Published December 1, 1956
T H E ROLE OF E P I N E P H R I N E I N T H E R E A C T I O N S P R O D U C E D
BY T H E E N D O T O X I N S OF G R A M - N E G A T I V E B A C T E R I A
II. T H E CHANGES PRODUCED BY ENDOTOXIN IN THE VASCULAR R E A C T M T Y
TO EPINEPHRINE, IN THE R A T MESOAPPENDIX AND THE
ISOLATED, PERFUSED RABBIT EAR*
BY B E N J A M I N
W. ZWEIFACH,$ ProD., A R N O L D
LEWIS THOMAS, M.D.
L. NAGLER, AND
(From the Department of Pathology, New York University-Bellevue Medical Center,
New York)
(Received for publication, August 24, 1956)
Previous experience (2) has indicated that the behavior of small blood vessels can
be profitably studied in vivo by microscopic visualization of suitable exteriorized
tissues, in particular, the rat mesoappendix. This approach has proved useful in
elucidating the nature of the vascular lesion during shock (3), various forms of experimental hypertension (4), and in adrenal insufficiency (5). In the present paper,
the results of an application of this technique to the endotoxin problem will be presented.
Although rats are not as susceptible to endotoxin as are rabbits, they were used in
a major portion of this study because of the considerable body of available information
concerning the behavior of small blood vessels in this species. To supplement the
microcirculatory experiments, the vessels of the isolated rabbit ear were studied by
* Aided by grants from the National Heart Institute, United States Public Health Service
(H-2267), the Life Insurance Medical Research Fund, and the American Heart Association.
This work was done under sponsorship of the Commissionon Acute Respiratory Diseases,
Armed Forces Epidemiological Board, and supported in part by the Office of the Surgeon
General, Department of the Army.
J: Established investigator of the American Heart Association.
881
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In the preceding paper (1), it was shown that epinephrine becomes a potent
necrotizing agent in the presence of Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin. Extensive lesions of hemorrhagic necrosis were produced by epinephrine (and
norepinephrine) in the skin of rabbits which had previously received an intravenous injection of endotoxin, and comparable lesions occurred after local
injection of mixtures of endotoxin and epinephrine.
On the basis of these observations, it has been proposed, as a working hypothesis, that the seemingly unrelated systemic effects of endotoxin m a y
have, as a common etiological mechanism, a primary action on the reactivity
of vessels of the peripheral circulation to epinephrine or norepinephrine.
Published December 1, 1956
882
VASCULAR REACTMTY TO EPINEPHRINE
an in dtro perfusion method, employing a technique which has been extensively used
for the bioassay of various vasoactive materials.
T h e c o m b i n e d in vivo a n d in vitro a p p r o a c h e s h a v e p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e t h a t
e n d o t o x i n has t h e p r o p e r t y of altering to a striking degree the v a s o c o n s t r i c t o r
response of p e r i p h e r a l b l o o d vessels to epinephrine. Small doses of e n d o t o x i n
b r i n g a b o u t a s t a t e of g r e a t l y a u g m e n t e d responsiveness, so t h a t prolonged,
intense v a s o c o n s t r i c t i o n can be e v o k e d b y a m o u n t s of e p i n e p h r i n e which h a v e
little or no effect on n o r m a l vessels. L a r g e doses of e n d o t o x i n cause a reversal
of this effect, so t h a t t h e t e r m i n a l vessels in t h e m e s o a p p e n d i x lose t h e i r
responsiveness to e p i n e p h r i n e a n d those in t h e isolated ear u n d e r g o vasodilation.
Materials and Methods
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Mesocecum of Rat.--The in vivo studies were carried out by the rat mesoappendix procedure of Zweifach and Chambers as described in reference 6. A total of 125 rats of the CF Wistar strain of both sexes, weighing between 125 and 170 gin., were used. Although the animals in
this weight range were not fully mature, they showed an exceptionally uniform pattern of
response to vasoactive agents. The microcirculation was observed in the sheet of mesentery
between the terminal ileum and cecal appendage of rats anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (35 mg./kg.). Rigid precautions were taken to maintain the exteriorized tissues at
body temperature by irrigation with a Ringer-gelatin solution. In order to rule out any nonspecific effect of the anesthetic agent on the observed changes, a series of 15 rats were prepared for in v/no study of the circulation while under urethane anesthesia (200 rag./100 gin.).
Since there were no essential differences between the endotoxin reaction in the pentobarbital
or urethane animals, pentobarbital anesthesia was used as routine during the experiments
herein reported. The constrictor response of the terminal arterioles and precapiilaries to the
topical application of epinephrine or norepinephrine has been shown to represent a reliable
index of the functional status of these vessels. For this purpose, the minimal effective or
threshold concentration of epinephrine, i.e., the smallest amount required to narrow the precapillaries and bring to a halt the blood flow in the capillaries, served as a measure of the
state of reactivity. Observations were also recorded on the occurrence of spontaneous vasomotor changes (vasomotion), the extent and distribution of blood flow through the blood capillaries, and the caliber of feeding arterioles and collecting venules.
