d n ei gh bo r h o o d psy
,
,
,
.
,
’
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
-
’
'
.
,
,
ho l o gy
c
.
“
”
s
n
o
w
e
o
s
b
mat
ia
i
n
thi
i
n
ta
nc
e
mu
t
my
h
u
eh o ld
s
er
s
l
T he
a n d the han dful o f pe r s o n s c o n s titutin g the c o l o n y o f t he
o
r
T
s
r
s
R
c
ipp
I
tituti
n
B
i
l
g
i
a
l
e
ea
c
h
hi
g
up
c
o
o
o
for
ns
S r
s
i
t
s
s
c
athe
p
c
ially
f
av
a
b
le
u
h
a
tudy
i
n
that
o
r
s
f
o
r
r s e
is r
ge o gr aphi c s ever a nc e fr o m o the r g r o up s an d i t s s t ri c tly
n
d
a
s
r
n
o
ha
b
it
t
g
ive
i
t
a
n
ex
c
epti
ally
n
atu
al
imple
a
r al
un ifo r m e nvi r o nme n t T he a n aly s i s mi ght r un al o n g an y
o
e
s
o
r
o
r
u
all
eve
al
axe
b
ut
pu
p
e
will
b
e
a
c
m
s ;
r
of s
o ne o r
r
o
e
b
s
o
n
e
T
hat
hall
the
ea
l
i
she d b y f o ll o wi n g o n e o n ly
p
i
n
r
o
o
f
r
s
ti o n the be h avi o r o f i n dividual m em be
the g up
e
o
r
r
a
w
r
W e e c mplet
r e s p o n s e t o the s timulu s o f the w o ld
a
al
ev
y
i
n
dividual
i
n
the
e
r
s
s
i
n e ss t o be aimed a t in t he n y
.
,
,
,
.
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,
,
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,
76
'
An O r g an is ma l T he o r y
o
f C o ns ci o us ne s s
g r o up w o uld have t o be c o n s ide r ed S u c h a t r e a tme n t w o uld
be hi ghly i n s t ru c tive but s pa c e limitati o n s f o r b id us g o i n g t o
s u c h le n gth
W e mu s t r e s t r i c t o u r s elve s t o a few o f the
m o r e p r o n o u nc edl y i n dividuali s ti c beh a vi o r s an d mu s t t r eat
eve n the s e i n a ve r y s ket chy f a shi o n T o be r e m a r ked at
the o ut s et i s t he fa c t tha t eve r y mem be r o f t he gr o up 1 s
deeply l o y a l t o A m e r i c a a n d t o the c a u s e o f the A llie s O n
the ve r y d o o r s ill o f the exa mi n ati o n we r e c o gnize t w o well
diff e r e n tiated a s pe c t s t o ea c h pe r s o n s a c ti o n s y s t em n ame ly
a n a spe c t o f c o mm o n ality f o r n e a r ly a ll membe r s o f the
g r o up ; a n d a n a s pe c t o f ve r y p r o n o u n ce d d i ff e r e n t i ali t y f o r
ma n y o f t hem
B e havi o r s i n c o mm o n will r e c eive atte n ti o n fi r s t In the
u n if o r m gr o wth f r o m the ve r y be gi nn i n g o f t h
A u gu s t 1 9 1 4 o f belief i n the ge n e r a l r i ght n e s s
o f the E n te n te ; o f r e alizati o n o f the me a ni n g o f
a n d o f s e n ti m e n t s a n d r e s o luti o n s o f de v o ti on t o the fo r ei gn
n ati o n s w ith whi ch o u r n a ti o n i s fin ally j o i n e d the s e e xpe r i
T o b e s u r e thi s c o mm o n
e me e s have bee n ve r y mu c h at o n e
n e s s ha s f all e n f a r sh o r t o f ide n tity B ut a s t o e s s e n tial s
e
x
o
F
e
r
r
em
b
la
nc
e
b
e
n
g
eate
r
t
ha
n
diffe
e
nc
r
r
e
f
a
a
h
s
res
ampl e e ve r y adul t ha s a c c ept e d un he s itati ngly hi s a n d he r
r
o
r
o
f
s
a
b
g
ati
n
the
C
the
ppeal
aid
f
m
s
t
o
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;
B el giu m F r a n c e a n d the o the r de sp o iled c o u n t r ie s ; t o the
i n c r e a s in g c o s t o f livi n g ; t o the b uyi n g o f G o ve r nme n t
B o n d s ; a n d t o the appe al s a nd r e gulati o n s o f the F o o d A d
mi n i s t r ati o n N atu r ally the r e ha s be e n diff e r e n c e i n the
p a rt i c ular w ay a n d exte n t o f r e sp o n s e o f e a ch in the s e mat
te r s ; b ut i n e s s e n c e the r e ha s be e n n o thi ng di ffe r e n tial
W e tu r n n o w t o b ehavi o r n o t i n c o mm o n ; behavi o r th at
w
n
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o
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r
r
e
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e
p
lly ith
i s whi c h h a s di ff e r e n ti a t e d the memb
gr eat shar p n e s s T h i s ex a min ati o n i s mu ch m o r e imp o r ta n t
s
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as t he c o mm o n ph r a s e had it whe
“
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fi r s t e n te r i n g t he c o n fl i c t T he w
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A n O rgani s ma l T he or y
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o
f Co ns ci o u sne s s
77
’
U
gr adually be c o me with the adva nc e t o w a r d the cli
o f the gi g a n ti c s t r u ggle
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avitated
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h a s m u c h t he appea r a nc e o f the n atu r al n e s s a n d i n evit a bility
p r e s en ted by t he fa llin g o f a s t o n e o r the fl o wi n g o f wate r
T he c a s e g r o ws s o s i gn i fi c a n t at thi s p o i n t that I mu s t a r
p
t i c ul a r iz e s o mewh a t m o r e tha n I have he r et o f o r e
A be c o m e s
“
”
a n a ck n o wled ged leade r i n d r ive s f o r R e d C r o ss f u nd s
L i be r ty B o n d s a le s et c
B be c o me s a r e gu l a r c o n s ulta n t
o n the k n itti ng o f R e d C r o s s a r t i cle s
C i s a hi ghly skilled
“
”
devi s e r a n d make r o f di she s f r o m s ub stitute f o o d s D
i s app o i n t ed a n o ffi ci a l o f the N at i o n al F o od Admi n i s t r a
ti o n E be c o me s a n o ffic i al te a che r o f gi r l s an d w o me n a s t o
the pe c uli a r dutie s a n d o bli g ati o n s o f thei r s e x i n w a r time s
F c o n c e n t r ate s n e a r ly the wh o le o f hi s phy s i c al e n e r g y up o n
a n el a bo r ati o n o f the view t hat a vi c t o r y o ve r G e r ma n y a n d
he r al lie s c a n n o t b e r eally c o mplete with o ut be in g s pi r itual
—
a s w ell a s mate r i al
that t he phil o s o phy o r the o r y o f li fe
bei n g f o u ght f o r by Ge r ma n y mu s t be o ve r th r o wn a s w ell as
he r ar me d f o r c e s
O f the f o r ty adult mem be r s o f t he g r o up
ful ly o n e half have bee n i n c ited i n a s pe c i a l de gr e e t o so me
a c tivity that ha s a di s tin c t pe r s o n al cha r a c te r s o m e o f the s e
be in g ve r y p r o n o u n c edly s o T he pe r
a s a b o v e i n di c a t ed
o f the s e r ea c ti o n s c o me s t o vi e w m o s t di s ti nc tly i n
s o n a li t
y
the fa c t a b s o lu t ely c e r tai n t o a n o b s e r ve r wh o s e a cqu a i n
ta n c e wit h the pe r s o n s h a s be e n i n tim a te an d ha s e xte n de d
o ve r s o me yea r s
that n o o ne o f th o s e w ho ha s s ettle d i n t o
de fin ite a n d imp o r ta n t pie c e s o f w o r k
o n e o f t he s pe c ial
o f the o the r s i n thei r s pe c ia l t a sk s
c o ul d wh o lly r epl a c e a n
y
“
”
P r o b a bly e a ch c o uld d o s ome t hi ng at t he jo b o f a n y o f
the o the r s we r e c o n diti o n s s u ch a s t o f o r ce him t o t r y ; but
ve r y
s u c c e s s u n de r s u c h c o n di ti o n s w o ul d s u r ely be p a r tia l
mu c h s o i n s o me o f the c a se s
T hi s aut o mati c de fi n iti o n a n d c la s s i fic a t i o n o f pe r s o n s sub
a
c
o mm o n ma j o r s ti m ulu s w i th n e a r ly t he s am e ge n
e
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e r al e n vi r o ni c c o n dit i ons a n d wi t h al m o s t c ompl e t e fr e e d o m
i n
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to
me a phe n o me n o n o f ve r y gr e at imp o r tan c e s i n c e it de
pe n d s up o n p r i n c iple s o f o r g a n i c bei n gs e s pe c i a lly upo n
“
”
p r i n ciple s o f c ivilized ma n s be i n g whi ch a r e we ll n i gh if
n o t e n ti r ely u niv e r s al I am s u r e
U n d o u b tedly the phe n o m
e n o n i s o fte n mu c h o b s c u r ed th r o u gh c o u n te r a c ti n g e l e
me nt s i n the e n vi r o nmen t e spe cially i n s o c ial c u s t o m s e c o
n o mi c c o n diti o n s a n d g e n e r al edu c ati o n a m o n g c ivilized m e n
B ut i n s pite o f all the s e atte n tive o b s e r vati o n will n e a r ly
a lway s be a bl e t o r e c o gniz e it H i ghly s i gn i fi c a n t i s it a s
