HEALTH EDUCATION RESEARCH
Theory & Practice
Vol.12 no.l 1997
Pages 15-24
'My mind's made up by the way that I feel': affect,
cognition and intention in the structure of attitudes
toward condom use
Rein De Wit, An Victoir and Omer Van den Bergh
Abstract
Research suggests that attitudes toward condoms are related to condom use. This study
seeks to elucidate relationships between affective, cognitive and behavioural components in
the structure of attitudes toward condoms. A
total of 270 students completed the attitude
questionnaire. Affect (emotional responses
activated by condoms), cognition (thoughts,
beliefs and judgments about condoms), global
attitude, previous sexual experience, and prior
and intended condom use were measured.
Results indicated that subjects reported a negative affect associated with condom use, while
overall cognitions were far more favourable.
Findings suggest a strong relationship between
affect, global attitude toward condoms and
intended condom use, and therefore urge us to
focus on ways of altering affect
Introduction
Several studies suggest that attitudes toward
condoms are highly related to condom use (de Wit
et al, 1990; Jemott and Jemott, 1991; Sacco
et al., 1991), while other studies report no significant relationship (Richard et al., 1991b). Some
studies reveal a general positive attitude towards
condoms (de Wit et al., 1990; Richard et al,
1991a), in other studies attitudes have been
described as being negative (Jemott and Jemott,
Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Leuven,
Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
© Oxford University Press
1991; Mink, 1991; Sacco et al., 1991). However,
research in this domain shows remarkable differences in the operationalization of the attitude
concept. In particular, differences in the beliefs
that are assessed to evaluate the general attitude
toward condom use may contribute to contrasting findings.
The tradition of assessing beliefs when
measuring attitudes stems largely from the
popularity of the expectancy-value conceptualization of attitudes: assessing the attitude toward
condom use has become equivalent to measuring
beliefs about the effects of condom use on interpersonal relationships, sexual experience, selfcontrol, perceived risk, etc. Conceiving one's attitude solely in terms of these cognitions implies a
rather narrow usage of the concept. Reviewing
the literature, the undervaluation of an affective
component becomes apparent: emotions and feelings that are spontaneously elicited by condom use
might also reflect a basic attitudinal dimension and
contribute to intended condom use.
Breckler (1984) and Breckler and Wiggins
(1989) conducted illuminating research, with
several of their experiments providing evidence
bearing on the distinction between an affective
and a cognitive attitudinal component. The affective component refers to emotions, feelings and
drives associated with an attitude object, while the
cognitive component addresses beliefs, judgments
and thoughts associated with the object (Breckler
and Wiggins prefer to replace the concept 'cognition' by 'evaluation'). Affect and cognition were
both correlated with a global measure of attitude.
The relationship between these components varied
largely across attitude domains. Breckler and
15
R. De Wit et al.
Wiggins (1989) have shown that in certain
domains (e.g. attitude toward blood donation)
global attitude was more strongly dominated by
affect than by cognition. A multiple regression
analysis showed that in the absence of prior experience with an object, the affective component had
its greatest impact on behaviour. These findings
stress the importance of affect and force us to move
beyond an expectancy-value conceptualization of
the attitude by also exploring the affective basis
of the attitude toward condom use.
Expectancy-value theorists might argue that the
affective component is incorporated in the attitude,
referring to the 'evaluation' component: an attitude
can be derived from the summed products of
beliefs about the outcomes of performing that
behaviour and the evaluation of those outcomes.
The affective factor thus refers to the notion
that outcomes are valued positively or negatively
(desirable or undesirable consequences of performing the behaviour). Others (Ajzen, 1991) have
incorporated the affect-cognition distinction by
considering not only cognitive beliefs (referring to
the perceived costs and benefits of performing a
behaviour), but also beliefs that are affective in
nature (referring to positive and negative feelings
derived from the activity). With regard to attitude
toward sunbathing, for example, a belief of a
rather cognitive nature would be 'developing skin
cancer'. 'Feeling the sun and heat on your body'
is conceived of as an affective judgment (Ajzen,
1991). We remark that 'evaluating' these affective
outcomes in an expectancy-value way seems rather
redundant; these beliefs are the evaluations,
perhaps only paraphrasing the pleasant or unpleasant feelings the object elicits. It is striking
that attempts to integrate affective aspects into
expectancy-value models of attitudes have resulted
in a largely cognitivized or 'calculated' affect.
