The Cultural Characteristic of Qinqing (Familial Love and
Relationship) and its Missiological Implications for Chinese in
Australia
Dr. Felix Chung
A paper for presentation at the Australian Missiology Conference,
Melbourne, 26 to 30 September 2005
This paper investigates the cultural concept of Qinqing of traditional
Chinese and its missiological implications in working with Australian
Chinese. The area of study includes domains of filial piety, ancestor
worship, decision-making, harmonious relationships, the meaning of
‘Christian’, and choosing a religion.
1. Field Work Method
Two researches have been conducted. The major research had been
completed at 2000. A follow-up research has been conducted in 2003 and
2004. Both researches were conducted mainly through directed interviews
and participant observations. The method of non-random sampling was
applied. The rural residents in Taitung, Taiwan and overseas TaiwanChinese in Melbourne were selected as interviewees. Research findings were
summarised in the following sections to unfold the cultural characteristics of
Qinqing and its missiological implications to Chinese in Australia. The
second research finding supported and concurred with the first findings in all
major areas of study.
The format of this ethnographic report is based on suggestions by James
Spradley and David McCurdy.1 Missiological implications were drawn from
the collected data and processed qualitatively.
2. Major Domains of Chinese Qinqing
The cultural domain of Qinqing can be divided into two aspects, the familial
level and the social level. In the familial level of Qinqing, the research
limited itself on the discussion of filial piety (interaction with parents) and
1
James Spradley and David McCurdy, The Cultural Experience:
Ethnography in Complex Society (Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc., 1988), 8283).
1
ancestor worship (interaction with the deceased). Further, this study also
explored the social level of the Qinqing in two categories. The first one,
‘interaction among people,’ focused on the effects of interpersonal
relationships on ‘decision-making’ and ‘the meaning of harmonious
relationships’ . The second one, ‘a study of human interaction with spirits
and gods,’ focused on the study of ‘Christianity,’ including ‘the choice of
religions,’ ‘the conversion process,’ ‘the reason for baptism,’ and ‘the choice
of a church’. Diagram 1 shows the cultural domain of Qinqing in traditional
Chinese culture.
Diagram 1
Cultural Domain of Qinqing in Traditional Chinese Culture
Qinqing
in
family
society
family interaction
alive
deceased
filial piety ancestor worship
social interactions
with other
people
decision
making
Choosing conversion
a religion
with gods and
spirits
harmonious
relationships
choosing
a church
religion
Baptism
2
3. Taxonomic Analyses
3.1.Filial Piety
Filial piety is a major cultural value of the traditional Chinese. However,
some traditional Chinese have misunderstood Christianity, believing that
Christianity would conflict with traditional filial piety. Some claimed, ‘One
has to abandon one’s regard for one’s ancestors before he can join the
church and be baptised.’2 The past misunderstanding of Chinese about the
way Christians dealt with the issue of ancestor worship had a negative
influence on mission ministries in traditional Chinese setting. Today, many
traditional Chinese families still reject Christianity because they think that it
would ruin the familial relationship.
From the informants’ responses, the meaning of filial piety did not vary
significantly according to age, sex, education, or religious belief. Table 1
shows the taxonomy of filial piety for traditional Chinese.
Table 1
Taxonomy of Filial Piety
words
our parents
(both deceased
and alive)
our elder
siblings
Filial piety
is
expressed
in
attitude
to
our Elder
Relatives
behavior
our
supervisor
other elder
people
Based upon the informants’ opinions, filial piety in this culture was a kind of
Qinqing (familial love and relationship) that was expressed in attitudes,
2
D. Liaw, ‘Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Worship in Taiwan’ ,
edited by Bong-rin Ro, Christian Alternative to Ancestor Worship
(Taichung: Asia Theological Association, 1985), 211.
3
words, and behaviors toward the elder generation 3. Table 2 shows the
detailed content of the taxonomy of the expression of filial piety.