be a r i ng o n thi s pa r ti c ula r a spe c t o f the matte r th at t he
n i c he s fi n ally f o u n d by m o s t o f t he pe r s o n s we r e o bvi o u sly
dete r mi n e d t o s o me exte n t by l o n g c o n ti n u e d p r evi o u s a ct ivi
“
”
tie s a n d u nmi s t aka ble n atu r al gift s
A n o th e r n o tew o r t hy f a c t i s the clea r i n di c ati o n o f n o t
me r e a cc ept a n c e b ut p o s itive s a ti s fa c ti o n o n the pa r t o f
“
”
m o s t if n o t a ll the pe r s o n s o n c e they a r e s ettled t o thei r
”
o bs
thi s s ati s fa c ti o n p r evaili n g de s pite the s t r en u o u sn e s s
—
pe r plexity a n d wea r a n d tea r e n tai led D u r i n g the fi r s t
week s o f Am e r i c a s plu n g e i n t o the m a el s t r o m the a n xi o u s
p s y chi c al c a s ti n g ab o ut i n o u r little g r o up a s th r o u gh o ut
the wh o le lan d p r e s e n t s t o the a n th r o p o l o gi c a l bi o l o gi s t a s
he l o o k s b a ck up o n it a c a s e o f t ri al a n d e r r o r o n a gi g a n ti c
s c a l e the s c e n e be i n g r eplete with j u m bled ele m e n t s o f n o b le
zeal s ple n did effi cie n cy m i s expe n ditu r e o f s t r e ngth a n d
f u n d s a n d ludi c r o u s p r o p o s al s B ut o u t o f thi s a s o u t o f
“
thi s u n p r e c ede n ted i n s t a n c e o f w o r ld wide s t r u ggle f o r e x
”
i s te nc e the r e i s quite s u r e t o c o me i n deed i s c o mi n g a s o ne
o r e r eal a n d p o we r ful an d
e r s o na l i t
m
o f i t s fi r s t f r uit s
y
p
fulle r o f gr a n deu r th a n eve r
W hile pe r s o n alitie s c o m e f o r th with s pe cial di s ti n c t n es s
o f o utli n e a n d f o r c eful n e s s o f exp r e ss i o n du r i n g o cc a s i o n al
eve n t s of va s t i m p o r t t o the r a c e like the p r e s e n t w a r i n
v o lvi n g lite r ally the wh o le c ivilized p o r ti o n o f the huma n
yet I w o uld i n si s t that the di ff e r e nc e b dw e e n the
s pe c ie s
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A n O r g ani s ma l T he o r y
n
i
s
c
C
o
o
us ne s s
of
79
'
m a n ife s tati o n s
at s u c h ti m e s a n d at o r di n a r y tim e s i s a l
m o s t e n ti r ely o ne o f de g r ee r athe r tha n o f e s s e n tial n atu r e
T he atte n tive o bs e r ve r will n o t f a il t o fi nd pe r s o n alitie s a s
he r e u n de r s t o o d a lw a y s a n d eve r ywhe r e n o m atte r ho w s im
ple a n d l o wly the live s a n d m o n o ch r o m e the exte r n al c o n di
ti o n s In little detail s o f i n telli ge n t but s till m o r e o f r eflex
i n s ti n c tive a n d em o ti o n al life all o f whi ch c o mp o u n ded t o
g ethe r make s what we o fte n c all tempe r ame n t the kee n a n d
s ympatheti c o b s e r ve r will alw a y s s e e
e r s o n s i n the deep
p
s e n s e he r e i n di c ated
N o t the t r a n s c e n de n t ge n u i s e s me r ely
the A r i s t o tle s t he S h a ke spea r e s the N ap o le o n s have the
r i ght t o b e c all e d pe r s o n alitie s be c ause o f the u n ique p o we r s
with whi c h they a r e e n d o wed ; b ut e a c h a n d ev e r y o n e o f c ivi
li z a t i o n s humble s t r a n ked my ri ad s a n d ea ch a n d e ve r y
—
n atu r e tut o r ed d e n ize n o f the vi r gi n f o r e s t o f the u n tilled
plai n a n d o f t he u n r e ge n e r ate de s e r t have the s ame r i ght
i n ki n d
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Pe r s on ali t y a nd t he B r e a t h o f L ife
a
s
t
h
s
m
i
t
e
P
h
i
c
C
h
e
r
l
of
y
y of
”
“
V ie w e d in t he L i ght
O r g a ni sm
the di s c u s s i o n b a ck n o w o n the phy s i c o ch emi c a l
a s pe c t o f the o r ga ni s m I r e c all fi r s t the t r uth alluded t o a
littl e whi le a go n am ely that it i s p r eem i n e n tly t he chemi c al
r a the r tha n the phy s i c a l att r i b ute s o f eleme n t a r y i n o r g a n i c
s u bs ta n c e s whi c h fu r n i s h the di s ti n ui s hi n g m a r k s o f the s e
g
s ub s t a n c e s
E ve n i n the i n o r g a ni c w o r ld we s a w that s ub
s t a n c e s a r e m o s t r eadily a n d de c i s ively di ff e r e n ti a ted f r o m o n e
—
a n o the r by the t r a n s f o r m a ti o n p r o du c t s r e s u lti n g f r o m the
“
T r a n s f o rm a
r e a c ti o n o f t he s u b s ta n c e s up o n o n e a n o the r
”
ti o n o f e n e r gy u s in g a f o r m o f exp r e ss i o n fa v o r e d by the
di s emb o dyi n g te n de n cies i n r e c e n t chemi c al the o r y i s the
mo s t di s ti nc tive thi n g a bo ut al l c hemi s t r y i n o r g an i c a s well
a s o r ga ni c
T he o xid a ti o n a n d o the r c hemi c ally r ea c tive
c ha nge s a n d p r o du c t s o f n i ckel a nd i r o n we n o ti c ed a r e t he
S w i n gi ng
'
-
,
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A n O r g a ni s mal T he o r y
t he
o
n
C
c
i
s
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o
u
s
n
e
s
s
f
81
u btle r a spe c t s o f the p r o blem T he little we s h a ll d o
i n thi s w a y m a y b e i n t r o du c ed by the que r y what r e a s o n
i s the r e f o r i n c ludi n g i n o u r hy po the s i s the s upp o s iti o n th a t
“
”
it i s s o m e s ub s t a n c e i n the a i r al m o s t c e r tai nly o xy ge n
with whi ch the o r g a n i sm r e a c t s che m i c a lly t o p r o du c e c o n
s c i o u s n e s s a n d a l l o the r phe n o m e n a o f life ?
W hy s i ngle o u t
thi s s u bs tan c e f r o m the o the r eleme n t a r y s ub s t a nce s e s s e n ti a l
t o life a s f o r i n s ta n c e c a r bo n o r n it r o g e n ?
M y r eply be
“
gi n s by r e c al li n g the immem o r i a l r e c o gn iti o n o f the br eath
”
“
”
o f l ife
the life givi n g a i r a n d s o o n o f u n ive r s al exp
e n c e It i s well t o r e c a ll likewi s e s u ch s e m i phil o so phi c c o n
“
”
c e t i o n s a s that o f the p n eu m a o r
p
s y chi c al b r e a th o f life
p
—
late r G r e c o R o ma n phil o s o phy T he i next r i c a ble e n
of
t a ngle m e n t hi s t o r i c a lly o f br eath a n d a i r with s pi r it s i s
a l s o w o r th r emem be r i n g
e spe c ially the c o n ti n ua nc e o f thi s
in t o the m o de rn pe r i od o f s c ie n ti fi c a n aly s i s u nm i s takea ble
t r a ce s o f whi ch a r e s ee n i n the w r iti n gs o f W illi a m H a r vey
a n d the f o r em o s t phy s i o l o gi s t s o f the e r a t o whi ch he be
—
l o nge d Fo r ex a mple the spi r i t u s n i t r o ae r e us o f J o h n
M a y o w whi c h we n o w kn o w w a s hi s te r m f o r o xy ge n a s
glimp s ed fi r s t in the hi s t o r y o f s c ie n c e m a y be me n ti o ne d
M o r e imp o r tan t tha n a n y o f the s e r emi n de r s fr o m the hi s
t o r y o f k no wled ge i s that o f the f a m ilia r fa c t t ha t the m o s t
c r u c i a l evide n c e s o f t ru ly i n depe n de n t o r aut o n o m o u s life o f
the i n dividual hi ghe r a n im a l a r e r e s pi r at o r y T h a t the n e w
b o r n hum a n b ab e s fi r s t b r e a thi n g a c t i s i t s fi r s t ge n uin e in
de p en de n t l if e a c t i s o n e o f the m o s t c o mm o npl a c e o f t r uth s
”
“
An d r e c a l l ho w the r etu r n o f life a s we s a y o f the n e a r ly
“
”
d r o wn ed pe r s o n a n d o f o n e w ho ha s fai n ted dead a way
Ce r
i s m a r ked b y the r e s u m pti o n o f r e s pi r at o r y a c tivitie s
tai n r efle xe s a s th o s e fr o m s ti m ul a ti n g the eyelid s a n d p o s
gu m nt i n n sw t thi s q y sh u ld b e t k n as n xt e n
Th
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ar
e
a
o
ue r
a
o
e
a
e
p e ct s a r e pl a ce m e n t o f th a t co nt a i ne d i n
m y e ss ay Is n a t u r e i n fin i t e ? w h e r e i n I di s cu ss t he S p e ci fi ci ty o f i n
di vid u a l o r g a ni sm s as in di ca t e d by how th e y u se th e i r nu t r i e nt s ub
si o n
of,
and
,
st a nce s
.