Conceiving affect this way does not resemble
present operationalizations stressing emotions and
feelings that are spontaneously elicited by an
object. Even if affect results from a deliberate
reasoning process, this affective response is stored
in memory and will be automatically activated at
exposure to the object (Fazio, 1990; Bargh et al.,
16
1992). It is very unlikely that in the 'heat of the
moment' subjects will engage in cognitive work,
carefully analysing the costs and benefits of their
behaviour. In such situations affect is most likely
activated and guides subsequent behaviour in an
automatic manner. Sexual arousal has been shown
to be negatively correlated with condom use,
showing that arousal can undermine even planned
behaviour (Boldero et al., 1992).
Another attempt to meet the criticism that affect
is largely neglected in expectancy-value models of
attitude stems from Ajzen and Driver (in Ajzen,
1991). In addition to the assessment of beliefs,
several behavioural activities were rated on 12
semantic differential affective (e.g. pleasant/
unpleasant) adjective word pairs. These subscales
were entered into a regression, making significant
contributions to the prediction of behaviour. Ajzen
and Driver, however, reject the importance of the
scales, stating that apart from the other variables
in the model, the affect measure did not improve
the prediction of behaviour. Several behavioural
domains, however, are characterized by an inconsistency between affect and cognition. Many
health-related behaviours elicit positive beliefs
('it's healthy, it's a good thing to do') but negative
affect ( 7 don't like doing it'). If general attitude
correlates higher with affect than with cognition,
ignoring affective factors leads to an erroneous
picture of the general attitude.
It is our contention that a distinction between
affect and cognition may open up interesting
perspectives on attitudes toward condom use.
Schaalma et al. (1993) and Conner and Graham
(1992) have found low correlations between beliefs
and a general measure of attitude in the attitude
toward condom use, indicating that 'there is more
to an attitude than the beliefs that just meet
the eye'. Preliminary results (Struyve, 1991; Van
Eycken, 1991) indeed supported the existence of
two separate components: an affective or 'pure
liking' factor, referring to emotional feelings
associated with condom use and a cognitive or
'rationality' factor, referring to knowledge,
thoughts and beliefs one has about condom use. A
multiple regression analysis revealed the affective
Attitudes toward condom use
factor to be the best predictor of the intention to
use condoms in the future. Nucifora et al. (1993)
entered a measure of affect and the variables of
the Theory of Reasoned Action into a regression
analysis to predict global attitude and intended
condom use. Once all variables of the Theory of
Reasoned Action were controlled for, affect did not
contribute significantly to intention. The authors,
however, state that this conclusion may be premature, since the beliefs that were measured contained
highly emotive elements.
Rather than stating an absolute distinction
between affect and beliefs, we prefer to conceive
the relationship as a continuum: the extent to
which cognitively based judgments are infused
with affect may vary (Fazio et al., 1986). In the
present study, a questionnaire was constructed
to explore possible components that add to the
understanding of the global attitude toward condom
use. We were particularly interested in exploring
the relationship between affect and beliefs, and
in the contribution of affective factors to a global
measure of attitude and intended condom use. As
a result of previous cited confusion concerning the
use of the concepts 'affect', 'cognition', 'evaluation' and 'beliefs', we present a clear definition
of the concepts we use. We restricted the usage of
the term 'affect' to refer to emotions and feelings
(pleasant, excited, amused, romantic, etc.) associated with condom use (Breckler and Wiggins,
1989). Assessing affect by means of a questionnaire
implies that subjects are induced to engage in a
cognitive process and at this point the limitations
of any verbal measure of affect have to be pointed
out (we would like to thank an anonymous reviewer
for this remark). With respect to measuring this
attitudinal property, it is, however, assumed that
affective information is, at least partially, accessible
to the verbal system (Lang, 1984). The cognitive
component was conceived of as containing salient
beliefs, judgments and thoughts about the attitude
object (see Table II). Also included in a measure
of the cognitive component were beliefs concerning
the reduction of pleasure and spontaneity resulting
from condom use.