The endotoxin preparations were injected by the intravenous or intraperitoneal routes.
No differences in the observed effects were demonstrable between the two routes of injection.
In Vitro Perfusion.--The in nitro experiments were carried out according to the method
of Katz (7). The isolated ear of the rabbit was perfused with Tyrode solution at room temperature. The perfusion system consisted of an elevated reservoir from which the perfusate
was introduced by a fine needle into an upright 25 cc. volumetric pipette calibrated in 0.I ec.
markings. The delivery end of the pipette was attached by a rubber tube to a 22 gauge needle
which served as the arterial cannuia. The rate of flow through the preparation was adjusted to
2 to 4 cc. per minute, and the perfnsion fluid was kept at a given level in the pipette by constant flow from the reservoir. Test samples were introduced by way of a fine polyethylene
catheter inserted through a glass "T" just above the point of attachment of the 22 gauge
cannulating needle. After the injection of vasoactive test substances, the meniscus level of the
delivery pipette rose or fell in proportion to the increased or decreased resistance to flow
through the ear. A rise in the level accompanied vasoconstriction, while a fall in the level
Published December 1, 1956
B. W. ZWEIFACtt, A. NAGLER~ AND L. THOMAS
883
occurred with vasodilation. Endotoxin preparations were introduced directly into the ear
circulation or mixed with the perfusion medium. The addition of small amounts of normal
rabbit serum (0.1 per cent) to the perfusion medium considerably increased the over-all
reactivity of the ear vessels to both constrictor and dilator agents. Changes in vascular reactivity were arbitrarily expressed by comparing the concentration of epinephrine required to
produce a standard rise in the perfusion meniscus, after exposure to endotoxin, with the concentration which elicited a comparable increment during the control period.
Endotox/ns.--The majority of the experiments were done with a lyophilized lipopolysaccharide endotoxin of EscItcrichia coli prepared by the Difco Company, Detroit. Fresh solutions of endotoxin, in sterile pyrogen-free distilled water, were prepared for each experiment.
Corroborative studies were carried out with four other endotoxin preparations: a highly
purified E. ¢oli endotoxin (8) prepared by Doctor O. Westphal, Freiburg, Germany (10), a
crude meningococcal culture filtrate prepared as described elsewhere (9), a solution of Brucella mditensis endotoxin supplied by Doctor Wesley Spink, Minneapolis, and purified Strratia r,tarcescens endotoxin prepared by Doctor Murray Shear, Washington.
EXPE~ r~~NTAL
In preliminary experiments, the lethal dose range of Difco E. coli endotoxin
was determined in a series of 36 rats. These animals were much more resistant
to the material than rabbits, tolerating doses as high as 2 rag. per rat without
succumbing. Death was produced in 50 per cent by doses between 4 and 5
rag., and all animals were killed by 7 rag. Regardless of the dose, a latent
interval of approximately 1 hour was consistently observed between the
time of injection and the beginning of symptoms. M t e r this interval the animals showed rapid, labored respiration, marked pallor of the ears and extremities, copious secretion of red-stained fluid from the eyes, and varying degrees
of weakness and prostration. Death occurred in most instances between 4
and 18 hours after injection. At autopsy, the usual findings were an enlarged,
deeply congested liver, scattered hemorrhages throughout the lungs, hemorrhagic necrosis of the abdominal lymph nodes, frank hemorrhages into the
walls and lumen of the small intestine, and patchy areas of extreme pallor
on the surface of the kidneys.
In the studies to be reported below, two distinct patterns of altered reactivity to epinephrine were produced by endotoxin, depending on the dose of
endotoxin. With relatively small, sublethal doses, ranging from 25 to 200
~tg., the most conspicuous change was an augmentation of reactivity, which
varied in degree and duration with the dose of endotoxin. After larger doses,
ranging from 250 gg. to several rag., a biphasic response occurred, with a
brief period of hyperreactivity of the terminal arterioles being replaced by a
state of refractoriness to epinephrine. These two types of response will be
considered separately.
The Effect of Small, Subletkal Doses of Endotoxin on Reactivity to Epinephrine.--In normal rats,[ the application of threshold doses of epinephrine (nsu-
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I n Vivo Studies of the Rat Mesoappcr~ix
Published December 1, 1956
884
VASCULAR REACTIVITY TO EPINEPHRINE
ally 0.2 to 0.4 #g. per cc.) brought about transient constriction of the terminal
arterioles and precapillaries, accompanied by slowing and brief cessation of
the capillary circulation. The entire reaction lasted no longer than 10 to 20
seconds, after which the caliber and flow returned to normal.