Table 2
Taxonomy of the Expression of Filial Piety
Words
Do not confront
them directly
Do not talk back
to them
Do not talk back
in hard words
Talk with gentle
and mild words
Do not express
disagreement
Do not argue
with them
Talk with them
Filial piety
is
expressed in
Attitudes
Behavior
Obedience
Obey their advice and instruction,
and
submit to them, accept the
submission
arrangement of marriage, surrender
to their will, take their words for
reference
Respect
Conform with the traditional norms,
listen to their opinion, listen to their
old stories, learn to be independent
from them, avoid quarrelling, keep
silent,
Care and
Spend time with them, do not
concern
forsake them, care about their health,
material and psychological needs,
not let them worrying about you, let
them die without any worries,
perform ceremonies to ease their
grief, do not let them feel sad, stay
with them
Communicat- Keep effective communication with
ion and
them, maintain a good and
harmony
harmonious relationship
Love
Listening and submission are the
expression of loving them, to do
what is good to them
Thanksgiving Remember the deceased parents
3
Elder here refers to age, status, and position.
4
Comfort them
Meeting their Conform with what they think is
expectations good, including religion and
participating in religious rites,
having offspring, take care of your
own health, do not let them worrying
about you
Meeting their Provide what they need, including
needs
physical, psychological, material,
and spiritual needs
Honoring
Be a good student, work diligently,
them
tell our children that they have a
contribution to us, respect and honor
them according to our ability,
try not to disappoint them in all
situations
The objects of the practice of filial piety not only included parents, but
almost all the elder generation, including one’s supervisor. Hence, filial
piety should be understood as one of the key familial and social values that
governs one’s interpersonal relationships from the family to the extended
family, the working environment, and to the society. Diagram 2 shows the
objects of the practice of filial piety.
Diagram 2
Taxonomy of the Objects of the Practice of Filial Piety
Parents
Older Siblings
Older Relatives
Supervisor
Other Elder Generation
5
3.1.1 Attitudes
The taxonomic analysis reflected that filial piety was a kind of basic familial
and social interaction offered by the younger generation to the elder
generation, including their superiors. In this interaction, the younger
generation were expected to respond to the elder generation according to
agreed social and familial norms and values. In terms of attitude, submission
and obedience, respect, care and concern, communication, love, gratitude,
meeting their expectations and their needs, and honoring them were the main
elements of filial piety. These attitudes of filial piety can be classified as
submission and respect, love, honor and gratitude, care and concern, and
maintaining a harmonious relationship. These attitudes are similar to the
characteristics of Qinqing in the Intra-Trinitarian Relationship (hereafter
ITR), paralleling submission and respect, love, and harmony of that
relationship. Table 3 shows a comparison of the characteristics of ITR and
the attitude of Chinese Qinqing in filial piety.
Table 3
Comparison of Characteristics of ITR and
Chinese Qinqing in Filial Piety
Characteristics
ITR
Love
Father loves Son
Son loves the Father
God is love
Love comes from Holy
Spirit
Obedience
Son obeys the Father’s
will and dies on the
cross
Holy Spirit is sent by
Father and Jesus to this
world to witness for
Jesus
Harmony
Both three in one and
one in three
Chinese Qinqing in filial
piety (attitude)
Children love the parents
and the elder generation
by care and concern,
respect, honor and
thanksgiving, and
submission
Children obey and submit
to the parents’ advice,
opinion, and instructions
Children maintain a
harmonious relationship
with the parents by
avoiding confrontation
and conflict even if they
have an independent
opinion
6
avoiding confrontation
and conflict even if they
have an independent
opinion
Attitudes in the practice of filial piety were obviously linked to submission
to the authority of parents and the elder generation. Submission and
obedience were regarded as a way of expressing love and keeping a
harmonious relationship with parents and the elder generation. Though this
is similar to the teaching of the Bible on the characteristics of the ITR, one
difference can be observed. In the intra-trinitarian Qinqing, the heavenly
Father is the source of authority and the object of obedience. In the
traditional Chinese culture, the source of authority was extended from the
parents to the elder generation and to superiors.