in
i m p or t ant
er
res
,
82
si
A n O r g a ni s ma l T he o r y p
bly
n
s
ci o u s ne s s
Co
f
c e r tai n hea rt fl u t t e r i ng s may b e m o r e pe r s i s te n t m o ve
me n t s tha n th o s e c o n n e cted with b r eathi ng B ut th e s e a r e
le s s c e r tai n s i gns o f i n dividual life It i s o nly t o philo s o phy
o f the ele m e n t a li s t s o r t th a t the me r e twit c h o f a h a n d o r a n
eyelid o r a t r a c e o f he a r t a c ti o n w o uld be a s ati s fa c t o r y
p r o o f o f life N o r w o uld it be t o a phil o s o phe r o f thi s s c h o o l
“
”
s h o uld the
livi ng s u bs ta n c e u nde r o b s e r vati o n happe n t o
r tai n t o a l o v ed r elati o n o r f r ie n d
e
f
o
evide
n
e
a
t
s
i
S
t
ac
r
c
p
y
o f life i n thi s c a s e w o u ld c o me o n ly with the n e a r ly s i m ul
t a ne o u s r etu r n o f b r e a t hi n g a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s
A r i ght
i n te r e s ti n g s e c ti o n c o u ld b e w ri tte n at thi s p o i n t o n the
i m p o r ta n c e o f n ut r ime n t i n the o r di n a r y s e n s e a n d o f d r i nk
a s c o mpa r ed with a i r at the ve r y b e gi n n i ng a n d e n di ng s ta g e s
o f the i n di vidual life
F o r i n s t an c e s u c h qu e s ti o n s w o uld
have t o b e c o n s ide r ed a s that o f the i n depe n de n c e o f t he n ew
i n dividual f o r a while at the o ut s et o n f o o d y o lk i n m a n y
a nimal s be l o w the mam m al s a n d o n pla ce n t a l c o n n e c ti o n s i n
m a m mal s ; that i s o n mate r i a l meta bo li c ally el a bo r ated by
the o lde r o r pa r e n t i n dividual B ut s u ch a di s c u s si o n n o t
bei n g i n di s p e n s a ble t o thi s s k e t c h mu s t be f o r e g o n e E n o u gh
he r e t o em pha s ize the fa c t that while it may be e n ti r e ly ju s
ti fi a ble t o r ega r d o xy ge n a s a f o o d a s s o me g o o d m o de r n
phy s i o l o gi s t s d o the t w o imp o r ta n t fa c t s sh o ul d n e ve r be l o s t
o xy g e n ( a i r ) i s t he o n e a n d o n ly eve r
s i ght o f th at ( 1 )
p r e s e n t a n d n eve r va r yin g c o n s titue n t o f the dieta r y In
o the r w o r d s that it i s t he o n e c o n s ti t ue n t whi c h n atu r e s u p
“
”
o u s e a g o o d o l d the o l o gi c al e x
lie
f
r e e gr a c e
t
s a s by
p
p r e s s i o n ; a n d th a t
o xy ge n i s the o n e a n d o n ly f o o d that
n eed s n o di ge s ti ng a n d s o n o di ge s tiv e o r g an s o r ti s s ue s s e t
”
apa r t f o r i t s meta b o li c elab o r ati o n
O xy ge n i s the o n ly f o o d whi ch pa s s e s di r e c tly a s s u ch t o
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
,
.
-
,
.
,
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.
.
vi
h e ld by som e physi ol o gists th at t he al ve o l ar e pi t he
li
l gs t r a n sm i t s a tm osph e r i c oxyg e n t o t he b l o o d by a n a cti ve
p r o ce ss Sp ok e n o f as a se cr e t i n g thi s st at e m e nt w ou ld ne e d m o di fyi n g
H ow e v e r t he v i e w d o e s not s e e m t o b e a cce p t e d b y m os t
s o m e wh at
a u t h o r i ti e s
We re
t he
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ew
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o ne o f
it s m o st
fu n d a m e n tal fo o d m a te r ial s f o r whi c h it d oe s
n o t n o r m ally h a ve t o g o i n s e a r c h o r t o c o m pe te with o the r
o r ga ni s m s
T he fam ili a r fa c t a nd i t s si gn i fic a n ce appea r n o t
t o h a ve att r a c ted the atte n ti o n o f b i o l o gi s t s mu c h
E ve n
L
J H e n de r s o n w ho h a s w r itte n s o ill u m i n atin gly o n
ma n y a s pe ct s o f o r ga n i c adaptive n e s s s ay s n o thi n g de fin ite
o n thi s p o i n t
T he s e t w o fa c t s a r e wei ghty r e a s o n s f o r my
p r o p o s a l t o l o o k up o n o xy g e n a s o ne c hemi c ally e leme n ta r y
s u b s t a n c e a n d the o r g a n i s m a s an o the r
the r e a c ti o n be
twee n whi ch i s b a s al i n the p r o du c ti o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
all life phe n o me n a C o n s eque n tly t he p r o blem o f h ow e x
a ct l
r
n
o
s
the
g
a
n
i
m
e
d
wed
with
full
c
c
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o
fl
e
e
o
n
d
s
d
s
s
o
s
y
g
r ea c t s t o w a r d o xy g e n i s c e r t a i n ly o n e o f the m o s t imp o r t a n t
o f a ll p r o blem s o n the pu r ely phy s i c o chemi c al s ide o f life
A n d a s s a id ea r ly i n thi s s ket ch it i s j u s t he r e that my t he
i
or
s m o s t a v o we dl y hyp o theti c al
It
w
o
uld
b
e
quite
o
ut
f
o
y
the que s ti o n t o p r e s e n t i n the r emai n i n g p a ge s o f thi s bo o k
eve n had I the r equi s ite k n o wled g e f o r d o i ng s o a ll that
mi ght p r o fi t a bly be s aid o n the s ubj e ct C o n s eq ue n tly o n ly
t w o o r th r ee o f what s eem t o m e the m o s t c r u c ial matt e r s will
be me n ti o n ed
In the fi r s t pla c e I a sk the r eade r t o r e c all what ha s be e n
s aid i n va r i o u s o f the p r e c edi n g c h a pte r s whi c h have b r o u ght
o u t the i n du b it a ble t r e n d o f the i n te r p r etati o n o f life phe
n o m e n a a cc o r di n g t o the p r i n c iple s o f phy s i c a l c he m i s t r y
away f r o m the eleme n tali s ti c c o n c epti o n o f the o r ga n i sm
T he i n te r p r et ati o n o f the o r g a n i c c ell a s a s y s tem o f ph a s e s
i n dy n am i c equi li b r i um s o s t r o n gly se t fo r th b y H o pki n s
a n d B ayle s s will be r emembe r ed A n d thi s will c a ll t o mi n d
the sh a r p way i n whi ch the n e w c o n c epti o n with i t s appeal
t o the r ole o f s u r f a c e l a y e r s m e m br a n e s a n d a r ea s o f c o n
ta c t be twee n a ll s o r t s o f c o n s titue n t s ubs ta n c e s s et s it s el f
o ve r a g a i n s t s u ch p s eud o o bj e c tive c o n c epti o n s as that o f
bi o ge n s n o t t o men ti o n t he h o r de o f o u t an d o u t subje ct iv i s
.
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.
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.
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.
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-
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-
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84
A n O r g an i s mal T he o r y
“
n
s
c
i
C
o
o u s ne s s
of
”
ti c eleme n t s o f whi c h p ange n s a nd dete r mi n a n t s have pe r
hap s ha d the g r e a t e s t v o gue T he i m p o rt an ce o f the a n ti
ele m e n tali s ti c t e n de n c y o f phy s i c al c hemi s t r y whe n it c o me s
t o be a pplied t o bi o l o g i c al p r o ble m s i s g r eatly e nh a n c ed it
appea r s t o me b y the c i r cum s ta n c e that J W illa r d Gi bbs
w ho w a s o n e o f the v e r y fi r s t t o app r e c iate i n a full s c ie n ti fic
s e n s e the imp o r t an c e o f ma s s ive a s c o n t r a s ted with mi n ute
pa r ti cle ph e n o me n a i n i n o r g a n i c n atu r e a n d s o w a s o n e o f
“
”
the fathe r s o f phy s i c al chemi s t r y made n o as s umpti o n s
a b o ut the i nvi s i ble c o mp o s iti o n o f s ub s ta n c e s i n hi s t r eat
“
”
m e n t o f H ete r o ge n e o u s E quilib r ium a n d a llied t o pi c s
“
”
“
C e r tai nly w r i te s Gi bb s o ne i s bui ldi ng o n an i n s e c u r e
f o u n dati o n w ho r e s t s hi s w o r k o n hyp o the s e s c o nc e rn i n g t he
” 27
c o n s tituti o n o f matte r
If thi s i s t r ue a s t o u chi n g the
r elatively s impl e s t r u c tu r e s a n d m o v e me n t s i n the lifele s s
w o r ld ho w mu ch m o re o bvi o u sly t r ue i s it a s t o u chi n g the liv
i ng w o r ld a n d e spe c ially s u ch life phe n o me n a a s huma n c o n
.
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
,
s ci o u s n e s s
.
!