When endotoxin was injected by vein, in doses ranging from 50 to 200
#g., the same doses of epinephrine elicited an intense, widespread vasoconstriction involving the small arteries, arterioles, venules, and small veins,
with complete ischemia of the capillary bed lasting several minutes. Similar
changes in reactivity were observed with norepinephrine (levophed), although the degree of potentiation was somewhat less than with epinephrine.
The time of occurrence, duration and magnitude of hyperreactivity to
epinephrine following various doses of Difco E. ¢oli endotoxin are illustrated
in Fig. 1. It will be seen that augmented responses appeared within 30 minutes after intravenous injection of endotoxin. With smaller doses (50 and 75
~g.) the reactivity to epinephrine returned to normal after 60 to 90 minutes.
Larger doses (100 to 200 #g.) caused more prolonged hyperreactivity, in
many instances remaining at maximal levels for periods of 3 to 5 hours without evidence of a return toward normal.
During the period of heightened vascular reactivity, the change in the
behavior of the muscular venules and veins was particularly striking. After
an injection of endotoxin these vessels, which in normal animals are the least
reactive to epinephrine, became so highly reactive that their threshold responses were obtained with lower doses than in the terminal arterioles. Thus,
in endotoxin-treated rats, the venous outflow from the capillary bed could
be brought to a halt by quantities of epinephrine which had no appreciable
effect on arteriolar caliber.
It was noted that curtailment of capillary blood flow persisted for long
periods when test applications were made with concentrations of epinephrine
greater than threshold doses. For example, in experiments in which the effective threshold concentration of epinephrine had been reduced to 0.02/zg./cc.
following endotoxin, the topical application of 0.2 /zg. produced an intense
degree of vasoconstriction and cessation of capillary blood flow lasting 5 or
6 minutes, after which the capillary flow remained drastically reduced for the
next 60 to 90 minutes. In normal rats the application of epinephrine in corn-
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I t was noted that with repeated applications of epinephrine, at successive intervals after
endotoxin, the constriction persisted in the vascular bed for increasingly long periods of time.
In order to determine whether this was a function of the time of testing after endotoxin, or
due to the repeated stimulation by epinephrine, a series of animals were subjected to a single
test at various intervals of time following the administration of endotoxin. It was found that
the progressively increasing and more prolonged reactions to epinephrine were related to the
time of testing and the dose of endotoxin, and were not dependent on the number of epinephrine tests.
Published December 1, 1956
885
B. W. ZWEIFACH, A. NAGLER, AND L. THOMAS
parable doses, i.e. 10 times the threshold dose, results in transient episodes
of vasoconstriction which terminate completely within 3 to 4 minutes at the
longest.
A quantitative estimation of the degree of epinephrine hyperreactivity
produced by different doses of endotoxin is shown in Table I. Here, the degree
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60
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FIG. 1. Hyperreactivity of Mesenteric Vessels to Epinephrine following Intravenous Injection of Endotoxin. Each curve represents the average of results obtained in 4 to 5 rats. The
animals recdved intravenous E. coli endotoxin, in the doses indicated above each curve, and
the threshold concentrations of epinephrine required to elidt a standard, minimal contraction
of the terminal arterioles were determined at approximately 15 minute intervals.
of augmentation is indicated by the ratio between the threshold doses of epinephrine before and after the injection of endotoxin. I t will be seen that the
optimal dose of Difco E. coli endotoxin was I00 #g., which produced 400-to
700-fold magnification of reactivity to epinephrine. With doses of I000 ~g. or
more, the reactivity fell to subnormal levels, a phenomenon which is discussed
in the section to follow.
Each of the four other endotoxin preparations yielded results similar to
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u/
Published December 1, 1956
886
VASCULAR REACTIVITY TO E P I N E P H R I N E
those described above. The doses of each which were required to produce
enhancement of epinephrine reactivity are shown in Table II.
The Effect of Large Doses of Endotoxin on Reactivity to E p i n e p h r i n e . - - M t e r
doses of endotoxin greater than 250 t*g., a biphasic response was observed in
which the initial potentiation of epinephrine constriction was interrupted b y
a stage of rapidly decreasing reactivity, reaching levels much below normal.
TABLE I
The Effect of Various Doses of E. coli Endotoxin on the Vascular Response to Epinephrine in
the Rat Mesentery
Dose of endotoxin
No. of rats
Change in reactivity*
Duration of effect
mls.
/=g.