Considering
preliminary
results
(Struyve,
1991; Van Eycken, 1991), we expected the overall affective-cognitive consistency (correlation
between affect and cognition) to be rather low.
Subjects thought of condoms as a safe contraceptive, but did not like them. If a significant
proportion of the variance in global attitude is
accounted for by affect and cognition, the value
of this distinction would gain importance if it were
shown that affect and cognition show a distinct
relationship with intended condom use. Considering preliminary results we expected affect to
be the best predictor of intended condom use. On
an exploratory basis, differences on affect and
cognition as a function of prior experience with
condom use were examined. Breckler and
Wiggins (1989) have shown interesting data on
this issue in the area of blood donation. Nondonors' (subjects having no experience with the
object) cognitions were more favourable than their
affect, but veteran blood donors (experience with
the object) expressed more favourable affect than
cognitions. In order to extend these findings to the
specific area of condom use, affect and cognition
between inexperienced subjects, and inconsistent
and consistent condom users were examined.
Method
Subjects
Two hundred and seventy first year college students
(168 females, 102 males) voluntarily participated
in this study (87% of the subjects under 20 years
old, with an average age of 18 years and 6
months). They completed a questionnaire containing measures of affect/cognition/global attitude/
self-reported behaviour and intended condom use.
Seventy-five per cent of the subjects reported
having had experience of sexual intercourse (no
gender differences); 21% of the total group of
subjects reported having had intercourse with a
casual partner, 43% with a steady one. In the case
of having sex with a casual partner, 77% of the
subjects were consistent condom users, while for
those having intercourse with a steady partner,
54% used a condom. Almost 97% of the subjects
17
R. De Wit et al.
expressed the intention to use condoms when
having sex with a casual partner. Seventy-eight
per cent of the unexperienced adolescents, 71 % of
the consistent condom users and 42% of the
inconsistent users expressed the intention to use
condoms in the future when having sex with a
steady partner.
Measurements
Subjects completed a booklet containing the different measures; each page of the booklet contained
one seven-point rating scale. The ordering of affect,
cognition and global attitude measures and the
scale within each measurement were randomized.
Affect
Subjects completed 10 seven-point rating scales
drawn from the evaluative dimension of the
semantic differential (Osgood et al., 1956). Instructions were to indicate how the attitude object
(condom use) 'makes you feel' (see Table I). The
answers were scored, giving a rating from 1 to 7,
T meaning that the subject indicated a very
negative affect (e.g. using condoms makes me feel
very unromantic, '7' meaning a very positive affect
(e.g. using condoms makes me feel very romantic).
Cognition
Twenty belief statements, referring to personal
consequences of condom use, were assessed in
reference to the following areas: protection
benefits from condom use, aspects referring to
relational issues, beliefs concerning reduction of
pleasure and spontaneity, and problems with buying
and actually using condoms (see Table II). [The
selection of these items was based on previous
attempts to develop a questionnaire to measure the
attitude toward condoms and condom use (Struyve,
1991; Van Eycken, 1991). Interviews with first
year college students allowed us to extend the
preliminary questionnaire cosiderably.] Subjects
were presented with seven-point rating scales, with
opposite statements at both endpoints (e.g. 'using
condoms protects very well against AIDS'/'using
condoms does not protect at all against AIDS').
Subjects were to indicate the position that best
18
Table I. Sum/nary statistics for measures of affect
Item
Mean
SD
Using condoms makes me feel . .
1. Comfortable
2. Beautiful
3. Likeable
4. Pleasant
5. Excited
6. Enjoyable
7. Amused
8. Cosy
9. Romantic
10. Reassured
3.32
3.53
3.55
3.15
3.33
3.18
3.%
3.19
2.70
5.33
1.10
0.99
0.89
1.04
1.14
1.08
0.94
1.07
1.30
1.24
Scores at a rating scale ranging from 1 to 7, T meaning 'very
negative affect' and '7' meaning 'very positive affect'.
described their beliefs. Similar to the affect ratings,
the answers were scored giving a rating from 1 to
7, ' 1 ' meaning that the subject indicated a very
negative belief (e.g. using condoms does not at all
protect against AIDS), 'T meaning a very positive
belief (e.g. using condoms protects very well
against AIDS).