3.1.2. Words And Behaviors
In respect to words and deeds in expressing filial piety, the practice of filial
piety can be reviewed under five categories based upon the classification
designed by Chi-pin Yu: ‘prioritisation, self-initiation, mutual interaction,
integration, and continuation.’ 4 Table 4 is the taxonomy of the concept of
filial piety.
Table 4
Taxonomy of the Concept of Filial Piety
Category
Practice of Chinese Biblical Qinqing in filial piety
Qinqing in filial
piety
Priority
Parents
God, then parents (Exod. 20:1-17)
Initiation
Self
Self (Exod. 20:12)
Interaction One way
Mutual (Eph. 6:1-4)
(authoritativechildren)
Integration All (spiritual,
All (Lev. 19:3; Exod. 21:15;
psychological,
Prov. 6:20-23; Matt. 15:6; 1 Tim.
physical, material,
4:4)
etc.)
4
Chi-Pin Yu, ‘Chinese Filial Piety in Postmodern Age’. Unpublished
Paper. Malaysia. 1998.
7
physical, material,
etc.)
Continuity Remember and
worship deceased
parents, passed on
through family
socialisation
4:4)
Obey the teaching of Jesus Christ,
honor the parents while they are
alive, passed down through the
great commission (Matt. 28:1920)
The Bible teaches that submission to God has priority over submission to
parents (Exod. 20:1-7). This priority of the object of obedience is clearly
shown in the Ten Commandments and stressed by Jesus Christ. The research
findings showed that parents were the primary object of submission in
traditional Chinese culture. This difference causes two problems. First, in
Chinese culture, parents replace God as the ultimate object of submission.
However, the Bible clearly teaches that the authority of parents comes from
God, not from parents themselves. Parents should be honored and respected
as parents, not as gods.
Second, the research findings indicated that parental authority had
significant influence upon the choice of religions.5 Many informants had
positive or negative impressions of Christianity due to their parents’
influences. This denotes crucial missiological implications in the
evangelistic strategy for traditional Chinese.
The self-initiation of the practice of filial piety is similar to the Christian’s
love for the Father God. Chinese stress the self-initiation of the children in
the practice of filial piety, with true love being expressed in that selfinitiation. To most of the informants, filial piety was a kind of obligation and
responsibility. Children were expected to love and submit to their parents.
The saying like ‘when I have problems, I will go first to my friends here in
Melbourne because I do not want my parents and elder relatives in Taiwan
worry about me’ is one example. To a Christian, true self-initiated love is
not a responsibility. It liberates the flow of genuine concern and care for the
parents. Only those who are transformed by the love of Christ can have true
5
Please refer to the later discussion of decision making among
traditional Chinese.
8
self-initiation of love. In other words, without the transforming love from
God, it is hard to practice perfect filial piety by self-initiation.
The one-way, authoritative interaction of parents-children Qinqing is another
element of filial piety for traditional Chinese. Some opinions that illustrated
the one-way authority of filial piety included ‘the arrangement of marriages’
and ‘there are no bad parents’ (________). In the opinion of the informants, the
Qinqing between parents and children was expressed in a passive way in
which the ‘give and take’ process or ‘you want, I give’ process was
presented.
Moreover, the practice of filial piety was mainly fulfilled by the children,
not the parents. For example, that children were expected to comply was
demonstrated by comments such as ‘surrender to their [parents] will, and
conform with what they [parents] think is good.’ By contrast, Paul taught
that both parents and children have their own roles to play in the parent-child
relationship (Eph. 6:1-4). The biblical teaching of mutual interaction
between parents and children in filial piety could stabilise the relationship
and practice of Qinqing. There is a need to transform traditional Chinese
Qinqing by the biblical teaching.
Further, the research showed that the Chinese concept of filial piety is an
integrated concept. Taking care of parents means providing what they need,
whether material, physical, psychological, or spiritual sustenance. In the
Bible, the teaching of honoring parents is also an integrated concept. Both
the Old Testament and the New Testament teach the concept (Lev. 19:3;
Exod. 21:15; Prov. 6:20-23; Matt. 15:6; 1 Tim. 4:4). Table 5 compares the
biblical teaching of honoring parents with Chinese filial piety.