4
I0
3
12
10
6
6
6
Increased 2-3 times
"
4-5
"
" 20-30
"
" 400-700
" 150-200
"
15-20
Decreased 3-5
"
10-100
"
"
"
"
"
20-30
45--6O
60--75
120-180
180-240
180-240
200-240
240
* Changes in reactivity are based on differences between the threshold concentrations of
epinephrine during control period and after indicated doses of intravenous endotoxin.
TABLE II
The Elects of Five Endotoxin Preparations on Vascular Reacti~ty to Epinephrine in the Rat
Mescntery
Dose producing change in epinephrine reactivity
Endotoxin
E. coli (Difco)
E. coli (Westphal)
S. mo,rce,$e~l,$
Meningococcus
Br. mditensis
Increased reactivity
Decreased reactivity
50-200 #g.
25-100/~g.
25-75 #g.
0.1-0.25 cc.
0.05-0.25 cc.
800-2000/~g.
250--400big.
500-2000/~g.
0.3-0.5 cc.
0.3-0.4 cc.
Typical biphasic reactions following different doses of E . coli endotoxin are
illustrated in Fig. 2. The larger the dose of endotoxin, the more refractory became the terminal arterioles and precapiUaries. The hyporeactive stage appeared as early as 50 minutes after injection of endotoxin, and persisted for
as long as 4 hours.
The following sequence of events occurred with uniformity after a lethal
dose of endotoxin: During the first hour, vascular reactivity to epinephrine
was moderately enhanced, but the degree of augmentation was often some-
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25
50
75
10O
200
50O
1000
2000
Published December 1, 1956
887
B. W. ZWEIFACH~ A. NAGLRR~ AND L. THOMAS
what less than that observed after smaller doses. No change in blood flow
or in arterial blood pressure occurred during this stage. Then early in the 2nd
hour, the terminal vascular bed, and also the larger arteries and veins, exhibited a gradual depression of epinephrine reactivity, and during this time
the animal usually showed signs of being ill, respiration became labored,
and the arterial pressure fell (mean value with Hg manometer in carotid ari
,
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FIG. 2. Biphasic Change in Epinephrine Reactivity Following Large Doses of Endotoxin.
The curves indicate the biphasic nature of the vascular response to topical epinephrinefollowing 3 different doses of endotoxin. Each curve is based on the average of results obtained in
6 rats, in which the mesentery was tested at 30 minute intervals after endotoxin. The central
dotted line represents the average threshold dose of epinephrine prior to the injection of
endotoxin, expressed arbitrarily as unity, and hyperrcactivity and hyporeactivity are indicated respectively by the rise or fall in relation to this line.
tery: 65 to 75 ram.). The small arteries and veins became dilated and filled
with blood, especially the muscular venules. The entire capillary bed became
filled with blood which moved slowly through all of its ramifications, with
sluggish outflow by way of the collecting venules. Petechial hemorrhages
developed around capillaries soon after the development of stasis in these
vessels. Although some petechiae appeared spontaneously, it was observed
that they became much more numerous and extensive soon after testing an
area with topical epinephrine.
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.02"
IE I
.1i.i
Published December 1, 1956
888
VASCULAR R E A C T I V I T Y TO E P I N E P I ~ N E
At this stage of events, during the 2nd and 3rd hours, the larger arteries
and veins began to narrow down spontaneously and again became highly
reactive to epinephrine. In contrast, topical epinephrine elicited no visible
reactions in the arterioles, precapillaries, or venules. Narrowing of the larger
arteries progressed until they became thread-like structures, while the terminal vessels remained unresponsive and dilated, with the result that large
volumes of blood remained stagnant in the capillaries and venules; the latter
became engorged and frequently had the appearance of varicosities. Increasing numbers of petechiae developed along the capillaries and venules,
and an active circulation was only demonstrable through direct shunts, which
completely bypassed the capillary bed.
Similar reactions were produced by the other four endotoxins studied in doses in or near the
lethal range. Table I illustrates the degree and duration of hyporeactivity observed with
various doses of Dffco E. ¢oli endotoxin, and Table II shows the dosage range of each of the
five endotoxin preparations which brought about hyporeactivity to epinephrine.
Rats were given daily injections of Dffco E. ¢oU endotoxin for 8 days, beginning with a
dose of 50 #g., and increasing in Stepwise increments to a final dose of 500 gg. For a period
of 4 to 6 days after the last injection such animals were capable of resisting a challenge dose
of 4 rag. without apparent ill effects. Microscopic observations were made of the circulation
of 10 endotoxin-tolerant rats, employing doses of endotoxin known to produce both hyperreactivity and hyporeactivity to epinephrine in normal animals.
In all instances, intravenous injections of endotoxin in doses ranging from
50 to 2000 #g. had no discernible effect on the mesenteric vascular reactivity
to epinephrine, nor did spontaneous abnormalities of blood flow or petechiae
occur.
