International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences
ISSN 0973-6077 Volume 12, Number 2 (2017), pp. 341-357
© Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression
(AD), During the Period (1984-2016)
Yusra Alhusban1 and Maysson Zghoul2
1, 2
Associated Professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts,
The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.
Abstract
The main goal of this research is to study the general morphometric, landscape
characteristics depending on shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) for
preparing digital elevation model (DEM), and monitor drought in Azraq
depression (AD) by applying three different methods including: SPI,
analyzing monthly rainfall records between 1984 - 2016 for 5 metrological
stations. In addition to use inverse distance weighted (IDW); using Spatial
Analyst Tools.tbx GIS.10.3 partically (Spatial interpolation), and normalized
difference index of vegetation (NDVI) using Landsat (TM) images acquired in
May 1984, and 2016. The main conclusions were reached: 1. The dominated landforms are (valley and ridge), which formed 72%
from all six landforms classes.
2. Only 1.6% classified as extremely wet, and most of the years faced with
a near normal with 64% from all the study period (1980-2016).
3. In general, the study area is characterized by drought; as the results
show that only 3.3% from the study area have a yearly average rainfall
from 161-190 mm.
4. NDVI Changes in terms of area and density, the area have decreased by
-9% during the period of (1984-2016).
Keywords: Azraq depression DEM, SPI, IDW, NDVI.

Corresponding Author
342
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
1. INTRODUCTION
In the present paper shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) data was used for
preparing digital elevation model (DEM) to study the main morphometric and
landscape characteristics of (AD). The standardized precipitation index (SPI) was
developed by (McKee et al, 1993) used as a simple index-precipitation, and can be
used for monitoring in both dry and wet climate (Svoboda, 2009; Svoboda, et al,
2002). Positive values of (SPI) indicate greater than median precipitation and negative
values indicate less than median precipitation (WOM, 2012; Rossi, 2003; Genesis, et
al, 2014; Wilhite, 2000; lam, et al, 2015). While we applied one of the local
interpolation methods in GIS: Known as: inverse distance weighted (IDW); an
algorithm uses a sample of known points to estimate an unknown value (Khajeh F,
2007; Earls and Dixon, 2007; ESRI. 2008; Matador, 2007; Childs., 2004; Svoboda, et
al, 2002). In addition to use (NDVI) as an indicator of drought; Many researchers
have been used the (NDVI) for monitoring vegetation and drought (Meera, et al,
2015; Genesis, et al, 2014; Nusrath, 2012), which is considered as one of the most
widely-used for vegetation index. NDVI values ranging from -1 to +1. high NDVI
values indicates healthy, green vegetation with values from 0.2 - .08, values > 0.5
indicative of denser vegetation, low NDVI values indicates no-green vegetation
Widely used for drought monitoring (AUG,2012; Govaerts, and Verhulst, 2010).
2. STUDY AREA
(AD) is extent from approximate longitude 36º ´20 to 37º ´40 and from latitude 31º
´00 to 32º ´20. The depression covers an area about 12712 km², extending from the
lava peaks of Jebel Al-Druze in southern Syria to the Wadi Al-Sirhan in northern
Saudi Arabia. The Azraq Qa’a (is circulated area of mud flats, salt pans and
wetlands); and the largest mudflat which is located in the central part of the basin.
(AD) is shared between Jordan, Syria and Saudi Arabia; about 95% are located in
Jordan, 4% in Syria and about 1% in Saudi Arabia (Al-Hadidi, and Subuh 2001). The
highest elevation area is 1175 m, which is located in the south and north of the basin,
while the lowest elevation is 511 m in the Qa’a which is dried up in the early nineties
(Topogrhic map,1994). All streams and wadis are non-perennial. The basin itself is an
internal basin surrounded by hilly relief and encompasses the drainage areas of the
Wadies; Rajil, Useikhim, mudeisisat, Er-Ratam and Ghadaf. (Topographic map,
1994) these wadies characterized by wide shallow valleys with generally low slopes.
The wadies drain their waters into the Azraq Qa’a. The Basalt is a volcanic rock
which was derived from magma and spread over different areas in Jordan but the most
important locations are in the study area, which belong to Harrat Al- Sham and cover
more than 11,235 km², and this basalt belongs to Neogene-Quaternary age (Bender,
1975; Al-Zubi ,2000; Al-Naga, 2010). The study area is tectonically active and
dominated with NW-SE, E-W, NESW and N-S faults; the NW-SE and the EW fault
systems, in addition to small folds associated with some NE faults and lineaments
(Bender, 1974); which considers as the main factors controlled the landscape of the
study area. Figure.1 The site of the study area, main faults that affects the study area.
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 343
Figure 1. Location of Jordan and the extent of the study area with main faults:
(Coordinate system is Jordan Transverse Mercator JTM).