Table 5
Comparison of the Biblical Teachings and Honoring Parents
with Chinese Filial Piety
Biblical teaching
Respect the
authority
Listening
Scripture
Lev. 19:3; Deut.
27:16
Prov. 23:22
Submission and
obedience
Prov. 13:1, 15:5,
6:20; Luke 2:51;
John 15:10, 8:49;
Eph. 6:1-3; Col.
3:20
Chinese concept
Take their advice and
command
Listen to them and do not
argue
Submit and obey,
conform to their
expectations
9
obedience
Learn and receive
Material support
6:20; Luke 2:51;
John 15:10, 8:49;
Eph. 6:1-3; Col.
3:20
Prov. 1:8, 4:1, 28:7
conform to their
expectations
Listen to their advice and
submit to their guidance
Matt. 15:4-6; Mark Provide everything they
7:10-13; John 19:26- need
27; 1 Tim. 5:3-4, 8
The practice of filial piety continues even after the parents have passed
away. The extreme development of that filial piety is the observance of
certain religious rites in ancestor worship, which is regarded as the way of
expressing love to the parents. This traditional value is passed on by family
socialisation. By contrast, though honoring parents was taught by Christ our
Lord, his teaching stressed honoring them while they are alive. Also, the
honoring of parents passes on from generation to generation by the
obedience of Christians to the Great Commission.
3.2. Ancestor Worship
Another way of expressing Chinese Qinqing is to participate in ancestor
worship. Table 6 is the taxonomy of the reasons for ancestor worship by the
youngsters.
Table 12
Reasons for Ancestor Worship by the Youngsters
my mother practices it
I practice ancestor
worship/ Taoism/
traditional religious
ceremonies
it is a traditional religious
practice
I follow my parents’ practice
because
I have to honor my parents
I have to give thanks to my
parents
I have to remember everything
they gave me
10
it is one way of expressing my
thankfulness to my parents
I practice ancestor
worship/
not
Taoism/traditional
because
religion ceremonies
I practice ancestor
worship/ taoist/traditional even if
religion ceremonies
I believe in any of them
I do not know the meaning of
them
In this table, many informants admitted that they obeyed their parents or
followed their parents’ footsteps in ancestor worship. Some admitted that
even if they did not understand the ceremonies, they still participated in it.
Obviously, the main reasons that they practiced ancestor worship were moral
and cultural. They regarded it as their way of interacting with their parents
or fulfilling the demands of filial piety. Therefore, ancestor worship was also
a way to obey, honor, thank, and imitate their parents. Thus, ancestor
worship was not solely a religion issue, but a family, socio-cultural, and
moral issue. It is a way for youngsters to submit to their parents in both
actions and values. It is also a process of socialisation. Further study
concerning this issue is recommended.
3.3. Interpersonal Relationship and Qinqing
3.3.1.Decision making
The research findings showed that most of the informants would seek advice
from family members or best friends if they encountered problems. Only a
small number of Christians said that they would seek advice from God or
Christians. Thus, becoming a Christian did not eliminate a person’s
interaction with non-Christians in this culture. Only one of the informants
indicated a change from a primary social network of non-Christians before
conversion to one of Christians after conversion. There was no significant
difference between Christians and non-Christians in seeking help or advice
from other people. The people that they sought help from included oneself,
spouse, siblings, parents, other family members, neighbors, friends,
colleagues, professionals, and God. One of the informants expressed a
typical view when he said that he would not seek help from Christians in his
church because he did not have a very good or close relationship with them.
11
The willingness to seek help depended on the degree of intimacy in the
relationship, not religion.
3.3.2. Prioritisation of the Relationship Network
The relationship network of traditional Chinese is family oriented. The
relationship inside the family was characterised as the primary intimate
relationship by most of the informants. This reflected the fact that many of
them remain family-oriented regardless of differences in religion, sex, or
age. Only one of the informants responded that she would categorise
Christians as her primary relationships in terms of intimacy and closeness.