Having established that endotoxin-tolerant rats were resistant to alteration
of epinephrine reactivity by endotoxin, it was next of interest to learn whether
the resistance could be abrogated by colloidal "blockading" agents. Saccharated iron oxide (0.4 ml./150 gin.) was injected intravenously in 10 rats with
induced tolerance, and the effect of endotoxin on the mesenteric vascular bed
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Epinephrine Reactivity in Rats Rendered Tolerant to Endotoxin.--When
animals are subjected to repeated daily injections of small doses of endotoxins, they become refractory to all the recognized biological effects of these
substances. The state of induced tolerance has been widely studied, and is
believed by some to reflect an augmented detoxifying capacity of the reticuloendothelial system (10). The acquired resistance disappears within a few
hours after an injection of colloidal substances presumed to "blockade" the
reticuloendothelial ceils, such as thorium dioxide (thorotrast) (11) and colloidal saccharated iron oxide (proferrin) (12).
To learn whether tolerance to endotoxin also applies to the observed changes
in vascular reactivity, the following experiment was p e r f o r m e d : -
Published December 1, 1956
B. W. ZW'EIFACH~ A. NAGLER, AND Z. THOMAS
889
was studied during the ensuing 4 hours. Epinephrine hyperreactivity, followed
by hyporeactivity, were produced by doses of endotoxin even smaller than
those which are effective in normal rats, indicating that the state of resistance
had been eliminated by proferrin.
In Vitro Perfusion Studies of the Isolated Rabbit Ear
The response to a priming dose of 0.5 #g. of epinephrine served to indicate the reactive
stage of the preparation before endotoxin. Extremely small doses of epinephrine were then
tested, until the threshold level was determined, in this instance 0.015 #g. An injection of
0.S #g. of/g. ¢oU endotoxiu was then made, in a volume of 0.1 cc. The actual concentration
perfusing the ear was estimated to be approximately 0.03 #g. per cc. No spontaneous change
in the flow pattern was detectable as the result of endotoxin alone. Now, the injection of the
original threshold dose of epinephrine (O.015 Cg.) brought about vasoconstriction which was
as intense as that elicited before endotoxin by the initial test dose (0.5 #g.). This augmented
response reached a maximum 5 minutes after endotoxin, and was no longer demonstrable
after 8 minutes.
The phenomenon could be reproduced several times in the same ear, although the magnitude of augmentation was not always identical. Doses of
endotoxin below 0.3 #g. were ineffective. However, two divided doses of 0.25
#g. each, spaced 3 minutes apart, produced the same response as a single in-
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Although the response of different ear preparations to vasoconstrictor doses
of epinephrine was highly variable, the vasoconstrictor response in each
individual preparation was found to be consistent and reproducible. As many
as 15 test reactions with epinephrine could be elicited at 4 or 5 minute intervals with a reproducibility of approximately 15 per cent, as measured by
the change in the meniscus level in the delivery pipette. It was therefore
possible to use the endpoints obtained with successive epinephrine tests as
an indication of the vasoactive effects of endotoxin.
The injection of a single dose of Difco E. coli endotoxin, in doses ranging
from 0.5 to 2.0 tzg., markedly enhanced the constrictor reaction to epinephrine. By themselves, these doses had no observable effect either on the state
of contraction of the ear vessels, as indicated by the meniscus level, or on the
rate of perfusion flow. A total of 25 ear preparations were studied with 0.5
#g. of this endotoxin, and 3 with the Westphal E. coli preparation. In each
case the effective threshold concentrations of epinephrine were reduced to
levels indicating potentiation of the epinephrine response, usually from 200
to 850 times the reactivity before endotoxin (Table III). The change in reactivity was of such magnitude that the use of epinephrine doses just above the
control threshold level resulted in a complete shutdown of flow through the
ear for periods of 15 minutes or longer.
To illustrate the type of reaction which was observed, a representative protocol is shown in Fig. 3.
Published December 1, 1956
890
VASCULAR REACTIVITY TO EPINEPHRINE
jection of 0.5 #g. W h e n the interval between such divided doses was 5 minutes
or longer, no additive effect was demonstrable.
o
~:
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EPINEPHRINE
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EPINEPHRINE
ENDOTOXIN
>
~
~
lb
FIO. 3. Potentiation by Endotoxin of Response to Epinephrine in Isolated Rabbit Ear. An
experiment illustrating the type of augmented response to epinephrine following perfusion
with 0.5 #g. of E. cdi endotoxin. The height of the excursion, indicating vasoconstriction, is
shown in arbitrary units; one unit is equivalent to a 0.1 cc. shift in the meniscus level of the
delivery pipette.