we a r e a ble t o r equi s iti o n o n e o f t he admit te dl y m o s t
imp o r t a n t adva n c e s o f m od e rn time s i n i n o r g a n i c s c ie nc e a s
s upp o r t f o r the s upp o s iti o n th a t the a i r we b r eathe
and
p r e s u m ably i t s o xy ge n c o n t r i bute s i n s o me di r e c t a n d fu n da
men tal w a y t o the p r o du c ti o n o f c o n s c i o u sn e s s e ve n th o u gh
“
”
thi s s ubs ta nc e if i t s ul ti m a te n atu r e i s what i n o r g a ni c
c hemi s t r y a n d phy si c s have hithe r t o att r ib uted t o it has lit
tle o r n o thi n g t o s u gge s t th a t it p o s s e s s e s s u c h a u niqu e
late n t att r i bute T he r eade r s h o uld n o t fail t o r e c all he r e
”
“
H ume s r e c o gn iti o n o f the s e c r et p o we r s o f s ub s ta nc e s
B ut i s it no t p o s s i ble that phy s i c o c hemi c al an d phy si
“
”
the b r e a th o f life
o l o gi c al k n o wled g e o f o xy ge n a n d ai r
d o c o n t a i n s o mewhat m o r e t o j u s tify t he s upp o s iti o n tha n i s
u s uall y r e c o gni zed ? I n thi s c o n n e c ti o n I r elat e that o ne o f
t he m o s t me n tally adhe s iv e s tateme n t s I e ve r hea r d fr o m a
bi o c hemi s t i t s ad h e s ive n e s s depe n di n g la r gely o n the fa c t
t ha t t he c h e mi s t w a s o ne o f gr e a t e xpe r ie nc e a s a l a b o r at o r y
So
,
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A n O r ga ni s ma l T he o r y
n
s
c
i
u
Co
o
s ne s s
of
85
i
i nve s ti gat o r w a s t o the eff e c t th at che m i ca l a nal y s e s make
kn o wn what they fi nd a n d ab s o lutely n o m o r e In o the r
w o r d s s u ch a n aly s e s n eve r ex clude the p o ss i bility o f s ub
s ta n c e s o the r th a n th o s e f o u n d
A n d thi s c he m i s t a s s e r t e d
fu r the r m o r e that all o r g a ni c a na ly s e s le ave r e s idue s t o s o me
exte n t N o m a n ipulative m eth o d s a r e k n o wn it ap pe a r s
c apa ble o f e ff e c ti n g a r e a lly c o m plet e an aly s i s o f a ny o r
g a ni e s u bs tan ce Whethe r the s e r e s t r i c ti o n s o n a n aly s e s
s till h o ld I am n o t s u r e th o u gh I have s ee n o r hea r d n o thi n
g
whi ch lead s me t o s upp o s e they d o n o t
I t i s thi s ge n e r a l s had o w o f ma n ipulativ e impe r fe c ti o n
whi c h o ve r han gs all f o r mal phy s i c s an d chemi s t r y c o upled
with the a dv a n c e s bei n g m a de f r o m time t o time i n o u r
k n o wled g e o f o xy ge n a n d a i r whi c h ha s led m e t o put i n t o my
hyp o the s i s a s hade o f d o u bt a s t o whethe r o xy ge n i s t he co n
s t i t u e n t o f the a i r the r ea c ti o n o f whi c h w ith t he o r a n i s m
g
p r o du c e s c o n s ci o u sn e s s T he dem o n s t r ati o n o f helium a n d
a r go n a n d p r o b a bly n e o n c r ypt o n a n d xe n o n i n a t m o s
as
e r i c ai r
h
a ll withi n a little m o r e th a n t w o de c a de s
h
p
i nflue n c ed my thin ki ng in the s a m e di r e c ti o n B e s id e s t he
idea be c o m e a c o mm o npla c e o f phy s i c s a n d chemi s t r y i n a
“
at o m IS a s co m
s i n gle ni ght figu r atively s pe a ki n g that the
”
plex a s t he s o la r s y s tem ha s had i t s pa r t i n shapi ng my
c o n c e pti o n s ; a s h ave a l s o s u ch well c r ed e n t i a led c o n c epti o n s
“
”
“
f r o m the i n o r g an i c s c ien c e s as that U r a nium II i s a l o ng
“
”
lived elemen t whi ch i s the pa r e n t o f t he a c ti n ium s e r ie s o f
ele m e n t s but ha s n o ge n eti c c o n n e c ti o n with the u r a n ium
“
”
i n the lead pleiad the r e a r e s eve n e l e
s e r ie s
; a n d th at
” 28
”
me n t s h a vi ng qui te diff e r e n t at o m i c wei ght s
T he ext e n t t o whi c h a s exe m pli fi ed by thi s c a s e the i n o r
g a n i e s cie nc e s h a ve f o un d them s elve s d r ive n i n t o the o r ga ni c
r eal m f o r te r m s with whi c h t o exp r e s s thei r n ew c o nc epti o n s
mu s t imp r e s s eve r y th o u ghtful pe r s o n E a r lie r what w e
mi ght de s c r i be a s pu r ely c o n te m p o r a n eo u s phy s i c al dy n ami c s
h ad t o b o r r o w s u c h te r m s a s e n e rg y p o we r f o r c e w o r k
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
.
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,
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,
,
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-
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,
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,
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,
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,
86
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y
.
n
s
c
i
Co
o u s ne s s
of
t he
n o me nc latu r e o f living be in gs L ate r with t he pe r
m e a t i o n o f all k n o wled ge b y t he c o n c epti o n o f the n a tu r al
o r de r ivative o r i gi n o f eve r ythi n g
a
g
ui
ely
g
n
n
a
e
o
r
n
i
c co n
(
c e t i o n n o ti c e
a
h
c
m
s
o
e
eve
ele
e
n
t
y
hemi
c
al
n
f
r
o
m
r
a
c
su b
p
)
s ta nc e s
t he i n du c ti o n i n t o phy s i c s a nd che m i s t r y o f s u c h
idea s a s ge n e ti c r e lati o n s pa r e n th o o d a n d le ngth o f li fe
S o m y s u gge s ti o n that the a i r we b r eathe mu s t b e r e c o gn ized
t o p o s s e s s late n t att r i b ute s whi c h by r e a c ti n g with the o r
a ni s m
r o du c e c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a
n
f
ll
i
t o a g en eti c s e r ie s i n
s
g
p
the hi s t o r y o f the i n te r pretati o n o f n a t u r e
T he ve r y imp o r t a n t que s ti o n a s al r eady i n di c a ted o f ex
a ct l
o w atm o s phe r i c o r m o le c ul a r o xy g e n o pe r ate s i n the
h
y
living be i ng ge n e r ally a n d the c o n s ci o u s bein g pa r ti c ula r ly
i s l a r g ely f o r the futu r e t o a n swe r
O n e s h o ul d n e ve r fail
h o weve r t o c o upl e thi s que s ti o n with the s ame que s ti o n a s t o
t he b ehavi o r o f o xy ge n a n d f o r that matte r o f a n y o the r
c hemi c al s u bs t an c e i n a n y r ea c ti o n whateve r E xa c tly ho w
f o r e xample d o e s o xy ge n o pe r ate w ith hyd r o ge n t o p r o du c e
the att r i bute o f r ef r a n gib ility o f wate r ; o r with ph o s ph o r u s
t o p r o du c e the pe cul ia r gl o w whi ch that s u b s ta n c e may e x
bi bit u n de r s o me c o n di ti o n s ?
C o nc e r n i n g the p o s itive k n o wled g e a n d the vie w s a s t o
det a il s o f the a c ti o n o f o xy ge n in c o n n e c ti o n with t he o r
a n i sm
o n ly a little c a n b e s aid he r e th o u gh that little may
g
L o o ked at f r o m the s ta n dp o i n t o f the
be ve r y imp o r ta n t
old the o r th o d o xly at o mi sti c chemi s t r y p r o b a bly the m o s t
a n o mal o u s thi n g a bo ut my hyp o the s i s i s th a t the o r ga n i sm
c o n c eived a s equivale n t chem i c ally s peaki n g t o a n ele m e n
ta r y s ub s ta n c e i s the u n que s ti o n ed fa c t th a t the o r g an i sm i s
n o t o nly c o m p o s ed o f s eve r al che m i c al s u b s ta n c e s b ut th a t
S t a t e d baldly the an o m aly i s
o ne o f th e s e i s o xy ge n it s elf
that t w o che m i c al s u bs t an c e s a r e s upp o s ed t o r e a c t up o n e a ch
o the r
o n e o f whi ch ( the o r g a n i s m ) i s k n o w n n o t o n ly n o t
B ut eve n
t o be s imple but t o c o n tai n the o the r s u b s t a nc e
”
“
c o mp o u n d r adi c al s o f whi c h
t he o l d c hemi s t r y w ith i t s
f m
ro
,
.
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An O rg a ni s mal T he o r y
n
s
i
c
u
s
n
e
ss
C
o
o
of
87
c ya n o ge n ( CN ) 2 i s s aid t o have be e n t he fi r s t di s c o ve r ed a n d
o f whi c h the un itedly a c ti n g c o m bi n ati o n s o f c a r b o n a n d
hyd r o ge n a s methyl CH 3 a ff o r d s s o me s li ght s u ppo r t f o r
o u r c o n c epti o n s o f a r a s t he me r e m a tte r o f c hemi cally u n i
ta r y c o mp o u n ded n e s s i s c o n c e r n ed I n s o f a r h o w e ve r a s
te ch n i c al c hemi s t r y c a n be d r aw n up o n f o r s upp o r ti n g o u r
hyp o the s i s it i s t he n e w o r phy s i c al c hemi s t r y a s ha s
bee n r epeatedl y s tated that i s o u r mai n r elia n c e U nle s s I
am g r e atly de c eiv e d t he r e al i nwa r dn e s s o f that g r e at m o ve
me n t i n i n o r g a n i c s ci e nc e i s a ga l n s t the a g e o l d c o nc epti o n o f
the ultimat e adequa c y o f at o m s t o explai n i n o r g a n i c na
tu r e alm o s t a s p o s itively a s the o fga ni sm a l c o n c epti o n i s
a g ai n s t t he ulti m ate adequa c y o f a ny c o n s tituen t eleme n t
wh a teve r t o expl a i n o r ga n i c n atu r e T he s u r fa c e e n e r gie s
f o r example d evel o ped at c o n ta c t fa c e s a n d givi n g r i s e t o
t he phe n o me n a o f ad s o r p ti o n
appea r t o be n o t a whit le s s
r eal a n d ultim ate e n e r gie s tha n a r e a n y th a t c a n be att r i b
A n d be it n o
u t e d t o at o m s a n d m o le c ule s take n a s s u c h
ti c ed o n e o f the m o s t di s ti n c tive thi n gs a b o ut the s e a r eal a nd
ma s sive e n e r gi e s i s that they d o m i n ate at o mi c a n d m o le c ula r
T hi s i s j u s t what the n o w u n i
e n e r gie s t o a c e r tai n exte n t
”
“
ar as
s s a c ti o n
s in E
5
f
ma
i
v e r sa ll
r e c o gn ized p ri n c ipl e o f
y
s u c h a c ti o n ha s be e n s tudied e n o u gh t o make p o s s ib le i t s f o r
mul a t i o n i n t o l a w ; th a t i s e n o u gh t o lea r n ho w it i n flue n c e s
vel o city a n d qua n tity o f c hemi c al c h a n ge B ut w o uld a n y
c a r eful phy s i ci s t o r c hemi st p r ete n d t o k n o w t o a c e r tai nty
that s u c h a c ti o n i s r e s t r i c ted t o i nflue nc e o f that s o r t ? S u r ely
A r e we c er t a i n f o r i n s ta n c e that it c a n n o t u n de r a ny
no t
s d in
s o lid b o dy i m m
A d o pt i n i s t h l di n g o f t h e su fa ce o f
T hu s i t i s by
d so p t i o n t h t
a s o l u t i o n w i th t h e di s so l v d su b st a n ce
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h ar co al t ake s t he co l o r i n g m a tt e r o u t o f a co l o r e d s ol u t i o n The act i o n
r e su l t s f r o m t he f a ct s t h a t t h e r e i s su r f a ce t e n si o n a t t he i nt e r f a ce s b e
t we e n t he ch a r co a l an d t he liqu id an d th at t hi s t e nsi o n i s l e sse ne d by
T he s u b
t he p r e s e nce o f t he di ss o l v e d co l o r s u b st a n ce i n t he liqu id
s t a nce t h e n m o v e s t o t he pl a ce o f l e sse n e d t e n si o n a n d co n ce nt r a t e s o n
T he p r i n cipl e h a s v e r y w id e a ppli c a t i o n i n
t he su r fa ce o f t he s o lid
n
d
a
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a
c
s
u
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n
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ly
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i
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r
na u e
w a t e r a re i n co nt act so e xt e nsi v e l y
,
c
.