Hence, familial relationship still has a great influence on traditional Chinese
Christians.
3.3.3. The Most Influential Relationships
One of the important cultural findings of the research is that relationships
greatly influence the religious practice of traditional Chinese. Thus, knowing
who had the greatest influence on the informants was important
missiologically. Table 7 is the taxonomic analysis for the most influential
kinds of people for the informants.
Table 7
Taxonomic Analysis—Most Influential
Kinds of People
Kind of people
Parents
Spouse
Children
Teacher
Best friends
Pastor
Relationship network
Family
Family
Family
School
Social
Church
For most of the informants, family was the most significant relationship
network and had the greatest influence on them. School and best friends
were also included, but they were not as important as the family. Church
relationships played a less significant role for the informants.
12
3.3.4. The Meaning Of Relationship
Table 8 gives a taxonomic analysis of how traditional Chinese view the term
‘good and harmonious relationships’.
Table 8
Taxonomy of the Term ‘Good And Harmonious Relationships’
Good and
harmonious
relationships
is
very important
both familial and social
not equal to trustful relationship
sometimes superficial
the beginning of evangelisation
In this culture, harmonious and good relationships are not the same as
‘trustful relationships.’ Harmonious relationships are ‘superficial and task
oriented’. Trustful relationships are hard to build up. Yet trustful
relationships are built upon the foundation of harmonious relationships.
Responses that indicated harmonious relationships were superficial and task
oriented included ‘I have to maintain good and harmonious relationships
with the other, thus, I will never confront them,’ or ‘I need to present a good
image to others so that I can maintain a good relationship with them.’
However, harmonious relationships are recognised as the first step in
evangelisation by the informants in this culture. Thus, building up healthy
and harmonious interpersonal relationships is important for a pastor who
works in this culture. Table 9 shows the taxonomy of the reasons to maintain
a good and harmonious relationship.
Table 9
Taxonomy of Reasons for Maintaining a Good
and Harmonious Relationships
it can facilitate the achievement of
personal task
Maintaining
are
because it can ease social problem
good and
important
it can clear obstacles in achieving
harmonious
task
relationships
friends with good relationship will
take care of you and help you
it can form a relationship network
to help each other
13
to help each other
Maintaining good and harmonious relationships is very important in
traditional Chinese culture. All the informants agreed on the importance of
maintaining good and harmonious relationships with others. These
relationships extended from family members to neighbors, colleagues, and
friends. The reasons for maintaining good and harmonious relationships
were pragmatic and task-oriented, including ‘It could help to achieve tasks’
and it is ‘easy to seek help from friends with good relationships.’ Some also
expressed the view that good and harmonious personal relationships can
ease social problems.
3.5. Christianity And Qinqing
3.5.1. Meaning of Christian
In this relationship-oriented culture, how do people define the term
Christian? Table 10 is the taxonomic analysis of the meaning of Christian.
Table 10
Taxonomy of the Meaning of Christian
A
Christian is
who received baptism
who lives a pious life and shows love and
concern to others
who fulfils several obligations, such as
church going, offering, praying
a person who cannot worship ancestors
who worships the true God
with a good heart, is concerned and cares for
the others
who does not fight for his own interest and
glories, but helps harmonise and stabilise
this society
who works hard to serve and pray
The meaning for the term ‘Christian’ includes several obligations and life
qualities. One interesting definition was, ‘A Christian is a baptised person.’
That might indicate that the public confession of Christ as Lord is not easy
in this society. As a religiously-defined minority group in the traditional
14
Chinese society such as Taiwan, public confession of Christ as Lord might
result in some inconveniences or prejudice from others. Thus, public
confession was one of the indicators of their faithfulness to Christ. However,
the pious life is very important in signifying that one is a Christian. In
addition, church attendance, praying hard and serving diligently, and
maintaining a good witness in daily life through helping and caring for
others are also important. Some responded that they had a very negative
impression of Christianity because of the bad witness of pastors and
Christians.