TABLE I I I
Potentiation by Endotoxin (0.5 I~g.) of Vasoconstrictor Effext of Epinephrine in
Isolated Rabbit Ear
Exp. No.
Thresholddoseof epinephrine
Control
After endotoxin
0.5
0.025
0.025
0.0015
0.00003
0.00006
0.00012
0.025
Degree of p o t ~ n t i a H n n *
300 times
850 "
420 "
200 "
* Expressed as multiples of control threshold value, to indicate the relative magnitude of
the effect on vascular reactivity.
As was observed in the in vivo experiments in rats, larger doses of endotoxin produced reversal of the epinephrine constrictor reaction, a n d a c t u a l l y
brought a b o u t vasodilation in response to epinephrine. This observation,
which was m a d e in a series of 10 consecutive experiments with different ear
preparations, is indicated in Table IV. I n the experiment illustrated b y the
protocol in Fig. 4, a large dose of epinephrine (0.5 #g.), which elicited vigor-
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6
~
2,
TIME IN MINUTES
Published December 1, 1956
891
B. W. ZWEI.FACH~ A. NAGLER~ AND L. THOMAS
ous vasoconstriction during the control period, was used as the test challenge
throughout. It will be noted that administration of 40 gg. of endotoxin converted the response to this dose of epinephrine from constriction to
pronounced vasodilation--a phenomenon never encountered in any of the
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6
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Fzo. 4. Reversal of Epinephrine Response in Isolated Rabbit Ear by a Large Dose of
Endotoxin. The effect of perfusing 40 #g. of E. coli endotoxin is illustrated. Vasoconstriction
(above base line) and dilation (below base line) are expressed in arbitrary units as in Fig. 3.
TABLE IV
Vasoditation by Epinephrine after Endotoxin (50 l~g.) in the Isolated Rabbit Ear
Exp. No.
Vascular response*
Epinephrine dose
Control
0.05
0.015
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
After endotoxin
Constriction (0.6)
"
"
"
"
(0.8)
(0.7)
(0.3)
(0.1)
Dilation
"
"
"
"
0.5
0.5
0.6
4.0
1.3
* Degree of vasoconstriction or dilation arbitrarily expressed by the rise or fall of the
meniscus of delivery pipette, in cubic centimeters.
control preparations. The dilator effect persisted for 8 to 10 minutes, after
which the normal constrictor reaction reappeared.
In several experiments, larger doses of endotoxin (75/~g. or more) produced
a state of complete unresponsiveness to epinephrine, during which the ear
vessels failed to react either by constriction or by dilation to doses of epinephrine as large as 2 #g. Similar unreactivity appeared after repeated injec-
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-4°
Published December 1, 1956
892
VASCULAR REACTMTY TO EPINEPHRINE
tions of endotoxin in doses sufficient to cause dilator responses to epinephrine
when given singly.
In the foregoing experiments, endotoxin was perfused through the vessels
of the ear for a relatively brief period, at most 20 or 30 seconds. It was therefore of interest to learn the effect of continuous perfusion of endotoxin. To
this end, various concentrations of endotoxin were added to the perfusing
fluid, and the response to epinephrine measured at selected intervals during
perfusion. In two such experiments, in which 0.5 #g. per cc. of endotoxin were
perfused at the rate of 3 cc. per minute, a subthreshold dose of epinephrine
(0.0025 #g.) now produced prolonged, intense vasoconstriction.
The addition of more epinephrineduring this period, in concentrationsas low as 0.000001 #g.
per cc. evoked further vasodflation.
No effect of endotoxin on the vasomotor response to serotonin (10-hydroxytryptamine) could be demonstrated in the isolated ear, when various doses
of the latter substance were tested by methods similar to those described
above.
DISCUSSION
In the preceding paper (1), it was shown that endotoxin produces a drastic
alteration of the action of epinephrine in the rabbit, converting this hormone
from its normal role as a transient vasoconstrictor in the skin to a powerful
necrotizing agent capable of causing extensive hemorrhagic destruction. It
seemed apparent that the action of endotoxin was exerted directly on the
blood vessels, since hemorrhagic necrosis occurred both when endotoxin was
given by vein and epinephrine injected separately into the skin, and when
the two were mixed and injected together.
The results of the present study provide substantial evidence for a direct
effect of endotoxin on the reactivity of small blood vessels to epinephrine,
and suggest several ways in which tissue damage may be caused by the combined action of the two substances. In the experiments with the rat mesoappendix, small doses of endotoxin were found to cause extreme degrees of
prolonged vasoconstriction, involving both arterioles and venules, following
topical application of epinephrine in concentrations which had little or no
effect on normal tissues. The small veins, which are normally the least reactive of the terminal vessels to epinephrine, became more sensitive than the
precapillary arterioles, thus providing a mechanism for impeding capillary
circulation and pooling blood within the collecting venules.