,
-
.
29
.
,
,
.
A n O rg an i s mal T he o r y
ta t e b iefly
n
c
s
i
u
s
s
C
o
o
n
e
s
of
89
mu c h m o r e o f t he bi o chemi c al
a spe c t o f the p r o blem a s s eem s i n di sp e n s abl e t o o u r p r e s e n t
a r gum e n t A fe w r em a r k s o n what the phy s i o l o gy o f o u r day
o fte n ca ll s ti s s ue r e s pi r ati o n will c o mp a s s what i s i n mi n d
T he key fa c t i n thi s i s o f t w o f o ld c ha r a c te r : ( 1 ) T he ti s s u e s
o f the o r g a n i s m n o t i t s b l o o d o r an
the
fluid
s c o n tai n t he
o
r
y
s u b s t a n c e w hi c h i s i n the s t r i c te s t s e n se livi ng
T hi s
s u bs ta n c e i s c a lled livi n g be c au s e c hemi c a l c ha ng e s o f a ve r y
di s ti n c tive s o r t a r e go i n g o n i n it T he s e c ha nge s a r e o f a
fu n dame n tal ly d o u bl e n atu r e a s r e ga r d s atm o sphe r i c o r
m o le cula r o xy g e n ; n amely c o mbi n at ive a n d i n c o r p o r ativ e
T he la s t m e n
c ha n g e a n d s ep a r a tive a n d expul s iv e c ha ng e
t i o n e d the s epa r ativ e a nd expul s iv e c ha n ge i s k n o w n a s o xi
dati o n a nd m a n ife s t s it s el f t o o r di n a r y expe r ie n c e i n t he di s
c ha r ge o f o xy g e n c o m b i n e d with c a r b o n a s c a r bo n di o xide
a n d i n the s etti n g f r ee o f e n e r gy i n the f o r m o f mu s c ul a r a nd
T he fi r s t m e n ti o n ed o r i nc o r p o r a
o the r w o r k a n d o f heat
tive c hange c o n si s t s i n t aki n g i n an d s t o r i n g up o xy ge n
“
”
a s t he m o r e c a r efully w o r ded phy s i o l o gie s put
s o meh o w
it T hi s s tateme n t m a y be take n a s a v er y br ief n atu r al
hi s t o r y de s c r ipti o n o f t he m o s t fu n dame n tal s tep s i n wh a t
fo rm al phy si o l o gy c all s meta b o li s m with i t s tw o a spe c t s t he
c o n s t r u c tive o r a n a b o li c a nd the de s t r u c tive o r kata bo li c
P r o b a bly n o o ne will que s ti o n that thi s c o n c epti o n o f t he
f o un d a ti o n s o f t he li f e p r o c e s s f o r n ea r ly if n o t quite all
a n imal li fe i s that hel d by the be s t phy s i o l o gi s t s s i n c e t he
time o f C B e r n a r d at l e a s t N o phy s i o l o gi s t wh o m I hav e
c o n s ulted has s tated t he n atu r e o f the p r o c e s s m o r e de fi n itely
”
“
T he R e spi r ati o n
tha n has S i r Mi chael F o ste r
he w r it es
“
o f t he m us c le the n d oe s n o t c o n s i s t i n th r o wi ng i n t o t he
bl o o d o xidi z a ble sub s t a n c e s the r e t o be o xi di zed i n t o ca r
bo n i c a c id a nd o th e r matte r s ; b ut it d o e s c o n si s t in the a s
s umpti o n a n d s t o r i ng up o f o xy ge n s o meh o w o r o the r i n i t s
i n t he buildi ng up by help o f th a t o xy ge n o f
s u b s ta n c e
ex p l o s ive d e c o mp o s a ble s u b sta nc e s a n d in t he c a r r yi ng o u t
We
ca n now s
r
as
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90
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y
o f Co ns ci o u s ne s s
o f de c o mp o s iti o n s whe r e by c a r b o n i c a c id an d o th e r m a tte r s
a r e di s c h a
r g ed fi r s t i n t o the s u b s ta n c e o f the mu s c l e an d
” 31
s u b s eque n tly i n t o the bl o o d
A n d he p o i n t s o u t i n o the r
c o nn e c ti o n s that wh a t i s t r ue o f mu s cle i n thi s r e g a r d i s e s
s e n t i a ll
r u e o f a ll o the r ti s s ue s y s tem s
t
a
the
till
I
o
n
n
r
s
y
“
m o r e r e c e n t te xt bo o k we r ead : N o thi n g de fi n ite i s k n o wn
h o weve r a s t o the n atu r e o f the p r o ba ble c o mbin ati o n s
f o r m ed by o xy ge n with t he di ff e r e n t mate r ial s f o r buildi n g
up mu s c le s a n d o the r ti s s ue s o r o f the i n te r mediate a n a bo li c
a n d k a t a b o li c f o r m s th r o u g h whi c h it p a s s e s i n c o m b i n i n g
” 32
with c a r b o n i n t o c a r bo n i c a cid
A nd thi s auth o r the n
exp r e s s e s what a r e ap pa r e n tly hi s o w n view s by qu o ti ng
“
f r o m F o s te r a s f o ll o w s : T he wh o le my s te r y o f life lie s hid
d e n i n the s t o r y o f that p r o g r e s s ! that o f c o ns t ru c ti o n a n d
de s t r u c ti o n i n the ti s s ue s ] a n d f o r the p r e s e n t w e mu s t be
”
c o n te n t with s i m ply k n o wi n g the be gi n n i n g a n d t he e nd
T he ke r n el o f my s u gge s ti o n s o f a r a s meta bo li sm i s c o n
c e r n ed i s tha t the a n a b o li c o r the a s s i m il a tiv e the t r ul y
s y n thet ic a s pe c t o f the c o m plete o pe r a ti o n
i s the c o n ti n u a l
r e n ew a l
o r keepi n g up o f the o xy g e n c o n s titue n t o f the
o r g a n i s m whi c h c o m e s t o it by he r e di ty
that i s whi c h ha s
“
”
a lw a y s be e n i n the
li n e o f de s c e n t
It i s the mai n te n a nc e
o f wh a t m i ght be s p o ke n o f a s the o r l g ma l o xy ge n c o n s t i t u
e n t o f the o r g a n i s m
T he r e w o uld alway s the n be o pe r a ti ng
i n the o r ga n i sm o xy ge n o f t w o s o u r c e s that f r o m t he o ne
s o u r c e de s i gn ated empl o yi n g o u r well e s ta b li s hed e v o luti o n a l
te r m i n o l o gy phyl o ge n i c o r he r edit a r y o xy ge n ; a n d the o the r
In ge n e r al the s ame ki n d
o n t o g e n i c o r i n dividual o xy g e n
ca r
o f r ea s o n i n g w o uld h o ld f o r the o the r c he m i c al s imple s
b o n n it r o g e n a n d s o o n ; b ut the s e a r e i n quite a diff e r e n t
s tatu s f r o m o xy ge n o wi ng t o the fa c t th at th e y a r e n o t
n o r m a lly take n by the an i m al o r g a n i s m i n the pu r e o r u n co m
bi ned s t ate but o nly i n s o me o the r o r g a n i c c o mb i n ati o n
a s f o o d i n the o r di n a r y se n s e
M e t a b o li c ally e xp r e s se d t h e n w e may s a y i n sh o r t t h a t
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A n O rg a ni s ma l T he o r y
n
c
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u
Co
s
n
e
s
s
of
91
the wa r r a n ta ble n e s s f o r c o n side r i n g the i nd iVi d u al o r ga n i sm
a s a che m i c a l ele m e n t i s the fa c t th a t it mai n t a i n s i t s ide n tity
a s r e ga r d s all i t s eleme n ta r y c o n s titue n t s ex c ept o n e o xy g e n
by w r en chi ng the s e s o t o s pe ak fr o m o the r o r g a n i c c o m
p o u nd s ( by di ge s ti n g the s e ) a n d the n by s y n the s izi n g the
eleme n t s i n t o i t s o w n pa r ti c ul a r s ubs t a nc e A n o the r w a y o f
exp r e s si n g the s a m e c o n cepti o n i s t o s a y th a t the o r g a n i sm
i s a n ele m e n t c he m i c ally s pe a ki n g be c a u s e it r ea c t s di r e c tly
i n a c he m i c a l s e n s e with a n o the r ele m e n t
Di d thi s c hapte r p r ete n d t o be a n ythi n g m o r e tha n a
s ket c h o f a the o r y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a c o n s ide r a ble di s c u s
“
”
s i on o f the
a c tivati o n o f o xy g en w o uld n a tu r a lly c o m e i n
T he e s s e n se o f a c tivati o n
s o mewhe r e pe r h a p s at thi s p o i n t
i s the f a c t that whe n o xy ge n p a s s e s i n t o the o r g a n i s m b y the
r e s pi r at o r y p r o c e s s it i s s o m eh o w c ha ng ed i n t o a c o n diti o n
whi ch e n a ble s it t o o xidize livi n g ti s s ue s u b s t a n c e s a s it
whe n b r o u ght i n t o c o n
s ee m i n gly
c a n n o t t o an y de g r ee
ta c t with the s a m e s ubs ta n c e s o u t s ide the o r ga n i s m T hi s
di s c u s s i o n w o ul d i nv o lve the v a r i o u s the o r ie s whi c h h a ve