3.5.2.Process of Conversion
In their conversion process, most of the informants were influenced by their
family members or by clergymen. Their interaction with Christians or
missionaries who were good witnesses in their words and deeds also
impressed them. Such good relationships were the main reason given for
decisions to accept Christ as Lord. Good relationships could clear away
obstacles to faith or help them to grow in faith and trust Christ as Lord. One
informant had multiple religious conversion experiences before he became a
Christian. His reason for converting to different religions was always the
same: the people he met established good relationships with him and
impressed him by their good words and deeds. In contrast, some informants
had changed their religion from Christianity to other religions because of
‘the bad witness of other Christians’ or a pastor. One informant reported that
he had experienced a miracle before he chose to convert to Christianity.
Table 11
Taxonomy of the Reasons for Conversion
I
converted to Christianity
because
of the
of the
of my
I was well I have good
miracle
good
family
cared for relationship
witness of members’ and loved
with
Christians influence
by
Christians
Christians
I was
taught to
trust the
Lord
15
According to James Engel, the process of conversion begins with
understanding the basic truth of Christianity and the gospel content. 6
However, the informants did not mention the role of the Holy Spirit in
moving them to repent or the preaching of God’s Word in leading them to
repent. Nor did they mention understanding the gospel and conviction of sin
before their conversion. The reasons for their conversion were in the human
and social dimension rather than in the spiritual or theological dimension.
This might be quite different from the Western understanding of the concept
of conversion. The lack of theological and intellectual dimensions and the
overwhelming influence of social and experiential dimensions in their
conversion process were the distinct characteristics of this culture.
3.5.3. Reasons For Choosing A Particular Religion
As with ancestor worship and conversion, the reason for choosing a
particular religion was also based on the social dimension. That is,
developing a good relationship with other people.
Table 12
Taxonomy of the Factors in Choosing a Religion
I
Chose
a particular religion
because of
miracle
the
the
the
the
the influ- reading
influinfluinfluinfluence of
the
ence of ence of ence of ence of missionary literature
my
my
other
pastor,
parents family Christ- priest,
members ians religious
leaders
Again, to a great extent, the informants’ responses were clearly peopleoriented. In their choice of religion, they claimed that they were mainly
influenced by other people such as clergymen of the church, missionaries,
6
James Engel, Sharpening the Cutting Blades (Hong Kong: Christian
Commnication Ltd., 1986).
16
other Christians, parents, grandparents, and other family members rather
than by God or gods in their choice of religion. This disclosed a very
important concept: most of the informants recognised the significant
influence of human relationships upon them in choosing a particular
religion. Only one stated that he had experienced a miracle before he chose
Christianity as his religion.
According to the research findings, the informants were influenced by other
people in two ways. Positively, other people’s sound teaching and good
behavior attracted them and led to their conversions, or they were influenced
by family members with whom they had intimate relationships. Negatively,
bad witnesses pushed the informants away from their religions.
In the analysis of the reasons why they chose to stay in a particular church or
to receive baptism, the informants also revealed that human factors were
important in influencing their decision. Table 13 indicates informants’
reasons for receiving baptism.
Table 13
Taxonomy of the Reasons for Receiving Baptism
I
received
baptism
the pastor and church members took care of
me and gave me good guidance
the missionary couples took good care of us
we are impressed by the missionary’s love
the pastor and missionary helped me to clear
because my hesitation in faith
the pastor took care of me and sacrificed
herself to help me
I was attracted by the love and intimate
fellowship of the Christians
I had a very good relationship with god at
that time
I am a catholic
With the exception of the Catholic who had received baptism at his birth, the
Christian informants indicated that the main reasons they received baptism
were related to the people in the churches. They were nurtured either by
pastors, missionaries, or other Christians through their guidance and concern
17
in words, deeds, and faith. Teaching and disciple-making were the key
components in their growth in faith. The influence of family members was
not as strong as in this aspect. One informant responded that his mother
requested that he receive baptism. Again, the role of the Holy Spirit in
nurturing was not mentioned. Only one informant said that he had a very
close relationship with God and was moved by him to receive baptism.