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Another modification was used to demonstrate the vasodilator effect of endotoxin in the
presence of constant perfusion by epinephrine. Epinephrine was infused by a motor-driven
syringe at a constant rate of 0.0001 gg. per minute. This dose was just below the amount required to produce a measurable, sustained vasoconstriction. Endotoxin was then added to
the perfusate, in doses ranging from 10 to 35 #g. In each instance, this was immediately followed by vasodilation which persisted throughout the period of observation (30 minutes).
Published December 1, 1956
B. W. ZWEIFACH,
A. N A G L E R ,
AND
L. T H O M A S
893
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With larger doses of endotoxin, the stage of epinephrine hyperreactivity
was shortened in duration and was replaced by a stage of increasing hyporeactivity. During this time, petechiae began to appear along the capillaries
and venules, especially in the sites being tested with topical epinephrine.
After lethal doses, the terminal arterioles and venules became totally unresponsive, while the reactivity of the larger arteries and veins continued to
increase, with the final result that stagnant blood became pooled in all capillaries and venules while the larger vessels contracted to narrow, thread-like
structures.
It seems reasonable to suggest that comparable events, occurring in rabbit
.d~in in response to the combined effects of endotoxin and epinephrine, may
have been the basis for the lesions of hemorrhagic necrosis. It was considered unlikely that prolonged vasoconstriction by itself could account for
lesions of such magnitude, particularly since repeated intradermal injections
of large doses of epinephrine caused no necrosis in the skin of normal rabbits.
However, the demonstration in the rat mesoappendix that the alteration of
epinephrine reactivity may be biphasic, with a period of hyperreactivity
followed by pronounced hyporeactivity, offers a more plausible explanation.
This finding, together with the direct observation of blood stasis and petechial hemorrhage in dilated capillaries and venules, would fit well with
the changes visible in the gross as the rabbit skin lesion develops.
A crucial question, in attempting to explain the endotoxin-epinephrine
skin lesion, is whether epinephrine actually causes dilation of blood vessels
under the influence of endotoxin. If this were so, the meshwork of dilated
small vessels, resembling telangiectases, which appear early in the development of the lesion, could be nicely accounted for. The rat mesoappendix experiments do not provide an unequivocal answer. In the terminal stages of
epinephrine hyporeactivity, after lethal doses of endotoxin, the small vessels
lost all responsiveness to epinephrine and became progressively more dilated
and engorged with blood, and it was noted that topical applications of epinephrine were followed by increasing numbers of petechiae. But it was not
observed that epinephrine itself caused an active, definite vasodilator reaction. On the other hand, such reactions were consistently demonstrable in
the isolated rabbit ear preparations after exposure to large doses of endotoxin.
In certain respects, the effects of endotoxin on vascular reactivity were
essentially the same in the rat mesoappendix and the isolated rabbit ear.
In both, hyperreactivity occurred after small doses, and hyporeactivity after
large ones. It should be noted, however, that these changes reached their
maximum levels within a few minutes in the ear vessels while an hour or so
was required for their full development in the rat mesoappendix. Whether
this difference, and also the dilator effect in the rabbit ear, are due to the
different animal species involved, or to other factors such as the artificial
Published December 1, 1956
894
V A S C U L A R R E A C T I V I T Y TO E P I N E P H R I N E
s~xns~Ry ANY CONCLUSIONS
The effects of endotoxin on the epinephrine reactivity of blood vessels in
the rat mesoappendix have been studied. Following intravenous injection of
a relatively small, sublethal dose of endotoxin, the terminal arterioles and
venules exhibited greatly augmented and prolonged vasoconstrictor responses
to epinephrine and norepinephrine. Hyperreactivity became evident within
30 minutes after injection of endotoxin, and persisted for as long as 6 hours.
After larger doses of endotoxin, sufficient to cause illness or death, the
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environment created by the ear perfusion technique, remains to be determined. It is worthy of note that repeated attempts to produce skin lesions in
the rat with combinations of endotoxin and epinephrine have been uniformly
unsuccessful, and conceivably the rapidity of action of endotoxin in the rabbit, or its capacity to bring about active vasodilation by epinephrine in this
species, may be important factors in the pathogenesis of the skin lesion. The
claim by Lundholm (13) that the physiological dilator effect of epinephrine
is due to its capacity to stimulate the release of lactic acid in certain tissues
is of interest in view of the demonstration, by Thomas and Stetson (14), of
greatly increased levels of lactic acid in skin tissue injected with endotoxin.
Further studies of the possible relationship between these two phenomena
are now in progress.