(AD) is considers as others parts in Jordan depressions occurred by landing the
central plateau, influenced by the overall shape of the geomorphologic of study area ;
this region has been falling tectonic during creep plateau east of Jordan toward the
northeast at about 207km from the plateau of Jerusalem and Hebron in the west,
during this crawl break the surface of the plateau from the east especially Al-Azraq
basin area, which was caused by underground movements it led to a decline in this
part of the plateau east of Jordan and survival aspects. Faults also play akey role in the
landforms characteristics in the depression (Bender, 1975;Masalha, et al, 2014). AlAzraq is a closed tectonic depression and the base level of water accumulates in the
lowest area, can be divided in to five physical landscape units as:
1. Basalt plateau covered the northern part of the study area; Basalt is a volcanic
rock which was derived from magma and spread over different areas in Jordan.
The most important locations are in northeast Jordan, which belong to Harrat
Al- Sham Basaltic Super Group which covers more than 11,252 km² in Jordan.
2. Hills and domes limestone flint in the west folds convex and concave.
3. Southern section: it extends in the form of severe intermittency plateau and can
be considered a distinct provinces geomorphology and looks like the Bad Lands.
4. Eastern section: the edge of the basalt plateau stretches in the north-east and
wadi Al-sarhan in the north east which it is going with the Jordanian-Saudi
344
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
border, which characterized by deserts bottoms .it consists of surfaces that
coverd by gravel and mud.
5. Middle section; it includes alluvial plain and the bottom of Al-Azraq in addition
to muddy flat (mud flats). It conceders one of the most natural sections. The
details landforms generated following (Weiss, 2001 and Jenness, 2006) and
applying topographic position index (TPI). The TPI is the basis of the
classification system and measures the differences between a cell elevation
value and the average elevation of the neighborhood around that cell, and used
in many studies (De Reu, et al, 2013; Seif, 2014). By using TPI, the study area
was classified into slope position index. In our case TPI values between +36_17.5 (Circle type with Radius 1km), and the results showed that there are sex
classes of landform that: valley, lower slope, flat slope, middle slope, upper
slope and ridge, with the dominated landforms are (valley and ridge, formed
72% from all six landforms classes. Figure 2. climatically of the study area:
most of the study area is classified as hyper arid land with rainfall rates in the
center part (Qa’a) exactly 52.74mm/y during the study period (1980-2016),
besides the eastern and southern areas. While small area can be considered as
semi arid and up to maximum of 191 mm/y; in the western and northern part,
and average amount rainfall for all stations 77.1 mm during the study period,
besides the rainfall characterized by flash floods flows to the central part of the
basin as formed the local ultimate base level. The average annual minimum and
maximum temperatures are 11.6 C and 26.6 C, with major differences from
north to south; in Jabal Druze at the north the temperature drops in winter to
below zero when influenced by cold polar and up the temperature in summer of
16-18 C, in the southern basin the temperatures in summer of 28-30 C to 8-10 in
winter.
Figure 2. Landforms generated according to slope position classification based on
TPI for 1km neighbourhood sizes. And landforms by percentage
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 345
3. OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study is to monitor droughts using three different methods: -
Geomorphologic analysis of the basin.
-
Generate (SPI) values from monthly precipitation data which indicates
meteorological drought.
-
Generate (IDW) values from monthly and annually precipitation data which
indicates meteorological drought.
-
Generate (NDVI) values from monthly precipitation data which indicates
agricultural drought.
4. DATA AND METHODOLOGY
4.1: For morphometric and topographic characteristics (DEM) downloaded of the
study area from the University of Maryland from this website
http://glcf.umd.edu/data/landsat. And then we rectified the data into the Jordan
Transvers Mercator (JTM) projection to ensure uniform cell size.
4.2 (SPI) Methodology was used, and the monthly rainfall records between 1980 –
2016 from 5 metrological stations was used as input data.
4.3 Spatial Analyst Tools.tbx (Interpolation) was applying depenging on GIS.10.3,
specifically inverse distance weighted (IDW); araster surface from points to genrate
spatial surface interpolation for annual rainfall (Sluliter ,2009;Ball,et al,1998;Mitas,
etal,chapter34).
Table 1. The information of the metrological stations.
Agency Name
Station Id
Station Name
x
y
Water Authority of Jordan
F 0009
Azraq
525422.63
480628.28
Water Authority of Jordan
F 0002
H5
563425.94
509746.53
Water Authority of Jordan
F 0011
El-Umari
490883.84
502053.63
Water Authority of Jordan
F 0001
Um El-Quttein
576667.38
464982.69
Water Authority of Jordan
F 0004
Deir El-Kahf
568813.50
486345.38
4.4. For (NDVI) monitoring, two images were acquired on May 1984 and 2016,
downloaded from the website of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
http://glovis.usgs.gov. Then Layer stacking was made using ENVI Classic 5.3 (64-
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
346
bit), Radiometric correction, image subsat using mask tools in GIS, then (NDVI)
calculated by using this equation: NDVI = [(NIR – Red) / (NIR + Red)] (AUG
Signals, 2012*), table2. Where, Near Infra Red (NIR) is the band 4 for 1984 TM and,
and Red is the band 3; While Near Infra Red (NIR) is band 5 and Red is band 4 for
2016. table 2.