Intellectual growth in biblical understanding, spiritual growth in church
service and fellowship, and witness for God were all missing in the answers
of the informants.
The reasons for choosing a particular church to attend included ‘a good
relationship with the pastor,’ ‘trustful relationships with the pastor or
missionary,’ or ‘good relationships with Christians with whom they could
share love and concern for each other,’ or ‘support each other’. Some
regarded the church as ‘their family,’ or ‘the place where they had first
accepted Christ’. In addition, ‘family members’ influence’ and ‘good
preaching and church life’ were important in their decision to stay. In other
words, ‘good church life’ and ‘the quality of the preaching’ were as
important as ‘family influence’ in the informants’ choice of a church.
3.5.4. Difficulties In Receiving Baptism
In expressing their views of the reasons why receiving baptism is difficult
for the traditional Chinese, all the informants emphasised the pressure or
rejection from family.
Table 14
Taxonomy of the Difficulty for a Chinese to be Baptised
ancestor worship
The greatest difficulty
for receiving baptism
comes from
family rejection/pressure
because
of
traditional customs
and religions
filial piety
The three basic categories for why the family rejected baptism were ancestor
worship, traditional customs and religions, and filial piety. This analysis
18
revealed two important points. First, traditional Chinese highly valued
family consensus in deciding whether they would be baptised. To isolate an
individual from the family network in order to receive baptism is a disaster
in the traditional Chinese culture. Family Qinqing in this respect becomes an
obstacle to the development of Christianity. Second, the reasons for family
rejection were not only religious, but also cultural and moral. Extreme
individualism in this culture might cause problems and rejection.
4. Conclusion
What do these results imply? Five implications can be derived. First, the
research findings generally concur with other studies in that traditional
Chinese are family and relationship-oriented.7 In this culture, the family is
the core of socialisation and exerts great influence on its members. The
opinions of family members, especially of authority figures or the elder
generation, are very important, whether the matter at hand is religious,
interpersonal, or personal. Many informants listed their family members as
the core group in their life in terms of intimacy and closeness. Chinese
Australians are definitely family-oriented as well. Evangelism through
relationship and interpersonal network that begins from family is important.
Second, the meaning of Qinqing in traditional Chinese culture is not strictly
confined to interaction and relationship between family members. It is a
diffused concept that can extend from family members to all members in the
society. For example, a person from the same village (__) will be regarded as
being as close or similar to a brother or a sister. A chance acquaintance met
in the street may establish a relationship based on his relationship with one’s
friends, relatives, or colleagues. Thus, in this regard, Qinqing can extend
from an individual to family, school, office, district, or nation. Similarly, the
source of authority in Qinqing also extends from parents, siblings, and
relatives to supervisors. In Australia, that relationship network is highly
valuable to many new Chinese immigrants because they could seek help and
7
Cheng-tung Wei, A Critical Approach to the Chinese Culture,
(Taipei: Buffalo Books1970); Waiman Chan, Compendium of the
Conference on the Study of Chinese Culture and Gospel (Hong Kong:
CCCOWE, 1986); Lung-kee Sun, The Structural Analysis of Chinese
Culture, 2nd ed. (Hong Kong: House of Scholars, 1985).
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resources from it. Church in Australia should play an important role by using
that network to outreach to this people group in evangelism.
Third, Qinqing in person-person relationships influences traditional Chinese
in choosing a religion (Christianity or another), receiving baptism, or staying
in a particular church. This influence is also evident in the conversion
process of Christians. Therefore, a good and harmonious relationship that
develops into a trustful relationship plays an important role in guiding nonChristians to know the truth and to accept Christ as Lord. How to maintain a
good and harmonious relationship according to the teaching of the Bible is
significant, not only in evangelism, but also in nurturing.
Most of the informants agreed that the greatest difficulty encountered by a
traditional Chinese in receiving baptism was family rejection or family
pressure. This implied that receiving baptism was not solely a matter of
choosing to join a particular denomination. Nor was it only a matter of
personal growth in faith. It was also a decision that involved the whole
family. Cultivating the individual to trust the Lord and receive baptism is not
enough. Developing a holistic evangelistic plan that would reach out to the
whole family, gain the consensus of the family for a member to receive
baptism, and maintain harmonious relationships between the church and the
family members was important. The target of outreach ministry in Chinese
Australian church should be family-oriented, not individual-oriented.