Breckler and Wiggins assessed cognition by
asking subjects to fill out the same semantic
differential scales to measure affect. Subjects were
not to indicate the way the object made them feel,
but to complete the scales indicating the way 'the
attitude object is...' We replicated this procedure
to compare results with our own cognition measurements.
Global attitude
Subjects rated their global attitude and the attitude
of their peers on a seven-point scale. The scale
endpoints were 'very positive' and 'very negative'.
These global attitude questions were asked at the
beginning or at the end of the questionnaire (either
before or after measuring affect and cognition).
Additional measurements
Previous sexual experience and condom use,
number of partners, and intention of future
condom use with a steady and a casual partner
were asked for.
Attitudes toward condom use
Table II. Summary statistics for measures of cognition
Item
Mean
SD
11. Using condoms protects against AIDS
12. Using condoms creates a feeling of safety
13. Using condoms protects against sexually transmitted diseases
14. Using condoms can offer a solution in unexpected situations
15. Using condoms protects against getting pregnant
16. Using condoms does not lead to sleeping around
17. Using condoms does not cause guilt, feelings
18. Using condoms is very moral
19. Condoms don't give rise to suspicions about just looking for sex
20. Using condoms is modest
21. Usually one's partner thinks that using condoms is appropriate
22. Using condoms does not make one's partner distrusting
23. Using condoms doesn't give the partner the idea that one was only interested in having sex
24. Usually one's partner thinks that using condoms is a wise thing to do
25. Using condoms is open for discussion
26. Using a condom is a very easy thing to do
27. Buying condoms is easy
28. Using a condom does not interrupt the pleasure of making love
29. Using a condom doesn't decrease sensitivity during intercourse
30. Using condoms does not take away the pleasure of sex
6.02
5.27
5.65
5.24
5.17
5.49
6.02
5.41
5.64
4.43
4.64
4.83
4.90
5.95
5.44
4.17
4.96
3.31
3.92
3.47
0.79
.36
.12
.37
.28
.70
.32
.20
35
.26
.26
.31
.78
0.98
.25
.52
.92
.35
.59
.44
Scores at a rating scale ranging from 1 to 7, ' 1 ' meaning 'very negative belief and '7' meaning 'very positive belief.
Procedure
Subjects participated in groups of 20 people. Upon
arrival, they were greeted by the experimenter,
introducing the study as an 'AIDS prevention'
survey. Next, participants were asked to complete
a questionnaire, which took approximately 15 min.
Complete anonymity was assured.
Data analysis
To explore the different components embedded in
the attitude toward condom use, subjects' responses
to the 10 statements measuring affect and to the
20 belief statements were factor analysed (varimax
rotation). A minimum loading of 0.40 was required
for inclusion of a variable in the definition of
a factor. Univariate analyses of variance were
conducted to test for differences in affect and
cognition as a function of gender and prior sexual
experience. To investigate whether affective and
cognitive attitudinal components equally account
for the variability in a general attitude measure
and in intended condom use, partial correlations
between these components, global attitude and
intended condom use were examined.
Results
Affect and cognition in the structure of
the global attitude
Subjects' responses to the 10 statements measuring
affect and to the 20 belief statements were factor
analysed using varimax rotation. [Breckler and
Wiggins' results could not be replicated: manipulating instructions (an attitude object is versus