Table 2. Information of satellite images used in this study.
Satellite Data
Landsat (7) TM
Cloud cover =
3.71%
Map Projection =
UTM"
DATUM =
"WGS84"
Acquisition
Date
1984May
Landsat 8
2016/May
OLI_TIRS
Cloud _Cover =
3.71%
Map _Projection =
"UTM"
DATUM =
"WGS84"
Spatial
Resolution
03*03m
WRS and Bands
Preprocessing
Path
from the source
WRS Path 3 and 4 Georeferenced to UTM
174
map projection, Zone
37 WGS 84ellepsoid
WRS Row
38
03*03m
WRS Path 4 and 5 Georeferenced to UTM
174
map projection, Zone
37 WGS 84 ellipsoid
WRS Row
38
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Morphometric Analysis
The morphometric analysis of the (AD) was carried out from ASTER-DEM with 30
m spatial resolution. The lengths of the streams, areas of the watershed were
measured by using ArcGIS-10.3 software, and stream ordering has been generated
using Strahler system (1953) and ArcHydro tool in ArcGIS-10.3 software. The linear
aspects were studied using the methods of (Horton 1945; Strahler 1953; Chorley
1984), the areal aspects and the relief aspects employing the techniques of (Horton
1945; Strahler 1956). The slope analysis was done using the (Wentworth, 1930)
method.
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 347
5.2 General Topographic of the basin
Al-Azraq depression surrounded by hilly relief see figure 4. Curvature and figure 3.
Elevation and slope maps. All watersheds drain towards a mudflat of Qaa' Al-Azraq
at an average elevation of about 511 m (a. m. s. l), and developed awide and shallow
valley beds with relatively low slopes.
5.3 Relief Characterizes
Contour map has been created by using surface analysis tool in ArcGIS-10.3
Computed basin relief. Relief is the elevation between the highest and lowest point,
(Schumm, 1956). The relief increases gradually from east to west. Although the study
area can be described as hilly landscape, and it can be divided according to elevation
to three main categories: the first one where the elevation less than 600m which
represents the Azraq Qaa. Which formed 31% from the study area, the second one
where the elevation ranged from 600-800 formed 60%. The third zone with elevation
between 800- >1000 formed 9%, figure 3.
Figure 3. Elevation and Slope of (AD)
5.4 Slope Analysis
Slope is one of the important terrain parameter which is explained by horizontal
spacing of the contours. In general, closely spaced contours represent steeper slopes
and sparse contours exhibit gentle slope, (Strahler, 1956; Schumm, 1956; Wentworth,
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
348
1930) Slopes in the study area have been shown in figure 3. 70% of the study area is
hilly flat area (0º-1.5º). While only 4% of the study area has aslope of more than
(>2º.5) figure 3.
5.5 Drainage Network
The study area has 7th stream order figure 4. According to the methods of Strahler
(Strahler, 1952).
Stream Number: The total number of streams was 7834.
Stream Length: The total stream lengths of the Azraq watershed 9623km which have
computed with the ArcGIS V.10.3 software, The Drainage density is 0.76km/km² and
drainage frequency is 0.62.
Figure 4. Curvature and stream order of the Study area ;( 1) W. Rajil (2) W.
Useikhim, (3) W. Arratm (4). W. Mideatss (5). W. Gadaf.
5.6 SPI results:
The SPI has been defined as a key indicator for monitoring drought (WMO; 2006),
According to the results presented in figures 5-6 and tables 3 - 4. Showed that, the
years 1998/1999,1999/2000, and 2005/2006 with high droughts. And the years
1987/1988,1988/1989,1989/1990,1990/1991, 1997 / 1998, and 2015/2016 have the
highest wet; only 1.6 classified as extremely wet, while the completely severe
droughts
about
7.7%
occurred
in
the
years
of
1984/1985,1991/1992,1992/1993,1999/2000. And finally most of the years faced with
a near normal with 64% from all the study period (1980-2016) see figure 7.
Percentage of each SPI droughts index.
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 349
Figure 5. SPI (12 mounth) classes for Azraq, Safawi, El-umari, and Um-El-quttein
Stations.
Figure 6. SPI (12 mounth) classes for Dier El-kahf station -12.
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
350
Table 3. (SPI) classification following (McKee et al 1995)
(SPI) Range
Drought intensity classes
2
extremely wet
1.5 to 1.99
very wet
1.0 to 1.49
moderately wet
0.99 to -0.99
near normal
-1.0 to -1.49
moderately dry
-1.5 to -1.99
severely dry
Table 4. Annual classification according to SPI classes (WOM).