be e n put f o r w a r d t o a cc o u n t f o r thi s phe n o m e n o n a s th o s e
whi ch m a ke u se o f the p r i n ciple o f e nzy m e s o f pe r o xide s o r
A ll th a t o u r ai m s he r e r equi r e u s t c n o ti c e
o f s o m e o the r
i s that n o thi n g c o n clu s ive a s t o u chi n g the n atu r e o f a c tiva
ti o n w o uld c o m e fr o m the di s cu s s i o n H o w u n s a ti s fa ct o r y
a s tate thi s wh o le s u bj e c t i s in m a y be s ee n f r o m the f o ll o w
“
i n g w o r d s o f a f o r em o s t A m e r i c a n b i o che m i s t : It ha s bee n
a p o p ul a r p r a c ti c e t o ap pe a l t o hyp o theti c a l e n zyme s t o
explai n s o me o f t he o bs c u r e chemi c al t r a n s f o rm ati o n s i n t he
T hus we have bee n w a n de r i n g th r o u gh the m a ze s
o r g a n i sm
o xy g e n a s e s
pe r o xida s e s r edu c ta s e s c ata
o f the o xid a s e s
la s e s a n d o the r p r o du c t s o f pe r plexi n g n o m e n cl a tu r e i n the
h o pe o f e s c a pi n g the u n c e r tai n tie s o f i n te r medi a r y met a
” 33
b o li s m
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92
A n O r g an i s ma l T he o r y
S u/
mme d
T he
-
up
S t a t e me n t
o
f
o
n
s
c
i
C
o
o us ne s s
f
Ju s t ific a t i o n
of
t he
H y p o t he s i s
—
puttin g t gethe
fi al g athe r i ng up a n d
o
r may n o w be
made o f all th a t ha s be e n s aid a bo ut the phy s i co c he mi c al
a s pe c t o f t he o r g a n i s m o n the o n e ha n d an d a bo ut i t s p sy
chi c al a s pe c t o n the o the r
T hat i s t o s a y we a r e n o w r eady
t o epit o m ize the r e s ult s o f o u r exa m i n ati o n o f the an c ie n t
a n d h o n o r a b le b ut withal u n s o lved p r o b lem o f h o w B o dy a n d
“
”
“
”
S o ul g o t o g ethe r
A s r e g a r d s bod y o r the phy s i c a l we
have be e n led t o the phy s i c o chemi c al c o n cepti o n o f the o r
i
a
n
s
s
m
a
n
n
o
n
a
well
i
g
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eiva
b
ly
c
mplex
ma
c
o
s s o f s ub
g
s ta n c e s m o s tly i n the c o ll o idal s t a te
o pe r a ti ng a s a s y s t e m
o f ph a s e s i n dy n a m i c o r c o n s ta n tly c h a n gi ng equi li b r ium
“
”
“
”
A s r e g a r d s s o ul o r the p s y c hi c al
we ha v e f ou nd al s o a
s e r ie s o f pha s e s o f a c tivitie s
n a mely the pha s e s o f i n telle c t
a n d r ea s o n
th o s e o f i n s ti n c t th o s e o f feeli n g a nd em o ti o n
“
th o s e o f the will th o s e o f the t r o pi sm s a n d the s imple r e
”
flexe s a n d fin ally th o se o f s imple p r o t o pl a s mi c r e s p o n s e
A cc o r di n g t o my hyp o the s i s the pha se s o f the bi o che m i c o
phy s i c al s o r t an d the phas e s o f the p s y c hi c al s o r t have co m
m o n gr o u n d i n the o r g a n i s m a s a wh o le the pha s e s o f
—
t e ll e c t a n d r ea s o n c o r r e s p o n di n g t o the c e r eb r o s pi n al n e rv
o u s s y s t em ; the ph a s e o f i n s ti nc t c o r r e s p o n di n g p r o b a bl y t o
the aut o n o mi c n e r v o u s s y s tem ; the ph a s e s o f feeli n g a n d e m o
ti o n c o r r e s p o n di n g mai nly t o th e gla n dula r a n d vi s c e r al sy s
tem s ; th o s e o f the will t o the bo dy mu s c ula r s y s tem ; th o s e
—
o f the t r o pi s m s a n d s im ple r eflexe s t o the r e c e pt o r c o n du c t o r
eff e c t o r sy s t em s ; a nd fi n ally th o s e o f s i m ple p r o t o pla s mi c
the fun dame n ta l p r o t o pla sm i c m e c ha n i s m o f
r e sp o n se t o
whateve r i t s s t r u c tu r e
r sp o u s e
A c c o r di n g t o the s c heme p r e s e n ted i n the s k e t c h an d
j u s t as phy s i c al func ti o n i ng a n d phy s i c al
s u mm ed up he r e
f o r m r ea c h b a c k t o the ve r y dawn i ng o f a n i m a l life b o th i n
the i n dividual a n d i n the r a c e o r ty pe s o c o n s c i o u sn e s s with
i t s n ethe r limi ts i n what fo ll o wi ng t he t e r m in o l o gy o f e m
n
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ti
n o n the pr o m o r pho l dgy o f t he e gg
(
c ell
Chap 8 T he Uni t y o f t he O r g an i s m ) mi ght b e c a ll e d
o
r
o
c
n
s
c
o
s
n
i
u
e s s i s a n att r i bute o f all a n imal o r g a n i sm s i
p
/
A s c o m pa r ati v e a n a t o m y a n d phy s i o l o gy h a v e m a de u s
fam ilia r wi th the phy s i c al a spe c t o f the a n i m a l o r g a n i sm
exi s ti n g a s the fully r e a lized o r d evel o ped adult a t o n e
e nd
o f the o n t o g e n i c s e r ie s
a nd
a s the u n r e alized
adult
o r ger
e n d o f the s a me s e ri e s
o the r
at
the
exa
c tly s o
m
i s p s y ch o l o gy g r adually fami li a r iz i n g u s with the r e al
i z e d o r adult mi n d a t o n e e n d o f the o n t o ge n i c s e r ie s
a n d a s the u n r e a lized o r ge r m i n a l m i n d a t the o the r e n d
W he n we a fli rm th a t the c o mpleted
o f the s ame s e r i e s
i n di vidua l o r g a n i s m i s l a te n t i n the ge r m w e mu s t u n d e r
s tan d th at the p s y c hi c al a s p e c t n o le ss tha n t he phy s i c al
a s pe c t i s s o laten t W ith v e r y little d o u bt i t s e em s t o me
the r eal mea n in g o f the s o c a Hed sub c o n s c i o u s an d o f
p sy ch o a n aly si s a s a meth od o f i nve s ti gati ng it i s th at the
o n t o ge n i c s ta g e s o f the p s y chi c life o f the huma n o r g a n i s m
di
s c o v e r ed a nd th a t a m eth od o f i n ve s ti g ati n g the s e
a r e bei n
g
F r eud a n d hi s fo ll o we r s h a ve
s ta ge s i s be i n g w o r k e d o u t
be e n a n d s till a r e s o mewha t i n the da r k I thi nk a s t o j u s t
what they a r e d o in g al b eit thei r di s c o ve r ie s a n d me th o d s a r e
o f t he u t m o s t i mp o r ta nc e
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9 6 2 b y W T S e d gw i ck an d
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by J R oy ce
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P r ob abl e I nfi ni ty o f N a
t u e and L i fe fi st e ssay by
Wm E R i tt e r
A T xt b oo k o f P hy si ol o gy p
r
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-
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by
Mi ch ae l
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t
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Fo s e r
hy si o l o , 1 , p 3 9 5,
Hu m an
by L u i gi L u ci ani ( t r ans b
W e lby )
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i s t ry ,
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A ni m a l B e h vi o r p 2 56 by C
L l yd Mo g an
Cr i t i ca l Re a li sm p 75 b y R
W S e ll r s
E l m e nt a y Pr i ncipl es o f S t a
t i st i cal Me ch ni cs p r e f p x
by J W G ibb s
I d n t i t y o f A t o m i c We ight s
m o n g D i ff e e n t E l m e n t s p
4 4 2 by G L We nd t S ci e nce
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o f C o ns ci ou sne s s
t
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gy
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Oxid a i o n s a n d R e d u c i o ns i n
t he A n i m a l
o y, p 2 1 , b
L
Me nde l , S cie nce , V o l 3 7,
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P O S T S C R IP T
o
T
(
T
“
T he U nity
HE a r gume n t in f a v o r
t he O r g a n i sm
of
”
)
the o r ga ni sm al way o f v i e w m g
livi ng n atu r e ha s n o w r un wh a t a ppe a r s t o me i t s n a tu r al
Y e t I c a n n o t b r i n g my s elf t o
co u r se
t o i t s i n evit a ble e n d
“
”
w r ite F i nis with o ut maki n g a fe w r e m a r k s whi c h th o u gh
c o nn e c ted vitally w ith the a r gume n t d o n o t s eem a n e s s e n tial