makes me feel) did not result in different responses
to the semantic differential scales. Ratings on the
'makes me feel' scales were used as a final measure
of affect.] Eight factors with eigen values greater
than 1 were extracted, accounting for 58% of the
variance. The 'elbow criterion' of Cattell's scree
test (Cattell, 1966) indicated that a five-factor
solution, accounting for 47% of the variance, was
preferred. The items were therefore subjected to a
19
R. De Wit et al.
five-factor solution (varimax rotation). A first factor
(accounting for 22% of the variance) had significant
loadings on nine of the 10 affective statements
(items 1-9; see Table I) and on the three belief
statements, indicating the perception that using
condoms inhibits sexual pleasure (items 28, 29
and 30; see Table II). This first factor clearly
refers to the affective component of the attitude
(encompassing both affective beliefs and 'pure
liking' measures). We will further refer to this
factor as the affect factor. The second factor
(accounting for 9% of the variance) had loadings in
excess of 0.40 on the remaining affective statement
(item 10) and on four belief statements (items 12,
14, 18 and 26). Since these items reflect ideas
about both morality and safety, indicating the
perception that using condoms is an acceptable
means of contraception, we will refer to it as the
acceptability factor. The four statements with high
loadings on the third factor reflect the perceived
reaction of a partner to condom use in a sexual
relationship (items 21, 22, 24 and 25). We refer to
it as the relation factor, accounting for 6% of the
variance. The last two factors account for 5% of
the variance. A fourth factor (items 16, 19, 23
and 27) seems to reflect mainly references to
promiscuity {promiscuity factor) and the last factor
(items 11, 13 and 15) may be defined as the
acceptance of condoms as a safe contraceptive (the
contraception factor). The mean rating across the
items with high loadings on each factor was used
as a final measure of that factor. Descriptive
statistics of the scales, as well as of subjects' global
attitude toward condom use and their perceived
attitude of peers, are summarized in Table III.
Inspection of the statistics in Table m reveals that
the overall expressed affect was slightly unfavourable, whereas ratings on the cognitive scales and
on the global attitude ratings were generally/avowrable, indicating an inconsistency between affect
and cognition in the attitude toward condom use.
We note that significant gender differences were
found on the affect, protection and promiscuity
scales. Males believe condoms to be more effective
in preventing sexually transmitted diseases
[f(267) = -3.97, P < 0.001], but they express a
20
Table m . Summary statistics for the attitudinal measures
Scale
M
SD
N
Affect
Acceptability
Relation
Promiscuity
Contraception
Global attitude
Perceived attitude of peers
3.4
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.6
5.4
4.8
0.77
0.83
0.85
1.06
0.79
1.27
1.33
264
267
267
269
269
269
269
Scores at a rating scale ranging from 1 to 7, ' 1' meaning 'very
negative' and '7' meaning 'very positive'.
more negative affect |>(262) = 2, P < 0.05] and
are more inclined to believe that using condoms
is promiscuous (X267) = 2, P < 0.05]. Males and
females also differ in their global attitude toward
condom use and in the perceived attitude of peers.
Females have a more positive global attitude
[/(267) = 2.59, P = 0.01] and perceive the attitude
of their peers as more positive than males do
W267) = 2.63, P = 0.009].
Relationship between affect, cognition and
global attitude
Considering this variety in attitudinal components,
the question arises whether they all equally account
for the variability in the global attitude toward
condom use. We are specifically interested in
the contribution of affective factors to a general
attitudinal measure. Partial correlations between
each component and global attitude were examined,
showing whether both are still correlated if the
linear effects of the other components are removed.
Partial correlations are shown in Table IV. Being
reliably different from zero, correlations indicate
that affect and the acceptability factor are significantly correlated with a global attitude measure. It
is especially interesting that, when correlations
with cognitive factors are partialled out, the affective factor is the most strongly related to the global
attitude: if most of the variance had been explained
by the other variables, this correlation would not
have been significant.
Attitudes toward condom use
Tkble IV. Partial correlations between attitudinal components,
global attitude and intended condom use"
Partial correlation
Affect
Acceptability
Relation
Promiscuity
Protection
n
Global
attitude
Intention casual
partner
Intention steady
partner
0.37***
0.26**
0.11
0.03
0.04
264
0.11
0.00
0.18*
0.12
-0.11
185
0.29**
0.11
0.10
0.04
-0.04
224
"Significance: *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; •*•/• < 0.001.
Relationship between affect, cognition and
intended condom use
Noticing that the affective and cognitive components in the attitude toward condom use are not in
perfect agreement, the question arises if both
affective and cognitive factors equally contribute to
intended condom use. Partial correlations between
each attitudinal component and intended condom
use were calculated, showing which factors are
related to intentions when linear effects from the
other components are removed. Intended condom
use with a casual and with a steady partner were
entered separately into the analyses. Intentions to
use condoms in a casual relationship were very
positive: almost 97% of the subjects expressed the
intention to use condoms. With regard to having
sex with a steady partner, 67% of the subjects
expressed positive intentions.
Partial correlations are shown in Table IV.