Apart from this problem, the observations made in this study may have
direct bearing on the mechanism of certain other pathophysiological effects
of endotoxin, notably the syndrome of shock. The resemblances between
traumatic shock and the lethal reaction to endotoxin have been pointed out
by Delaunay and his associates (15), Fine (16) and others (10). The events
observed in the rat mesoappendix after endotoxin are strikingly similar to
those previously described during the development of shock (17). In the decompensatory stage of shock, as after large doses of endotoxin, the small
blood vessels became refractory to epinephrine and show no spontaneous
changes in the caliber with fluctuations in blood flow; the larger arteries and
veins, on the other hand, maintain their tone and become excessively narrowed to less than one-third of their original diameter.
It is suggested that the observed changes in epinephrine reactivity brought
about by endotoxin, and the resulting degrees of impairment of peripheral
blood flow, may represent aspects of a basic mechanism for tissue damage.
The amounts of epinephrine and norepinephrine normally contained in the
tissues vary widely from one organ to another, and it is possible that some
tissues may be sufficiently supplied as to be placed in jeopardy by the action
of endotoxin. The several points of similarity between the systemic intoxicating effects of endotoxin and epinephrine, summarized in the preceding
paper, may become explicable in these terms.
Published December 1, 1956
B. W. ZWEIFACH~ A. N'AGLER, AND L. THOMAS
895
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Thomas, L., J. Exp. MOd., 1956, :[04, 865.
2. Zweifach, B. W., Tr. 3rd. Conf., Factors Regulating Blood Pressure, Josiah Macy,
Jr. Foundation, New York, 1949, 13.
3. Chambers, R., Zweifach, B. W., and Lowenstein, B. E., Ann. Surg., 1944, 120,
791.
4. Shorr, E., Zweifach, B.W., Furchgott, R. F., and Baez, S., Tr. 1st Conference,
Factors Regulating Blood Pressure, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, New York,
1947, 32.
5. Zweifach, B. W., Shorr, E., and Block, M., Ann. New York, Acad. Sc., 1953,
~ , 626.
6. Zweifach, B. W., Methods Med. Researck, Chicago, The Year Book Publishers,
1948, 1, 131.
7. Katz, G., Arch. Int. Pkarmacod3,a., 1934, 4k9,239.
8. Westphal, O., Liideritz, O., Eichenberger, E., and Keiderling, W. Z. Naturforsch.,
1952, 9,536.
9. Thomas, L., and Good, R. A., J. Exp. Med., 1952, 96, 605.
10. Thomas, L., Ann. Rev. Physiol., 1954, 16, 467.
11. Beeson, P., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. andMed., 1947, 64, 146.
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vascular hyperreactivity to epinephrine was of briefer duration, and was
followed by a stage of increasing hyporeactivity reaching levels much below
normal. With lethal doses, the terminal arterioles and venules became completely refractory to epinephrine, while heightened reactivity persisted in
the larger arteries and veins. The end result was pooling of stagnant blood
in distended capillaries and venules, accompanied by the appearance of petechiae. Topical applications of epinephrine during this stage were followed
promptly by an increase in petechial hemorrhage at the site of testing.
Rats which were rendered tolerant to the lethal effect of endotoxin, by
repeated daily injections of small doses, developed resistance to the effects
of endotoxin on epinephrine reactivity. Neither hyperreactivity nor hyporeactivity to epinephrine were demonstrable in these animals, nor were
spontaneous abnormalities of blood flow or petechial hemorrhages observed
in the mesoappendix.
Analogous results were obtained in perfusion studies of the vessels of the
isolated rabbit ear. Perfusion of small amounts of endotoxin was followed
within a few minutes by potentiation of epinephrine reactivity. Larger doses
caused complete reversal of this effect, to such an extent that epinephrine
now produced marked degrees of vasodilation.
The possible meaning of these observations in the interpretation of the
endotoxin-epinephrine skin lesions described in the preceding paper is discussed. It is suggested that abnormal reactions to epinephrine or norepinephrine in the tissues of intact animals may represent a basic mechanism in the
intoxicating and tissue-damaging properties of endotoxin.
Published December 1, 1956
896
VASCULAR REACTIVITY TO EPINEPIIRIN'E
12. Smith, R. T., Thomas, L., and Good, R. A., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med., 1953,
82,712.
13. Lundholm, L., Acta Physiol. Scand., 1949, 19, suppl. 67.
14. Thomas, L., and Stetson, C. A., J. Exp. Med., 1949, 89, 461.
15. Delaunay, A., Boquet, P., Lebmn, J., Lehoult, Y., and Ddaunay, M., J. physiol.
(Paris), 1948, 40, 89.
16. Schweinbrug, F. B., and Fine, J., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med., 1955, 88, 589.
17. Zweifach, B. W., Lee, R. E., Hyman, C., and Chambers, R., Ann. Surg., 1944,
120, 232.
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