pa r t o f it
T he s e r ema r k s c o nc e r n t he ge n e r al eff e c t o f the o r g a ni s mal
s ta n dp o i n t o n th o se w h o may g r a s p it fi r mly a n d ad o pt it
“
u n r e se r vedly S i n ce a s p o i n ted o u t i n the H i s t o r i c B a ck
”
gr o u n d with whi ch thi s b o o k o pe n s the s ta n dp o i n t ha s bee n
r e c o gn ized b y b i o l o gi s t s with v a r yi n g de g r ee s o f full n e s s
f r o m t he tim e o f Ar i s t o tle at lea s t the r e c a n be n o d o ub t
that the huma n mi n d i s n atu r ally attu n ed a s o ne mi ght s a y
t o thi s ge n e r al type o f r e s p o n s e t o o r g a n i c phe n o me n a
It
s eem s the r ef o r e fi tti n g that a p r e s e n tati o n like th a t whi c h I
hav e m a de sh o uld be a cc o mpa n i ed b y a fe w w o r ds o n the
p r o b a bl e in flue nc e o f a wide p r evale n c e o f the o r ga ni smal
vie w T he pe r ti n e n t que s ti o n will be a sked ho w c o uld it
hav e c o me t o pa s s that if the s ta n dp o i n t ha s bee n s o l o n g
i n the w o r ld it sh o uld h a ve mi s s ed full r e c o gn iti o n a nd have
failed t o e xe r t i t s due i nflue nc e ? T he r eply i s o bv i o u s t o a n
atte n tive r eade r o f thi s b o o k : At n o time u n til the p r e s e n t
i n the l o n g hi s to r i c al gr o wth o f k n o wled ge o f the livi ng w o r ld
ha s i n f o r m a ti o n be e n s uffic ie n t t o make p o s s i ble a r o u n ded
T o illu s t r ate it i s o nly i n
o u t s tateme n t o f t he c o nc epti o n
t he v e r y la s t yea r s that e n o u gh ha s b ee n k n o wn o f the
phy si c al chemi st r y o f the c ell t o e n ge n de r s u c h a n i n t e r pr e
t a t i o n o f thi s ex c eedi ngly imp o r ta n t b i o l o gi c al e n tity a s tha t
whi c h bi o c hemi s t s a r e j u s t n o w r e a c hi n g Y e t thi s i nt e rp r e
,
o
f
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
95
Po s t s cr ip t
97
the o r g an i s m al hyp o the si s o f c o n s ci o u s n es s s u ch k n o wl
“
ed g e i s elevated t o the r a n k o f s t r i c t equ a lity wi th pu r e
”
th o u ght o fte n s o c alled ; th a t i s with s u bj e c tive k n o wl
—
ed ge I n thi s w ay m a t he m a t i c o me cha ni s ti c s cie n c e i s de
r i v e d o f the r e g al pla c e it h a s c l a imed f o r it s el f s i n c e the
p
a n d i s b r o u ght t o the pla n e
e r a o f D e s c a r te s a n d L ei bn itz
with
o f a b s o lute equality a s t o i m p o r t a n c e a n d di gn ity
—
B y thu s adj u s ti n g the cl a im s o f
s e n s e expe r ie n tial s c ie nc e
the s e t w o g r eat r e a li sm s o f s c ie n c e a n attitude t o wa r d the
i n fin ite t o tality o f n atu r e a n d a meth o d o l o gy f o r i n te r p r et
i ng it whi ch have hithe r t o bo rn e the s tam p o f s u bj e cti o n
a n d i n fe r i o r ity a s s u m e thei r r i h t ful pl a c e s i n the g r eat
g
hie r a r chy o f phil o s o phi c a l s c ie n c e T hi s leveli n g d o w n o f
mathemati cal m e c han i c s a n d the dedu c tive meth o d a nd level
i ng u p o f o bs e rv ati o n al k n o wled g e a n d the i n du c tive meth o d
i m plie s the c o mplete o ve r th r o w o f p s y ch o phy s i c al duali s m
i n p s y ch o l o gy a n d the r e s c ue o f pe r s o n ality f r o m b o n da ge
“
”
t o a the o r eti c ally i nfi n ite m o n o t o n y o f M atte r a n d E n e r gy
T he cha r a c te r izati o n o f the eff e c t s o f the o r g a n i s m a l vie w
o n m o r al s c e n te r s a r o u n d the pe r c epti o n that i n the e s tab li s h
me n t o f huma n pe r s o n a lity the pe r s o n s a r e o r g a n i c a lly i n
t e r d e pe nd e n t up o n o n e a n o the r ; that i s
i n te r de pe n de n t
“
”
th r o u gh thei r att r i bute s o f r elati o n thi s r e sul ti n g i n the
i nc o r p o r ati o n o f me n i n t o a plu r ali s ti c un ive r s e f a r m o r e
r eal a n d vita l tha n phil o s o phi c plu r ali s m ha s hithe r t o b ee n
i n p o s iti o n t o gr a s p T h r o u gh a type o f hum a n c o ndu c t
gu ided by k n o wled ge o f the s e p r i n ciple s o f pe r s o n ality a n d
the i n te r depe n de n c e o f pe r s o n alitie s a n d th r o u gh s upple
m e nt in g m a t he m a t i c o me cha n i s ti c meth o d s o f s tudy b y a
r i gid appli c ati o n o f o b s e r vati o n al a n d s tati s ti c a l meth o d s a
ge n ui n e s c ie n c e o f m o r al s b o th the o r eti c al a n d p r a c ti c al
i s made attai n a bl e
T hat my e n te rp r i s e o f devel o pi n g the o r g a n i sm a l view i s
o n ly pa r t a n d p a r c el o f the ge n e r a l c u r r e n t o f i n te r p r etati o n
o f living n a t u r e w hi c h ha s fl o w ed th r o u gh the c e n tu ri e s s e em s
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
-
.
-
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
,
-
,
,
,
.
(
Po s t s cr ip t
98
lea r e ve n f r o m my m e a ge r a c qu aint a n c e wi t h t he hi st o r y o f
phil o s o phi c th o u ght T hu s we r ead i n W i n delb a n d ( A H i s
“
Fo r the de c i s ive fa c
t o r y o f P hil o s o phy E n g by T uft s )
t o r i n the phil o s o phi c al m o ve m e n t o f the n i n etee n th c e n tu r y
i s d o ub tle s s t he que s ti o n a s t o the de g r ee o f imp o r ta n c e
whi ch t he n atu r al s cie n c e c o n cepti o n o f phe n o m e n a may
”
c lai m f o r o u r view o f the w o r ld a n d li f e a s a wh o le
T he n a fte r s pe a ki ng o f t he s ha r p a n tithe s i s betwee n t he
“
V
V e l t a ns cha uu ng elab o r a ted by the H i ghly s t r ai n ed ideali sm
”
o f the ea r ly n i n etee n th c e n tu r y
o f the Ge r ma n P hil o s o phy
“
”
a n d the
m a t e r i a li s t i c We l t a n s cha uu ng o f the l ate r de c ade s
“
If we a r e t o b r i ng
o f the s a me c e n tu r y the auth o r w r ite s :
o u t f r o m the phil o s o phi c a l lite r atu r e o f thi s c e n tu r y a n d
e m pha s ize th o s e m o ve m e n t s i n whi c h the a bo ve c ha r a c te r i s ti c
a n tithe s i s ha s f o u n d i t s m o s t imp o r ta n t m a nife stati o n we
h a v e t o d o p r i m a r ily with the que s ti o n i n what s e n s e the
p s y chi c al life c a n b e s ubj e c ted t o the n atu r al s c ie nc e m o de
”
p
o f c o gn iti o n
(
T hat P a r t II o f thi s b o o k o f mi n e e s p e c ially C hap s 2 0
t o 2 4 go a l o n g way t o wa r d a n swe r i ng the c a r di n al q ue s ti o n
f o r mul a ted by W i ndelb a n d appea r s t o m e c e r tai n A nd I
m a y add it al s o s ee m s quite c lea r t o m e that the gi g a n ti c
s t r u ggle at a r m s w hi c h that phil o s o phe r s n ati o n ha s n o w
b r o u ght up o n the w o r ld i s o n e o f the s t r o nge s t p r o o f s that
phil o s o phi c th o u ght a n d fo ll o wi n g thi s s o cial a n d p o liti c a l
leade r ship i n Ge rm a n y have f ailed mi s e r a bly t o di s c o ve r the
“
V i a M e d i a betwee n the We l t an s cha uu ng o f t he
hi ghly
”
s t r ai n ed ideali s m o f the Ge r ma n P hil o s o phy
a n d the ma t e
r i a l i s t i c We l t a ns cha u u/
ng whi ch ha s fin ally r ea ched i t s n at
u r a l clima x i n mi lita r i s ti c b r uti sm a n d i s alm o s t c e r t ai n ly
1
1
ept
app
a
hi
ng
o
ve
th
w
8
r
c
t
s
r
S
o
r
i
o
9
(
)
N o thi ng c o uld m o r e fi t t i n gl y e n d thi s b o o k dev o ted a s it
i s t o dem o n s t r ati n g the o p e r ative n atu r e o f o r g a n i c u n ity
i n o n e o f i t s gr eat s e gme n t s tha n a r efe r e nc e t o the fa c t
tha t the phil o s o phy o f life no w de t e rm in ing Ge r ma n m o r al s
c
.