Partialling out the effects of the other factors, only
relation seems to be correlated with intended
condom use with a casual partner. Affect is the
sole factor correlating with intended condom use,
when the partner is believed to be a steady one.
Affect, cognition, global attitude and prior
experience with condom use
Subjects were divided into three groups, based on
their prior experience with condom use: (1) subjects
with no sexual experience (n = 121), (2) subjects
with sexual experience but who report being
inconsistent condom users (n = 74) and (3) experienced subjects reporting to be cosistent condom
users (n = 75).
Affect differed as a function of prior experience
with condom use [F(2,263) = 4.01, P < 0.02].
Tukey a posteriori contrasts indicated that
subjects with no sexual experience (M = 3.5)
reported more favourable affect than inconsistent
condom users (M = 3.2). [Only pure liking ratings
differed as a function of prior experience with
condom use; experience was not significantly
related to beliefs about the reduction of sexual
pleasure. Subjects with no sexual experience and
consistent condom users (M = 3.4) reported to
like condoms more than inconsistent condom users
do (M = 3.1), F(2,263 = 4.3, P < 0.02).]
Acceptability ratings also differed as a function of
previous sexual experience. Consistent condom
users {M = 5.3) accept condoms more than inconsistent condom users do (M = 4.9) [F(2,264) =
5.14, P < 0.007]. Furthermore, relation ratings
differed as a function of prior experience with
using condoms [F(2,264) = 7.02, P < 0.002].
Consistent condom users (M = 5.5) perceive the
reaction of sexual partners to condom use as being
more favourable than inexperienced (M = 5.13)
and inconsistent condom users do (M = 5.13).
Also, consistent condom users (M = 5.5) and
inexperienced subjects (Af = 5.6) hold a more
positive global attitude than inconsistent condom
users (M = 4.9) [F(2,266) = 6.82, P < 0.002].
Finally, we mention that the perceived attitude of
peers also differed as a function of prior experience
[F(2,266) = 7.39, P = 0.0008]. Inexperienced
subjects (M = 5.1) perceive the attitude of peers
as being more positive than consistent (M = 4.6)
and inconsistent (M = 4.4) condom users do.
Discussion
The distinction between an affective and a cognitive component seems especially valuable in helping to understand the attitude toward condom use.
Questions about the way one feels about using
condoms clearly reflect a basic attitudinal dimension. Asking one overall attitudinal question is not
21
R. De Wit et al.
sufficient to capture the way one responds to
condom use. If subjects were to respond to one
question {'My attitude toward condom use is
positive/negative'), we would have concluded that
subjects have a positive attitude toward condoms
and that putting much effort into changing it is
superfluous. Also, when concentrating on subjects'
utilitarian beliefs associated with condom use, a
rather positive picture of the young adults' attitude
emerges. Most interesting is the general finding
that subjects did not indicate negative beliefs
that are often associated with not wanting to
use condoms: cognitive responses to condom use
appear to be generally favourable. Affective
responses, however, indicate a slight aversion to
condom use. [Recent (unpublished) data suggest
that this finding is not restricted to a population of
first year college students. In a sample of 16- to 17year-old high-school students, a clear discrepancy
between overall positive cognitive and negative
affective responses to condom use was shown
(Aerts, 1996).] Consistent condom users did not
express a reversed pattern, thus Breckler and
Wiggins' (1989) results in the area of blood donation cannot be generalized to this one.
Using verbal measures of affect and cognition,
results have shown that, in this area, one has
to be especially careful in drawing an absolute
distinction between both attitudinal properties. As
pointed out earlier, some cognitively-based judgments have been shown to be infused with affect.