Fourth, Christians must remember that filial piety in the traditional Chinese
culture is a complicated issue involving moral, cultural, social, and familial
dimensions. Traditional Chinese regard submission and obedience to their
parents as one way of expressing love to them. Even if they do not
understand or believe in ancestor worship, they still practice this custom for
the sake of their parents. An over-emphasis on the religious dimension of
ancestor worship demonstrates an incomplete understanding of the issue and
may be detrimental to evangelism.
Moreover, traditional Chinese Qinqing in filial piety has some values that
are admirable because they concur with the biblical teachings. Integrating
traditional values with biblical principles is the key to transforming the
cultural value.
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Fifth, a comparison of the research findings with James Engels’ threedimensional classification or Rodney Stark and Charles Glock’s fivedimensional study,8 traditional Chinese culture overemphasises the social,
moral, and experiential dimensions of the meaning of ‘Christian,’
‘conversion,’ and ‘Christian witness’. Belief and the intellectual and
theological dimensions are comparatively neglected.
In responses concerning the process of conversion, there was clearly a lack
of reference to conviction of sin and hearing the gospel message. Nor was
there any mention of the work of the Holy Spirit. Does this imply that
evangelistic strategies developed in a sin-controlled culture do not apply to
this shame-oriented culture? J.H. Bavinck mentioned that in a culture that
stresses moral norms, God himself is excluded from the moral order.9 That
explains why to many informants, their process of conversion focused on the
social and behavioral dimensions. Thus, relationship seems to be a good start
of evangelism.
In addition, the moral or consequential dimensions are very important in the
informants’ understanding of Christianity and Christian witness. To live an
exemplary life becomes both an evangelistic strategy and evidence of true
Christian faith. This indicates that in traditional Chinese culture, cultivation
and training are as important as proclamation and persuasion. For Chinese
in Australia, this is particular important to help to build a church that is
outreach oriented.
8
Stark and Glock suggested a five-dimensional scale for measuring the
religious commitment of American Christians: belief, practice, knowledge,
experience, and consequences. James Engel suggested an alternate three
dimensions in measuring the maturity of Christians: theological, social, and
moral. James Engel, Contemporary Christian Communications (Nashville:
Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1979), 224-31. Also refer to R Stark & C. Glock,
American Piety: The Nature of Religious Commitment (The University of
California Press, 1968).
9
J H Bavinck, An Introduction of Science of Mission (Philadelphia:
Presbyterian & Reformed Pub. Com., 1960).
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Bibliography:
James Spradley and David McCurdy, The Cultural Experience:
Ethnography in Complex Society (Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.,
1988).
D. Liaw, ‘Christian Alternatives to Ancestor Worship in Taiwan’ , edited by
Bong-rin Ro, Christian Alternative to Ancestor Worship
(Taichung: Asia Theological Association, 1985).
Chi-Pin Yu, ‘Chinese Filial Piety in Postmodern Age’. Unpublished Paper.
Malaysia. 1998.
James Engel, Sharpening the Cutting Blades (Hong Kong: Christian
Commnication Ltd., 1986).
Cheng-tung Wei, A Critical Approach to the Chinese Culture, (Taipei:
Buffalo Books1970).
Waiman Chan, Compendium of the Conference on the Study of Chinese
Culture and Gospel (Hong Kong: CCCOWE, 1986).
Lung-kee Sun, The Structural Analysis of Chinese Culture, 2nd ed. (Hong
Kong: House of Scholars, 1985).
James Engel, Contemporary Christian Communications (Nashville: Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1979).
Rodney Stark and Charles Glock, American Piety: The Nature of Religious
Commitment (The University of California Press, 1968).
Dr Felix Chung is Lecturer in Missiology and Asian Program Co-ordinator
at the Presbyterian Theological College of Victoria.
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