,
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-
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,
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-
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’
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,
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,
,
,
Po s t s c r ip t
99
a n d whi c h ha s d r aw n i t s i n spi r ati o n l a r gely f r o m t he hyp o
—
the s i s o f n atu r al s ele c ti o n h a s fa iled patheti c ally be y o n d
t he p o we r o f w o r d s t o exp r e ss if d o n e u n i n te n t i o n ally ; a nd
—
c r imi n ally i n e qual mea su r e if d o n e i n t e n ti o n all y t o u n de r
s ta n d the r eal mea n i n g o f D a r wi n s tea c hi n g a s a wh o le
C e r t ai n it i s that ha d the Ge r ma n phil o so ph e r s o f M a cht
i
i
o
l
t
k
r e c o n ized the pla c e o f u n quali fi ed s up r ema c y a s
g
p
c r i be d b y D a r wi n t o t he me n tal a n d m o r al e n d o wme n t s o f
ma n it w o uld have b ee n imp o s s i ble f o r them t o make t he
d o gma o f s u r vival o f the fi tte s t s e r v e thei r e nd s i n a n y s u ch
way a s they have made it a n d d o n e s o h o n e s tly A tten tive
r e a di n g o f T he D e s ce n t o f M a n make s it pe r fe c tly pl a i n
that D a rw i n s imply a cc epted all t he hi ghe r huma n a t t r i
—
bute s m o r al e s theti c a n d r eli gi o u s n o le s s tha n th o s e o f
—
the i n t elle ct a s fun dame n tal dat a i n hi s r e a s o n i n g a bo ut
m a n s ev o luti o n H i s s o le e ff o r t a s t o u c hi n g th e s e w a s me r ely
t o se e i n h o w f a r they c o uld b e r e g a r ded eithe r a s helped
f o rw a r d i n thei r devel o p m e n t by n atu r al s ele c ti o n o r at lea s t
a s n o t i n c o n s i s te n t with it
A pp a r e n tly it n eve r eve n o c
c u r r ed t o him t o r e g a r d hi s hyp o the s i s a s s up r eme o ve r all
s o that all att r i bute s wh ateve r
the n o ble s t o n e s o f ma n w ith
the r e s t mu s t eithe r b e f o r c ed i n t o c o n fo rm ity with it o r
“
thei r r eality a n d p o we r vi r tually de nied
I f ully s ubs cr ibe
”
t o the j ud gme n t
r u n s the o e n i ng s e n te nc e o f the c hapte r
p
“
“
”
on
T he M o r al S e n s e
et c
o f th o s e w r ite r s w ho mai n tai n
t hat o f all the di ff e r e n c e s betwee n m a n a nd the l o we r a n i
mal s the m o r al s e n s e o r c o n s cie n c e i s by f a r the m o s t i m
”
An d e s p e c ially s i gn i fi c a n t at thi s time D a r wi n
p o r ta n t
o
o
t
e
r
i
u
s
t
s
o
o
D
b
vi
o
u
app
val
a
n
ap
t
phe
t
uty
b
y
w
h
s
r
o
o
q
“
”
K an t i n whi ch thi s W o n d r o u s th o u ght i s r ep r e s e n ted a s
“
”
h oldi n g up i t s n aked l a w i n the s o ul a nd de m andi n g
r ev e r e nc e
D a r w i n s e n ti r e di s c u s s i o n i n thi s p a r t o f the
D e s ce n t make s it c lea r tha t what he h ad i n mi n d w a s t o
“
”
di s c o v e r a s f a r a s p o s s i ble t he ge rm s o f c o n s c ie nc e o f
“
”
”
“
fee li ng o f r i ght a n d w r o n g o f a n i nw a r d m o n it o r o f
,
’
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
’
.
,
‘
.
-
-
,
,
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,
,
,
,
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,
'
,
,
,
’
.
,
,
,
Po s t s c r ip t
1 01
u r v iv al h y p o t h e s i s by Ge r ma n s pe culati o n ha s no t yet be e n
s u bj e c ted t o t h o r o u g h g o i n g b i o l o gi c a l c r i t i c i s m th o u gh s e v
e r al m o ve s i n thi s di r e c ti o n have b ee n made
E ve n the r eali s m o f r e c e n t Ge r ma n p o li ti c al a n d e c o n o m i c
”
“
t he o r y a n d p r a c ti c e i s a hi ghl y s t r ai n ed s pe c ul a tive r eal
i sm
T hi s phil o s o phi c al m o n s t r o s ity i s la r g ely att r i b uta ble
dem o n s t r a bly so I b elieve t o a c ultu r al a n d g o ve r nm e n tal
s y s tem i n whi c h the
r 1 n c 1 l e o f u n ive r s a l o r ga n i c pe r s o n ality
p
p
i s gr o s s ly vi o lated
A nd what a p r i c e i n mi s e r y a n d bl o o d
a n d t r ea s u r e t he wh o le w o r ld b ut o l d E u r o pe pa r ti c ula r ly
i s payi ng f o r a c o n s ummati o n whi ch a t r ue r phil o s o phy o f
l i f e w o uld have f o r e s ee n a n d f o r e s talled !
C a n t he l eade r s o f Ge r ma n K ul t u r be c o n vi nc e d o f the
f u n dam e n t al f alla c y o f thei r the o r y o f huma n a n d n ati o n al
l i f e o nly b y di s c o ve r i n g that thei r milita r y e s ta bli shme n t
built up th r o u gh ma n y de c ade s o f p atie n t c o s tly o r g a n iza
ti o n a n d di s c ipli n e but u n de r gu ida n c e o f a phil o s o phy o f
me c han i sm a n d b ru ti sm i s y e t i nc apable o f o v e r p o we r ing a
milit a r y e s ta bli shme n t a la r ge p o r ti o n o f whi c h may be i m
r o v i s e d i n t he c o u r s e o f a few m o n th s i f s u c h im pr o vi s i o n
p
be u n de r guid an c e o f a phil o s o phy o f pe r s o n ality a n d hu
m ani sm ?
s
-
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
IN D E !
d
g
of, 87
A so rp ti on, m e a ni n
A i r , i n r e l a i o n t o con sci o usne ss,
3 3 ; b r e a , and s i r i t, 8 1
A l che m y , 3 1
A n a ly s i s, o f or ani c sub s tance s,
t
th
p
g
ib ute o f t he or gan
i sm as a wh o l e 5 2 ; a n d p hy si co
ch e m i ca l
co nce p t i o n o f
t he o r
a
n
i
m
6
s
7
i
a
n
d
r
o
co
n
s
c
o
u
s
;
g
p
of,
51 ;
att r
,
-
,
93
ne ss,
.
85
A n ge r , 6 0
u m an, 27
A ni m a l , t he
A n r op o l o gi s , 28
A n s, co coo n spi nni n
b , 54
e e n sci
A t i u d e s, di f e r e nce b e
e nt i fi c a nd phi l o so Phi c, 5 0 ; e l e
m e n s a n d e m o i o n s, 64
A r ib u e s, e hi ca l, 27 ; ob se r e
h
t
th
t
t t
tt
t
s
g y
tw
f
t
D e c r t es R
D ew ey J o hn
t
t
en
v d
,
,
i
41 ;
48
,
,
p h y si c a l
a nd
,
J
59 ;
t o n,
61
t
,
60
,
E m o t io n
am e s
g ani z a
co nce p t i o n o f
’
or
,
E ne gy and sub st nce 80 ; a nd
p w fo ce w o k 85 ; su f ce
a
,
o
.
,
r o nm e n
i nnat e id e a s 4 4
“
”
a nd
on
se l f
and
,
,
r
,
,
vi
.
,
D r am at i st
p o r e al 32 ; physi ca l a nd
ch e m i c a l
4 8 ; l a t e n t o f o xy ge n
84 ; l a te n t 8 6
A xi om s o f m at h e m at i cs 4O
co r
a
e r,
r
r
,
,
,
r
a
ob
j
,
87
E sse nce s 3 1
E xp i nce subj e ct i ve a nd
t i v 2 8 ; u nknown c u se s
,
,
B i l o gi st a nth r o p ol o gi cal 78
B i lo gy s ubdi vi si ons o f 2 6
B o dy co ns ti tu t i o n o f 32 ;
co r p se
or
ca d a v e r
65 ;
o
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B e d
B r at h
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ti
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a nd
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E xpe r i e nce
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43
d r e ni n
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48
W , o n co nsti
G i bbs,
m a te r , 8 4
“
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G i f s,
J
t
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.
.
ac
e or
3 9 ; l o we s t t e rm s
1 03
t ti
u
on
of
H e li u m , 85
H e n d e r s on L J , 8 2
H igh e r u se fu l ne ss o f S cie nce , 8 0
o n li fe , ce ll s, a n d
H op k i ns F
.
.
,
ti n f 69
Ch mi l
i t i n f 32
C h m i t y d fi ni t i n f 30 ; p hys
i l 4 6 7 9 ; p i di 1
72 ;
t mi ti 86
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33 ; t h
ti
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o
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46
t
a u t o nom c
on
t
to
of,
Fact s, m at e r s o f , 4 2
Fo r ce s, a b u se o f t he t e r m , 4 1
F o s t e r , S i r M i chae l, 89
93
Fr e u d ,
4 6, 79 , 8 1
,
,
p h ysi ca l
C e ll ,
o
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t he
s e m and a
6 1, 6 6
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46
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66
B oy l e , R o be r t , 3 1
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a v id ,
m o l e cu l e s, 6 9
Hu m e
,
qu ali ti e s
on
p sy chi c li fe
an d
bj e ct s 4 2
o n i nn a t e
i de as
H ux le y T H
4 1 ; a g a i n st m a te r i a li sm 4 5
Hyp o t h e si s o f co nsci ou sne ss 2 9 ;
”
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84
w o r ki n g
,
of
.
o
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Ind ex
i ndi v i dual it y i n
p e r ce p t s 3 7 ; t he i ndi vid u al and
75
s o ci a l p sy ch o l o gy
S oci e t y a n d i n di vid u a l 75
b o dy i nte r acti on be
a nd
S ou l
R
S e l la r s,
W
.
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,
66
w e e n,
S pi r i
t
hi sto r i cal r e l a ti o n t o e s
3 1 ; hi s t o r i ca l r e l a t i o n t o
s,
se n ce s ,
b re at h
a nd
S t ou t , G F
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t
ti
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,
81
ai r,
41 ;
u n ana
i
ly se d
co n sc o u sn e s s,
c o gni
47;
71
pe r so na li ty o f a nim al s
—
b
S u co n sci o u s 9 3
“
”
inne r 3 5
Su bj e cti ve a n d
,
on
t ti
l ti t
th
t
Whe e l e r
e or
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of
k no wl e dge
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39
,
39 ;
of
32
,
W M
on
p r obl e m
of
i n st i n ct 2 7 o n i nsti nct a nd b o d
ily o r ga ni at i o n 54
o n r e l a ti on b e
Whi t m a n C
t we e n i nsti nct a n d st r u ctu r e 5 7
W o r k e ne r gy p o we r fo r ce 85
W o r ld e xt e r n al 4 6
.
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,
,
z
,
,
.
,
,
,
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h
h
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U l im a e t r u t
U r a n i u m , 85
,
,
T
b
tl
T r a ns orm a o n, o f su st a nce s, 3 0
T r a nsm u a o n o f m e a s, 3 1
T r u , u ma e , 32
,
,
t
1 05
con
!
ool o
gi st
,
a nt hr O pol o gi cal ,
28
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