Results suggested that in particular beliefs about
the reduction of sexual pleasure when using a
condom are associated with negative affect. These
beliefs are infused with affect to a larger extent
than cognitions referring to relational issues and
to protection benefits from condom use. Apart
from being related to beliefs about the reduction
of sexual pleasure, negative affect may also be
related to a stigma associated with sexually transmitted diseases, homosexuals, etc. Extensive
research has focused on the processes (classical
conditioning procedures) of learning evaluative
responses toward objects (Baeyens, 1993). Evaluative conditioning is the process by which a positive
or negative evaluative response evoked by a signi-
22
ficant stimulus is transferred to a previously neutral
stimulus presented contingently with this significant stimulus. From this perspective, it is noteworthy that condoms (initially neutral objects) are
often presented in messages referring to the risks
of getting AIDS, a very negative concept. Due to
evaluative conditioning processes, the evaluation
of condoms might have shifted to a rather
negative valence. People are known to have difficulties understanding the precise determinants of
their feelings (Wilson, 1990). Perhaps unable to
verbalize why they feel the way they do, they
paraphrase the unpleasant feelings condoms elicit,
referring to rational attributes of the attitude object
that contain highly emotive elements (e.g. 'using
condoms interrupts making love'). (Consistent and
inconsistent condom users differ in 'pure liking'
but not to the extent they believe that using
condoms inhibits the pleasure of having sex.
Having the same doubts about the reduction of
sexual pleasure, consistent condom users do
express a more positive affect than inconsistent
users do.) The present findings blur a clear distinction between affect and cognition in the attitude
toward condom use; however, they do point to the
necessity to incorporate a variety of relevant
aspects in order to obtain an adequate measure of
the attitude toward condom use.
Ascertaining that affect correlates with intended
condom use, the importance of affective factors
becomes apparent. Results, however, show that
affect only relates to the intention to use condoms
with a steady partner and is not related with
intended condom use in a casual relationship.
At this point we refer to the finding that many
adolescents tend to describe a partner as being a
steady one, often only knowing him or her for a
couple of days (Victoir, 1994). Young adults find
it difficult to imagine themselves being involved
in a casual relationship, yet they tumble into
relationships, with the number of 'steady' partners
rapidly succeeding. Interviews with a large group
of non-virgin young adults (Ingham et al., 1991)
revealed that for half of the subjects the time to
intercourse (after becoming a couple) was 2 weeks
or less. For 25% of the subjects, this time was
Attitudes toward condom use
within 24 h. In the present study, the intentions to
use condoms with a steady partner were far less
positive than intended condom use with a casual
partner and perhaps provide a more accurate picture
of their intentions. Affective factors in intended
condom use are important, probably gaining importance in a sexual situation itself, when it is unlikely
that subjects will engage in cognitive work. The
intention to use condoms was separately assessed
for casual and steady partners. Measuring the
various attitudinal properties, a type of sexual
partner was not specified. Since the weights that
different attitudinal aspects receive in the formation
of attitudes may vary considerably between steady
and casual partners, it would be worthwhile to
assess separately the attitude toward condom use
with a steady and a casual partner (we would
like to thank an anonymous reviewer for this
suggestion).
The finding that affect is related to intended
condom use contradicts the predictions of Nucifora
et al. (1993). As stated before, the blurred distinction between affect and affective beliefs may
contribute to this finding. At this point it also has
to be noted that, since we were not interested in a
general model of condom use, we did not use
predictors other than attitudinal ones.
Most persuasion campaigns focus largely upon
giving rational-cognitive information. Promotion
campaigns seem to have installed favourable
beliefs and positive intentions to use condoms.
Unfortunately, we observe that only 32% of our
subjects consistently used condoms. The conclusion one ought to draw is that we have to be
especially careful when interpreting the answers to
a questionnaire. Responses appear to have become
impressed: it has become inappropriate to say that
one has a negative attitude toward condoms or that
one refuses to use them. Cognitive questions may
possibly be especially vulnerale to response bias.
The mode of introduction of the study as an AIDS
prevention study might even have biased cognitive
responses. Responses to an affective measure may
be less susceptible to these processes and as the
gap between positive beliefs and negative affect
enlarges, affect may become a more important
predictor of condom use. In changing affect associated with condom use, campaigns seem to have
been less successful. The present findings and the
growing body of evidence in the literature force
us to focus on affective factors in condom use
and on ways of altering this affect. Noticing the
inconsistencies with which affect is operationalized
and measured, a clarification of the concept in
the area of health promotion should become a
major concern.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National Fund
for Scientific Research (Belgium), grant 3.3028.91.
The authors wish to thank Paul Eelen, Willy
Lens and Eddy Van Avermaet for their helpful
comments. Likewise, the authors wish to thank
two reviewers for their comments on an earlier
draft of this paper.
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Received on December 6, 1995; accepted on April 20, 1996