Hydrological-Year
Azraq
Safawi
El-umari
Um El-qttein
Dir-El kahf
1980 - 1981
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
very wet
1981 - 1982
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
1982 - 1983
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
1983 - 1984
moderately dry
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
near normal
1984 - 1985
near normal
near normal
severely dry
very wet
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
1985 - 1986
1986 - 1987
moderately dry moderately wet
near normal
near normal
1987 - 1988
moderately wet moderately wet
near normal
very wet
moderately wet
1988 - 1989
extremely wet
extremely wet
near normal
near normal
near normal
1989 - 1990
moderately wet
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
near normal
1990 - 1991
moderately wet moderately wet
near normal
near normal
near normal
1991 - 1992
near normal
near normal
moderately dry moderately wet
severely dry
1992 - 1993
near normal
near normal
severely dry
near normal
moderately dry
1993 - 1994
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
near normal
moderately dry
1994 - 1995
moderately wet
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
1995 - 1996
severely dry
near normal
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
1996 - 1997
near normal
moderately wet
near normal
near normal
near normal
1997 - 1998
moderately wet
near normal
near normal
very wet
moderately wet
1998 - 1999
moderately dry moderately dry moderately dry
severely dry
severely dry
1999 - 2000
severely dry
severely dry
severely dry
moderately dry
near normal
2000 - 2001
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 351
2001 - 2002
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
2002 - 2003
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
2003 - 2004
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
2004 - 2005
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
severely dry
moderately dry
near normal
near normal
near normal
2005 - 2006
moderately dry moderately dry
2006 - 2007
near normal
near normal
near normal
2007 - 2008
near normal
near normal
near normal
2008 - 2009
severely dry
severely dry
moderately dry
near normal
severely dry
2009 - 2010
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
2010 - 2011
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
2011 - 2012
near normal
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
2012 - 2013
moderately dry
severely dry
near normal
near normal
moderately wet
2013 - 2014
near normal
near normal
near normal
moderately dry
near normal
2014 - 2015
near normal
near normal
moderately wet moderately wet
near normal
2015 - 2016
moderately wet
very wet
extremely wet
moderately dry moderately dry
near normal
moderately wet
Figure 7. Drought classes by percentage from all station during 1980-2016.
5.7 (IDW) Figure 8 and table 5 showed the spatial distribuation of the hydrological
annually, monthly, maximum and minimum rainfall for the periods during 1980 –
2016, It can be summarized as follows:
1. In general the study area is characterized by drought; as the results showed that
only 3.3% from the study area have a yearly average from 161-190 mm for the
352
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
years 1988/1989 and 2015/2016. The highest rainfalls received were recorded at
Um-El-Quttein and Deir El-Kahf stations, which are located at elevation of
1175m mountain area in the northern part of the study area.
2. 93.5 form the study area has monthly an average of 50mm during the period
1980-2016.
3. 90% from the study area has daily average 5mm during the period 1980-2016.
4. 99.1% from the study area has annulay average 26 mm during the period 19802016.
Figure 8. IDW; (1) Total daily rainfall for all stations, (2) Total annually rainfall for
all stations (3) maximum total rainfall and (4) minimum total rainfall.
Table 5. IDW results.
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 353
Class N.As in
figure 8.
Total annual
rainfall
(1980-2016)
mm (%)
Total daily
rainfall
(1980-2016)
mm (%)
Total minimum
rainfall
Total maximum
rainfall
1
2.7
2
10.6
9.2
2
21.6
5
44.8
49
3
55.9
36
29.8
32.5
4
13.3
47
13.9
6
5
6.5
10
0.9
3.3
Total
100
100
100
100
The total rainfall has decreased during the second half of the study period (19982016) of three stations increased, while the rest of the stations has increased, figure 9.
Figure 9. Total rainfall/mm and Trend changes.
Yusra Alhusban and Maysson Zghoul
354
5.8 NDVI results:
NDVI images were individually generated for two dates using raster calculator, and
the results as shown in figure 10 and table 6. showed that values vary between
0.448_-0.260 for the year of 1984 and these values between 0.590_-0.331for the year
of 2016.The vegetated area decreased by -9% between 1984-2016.It must be noted
here that vegetated area represent irrigated farms depending upon groundwater; which
confirmed by that there is no relationship between the spatial distribution of rainfall
and the vegetation area.
Figure 10. NDVI results: (1) 1984 and (2) 2016 and (3) NDVI change.
Table 5. NDVI results
Class
NDVI_1984 (%)
NDVI_2016 (%)
NDVI change (2016-1984) (%)
Bare Land
89
98
+9
Vegetation
11
2
-9
Highest NDVI value
0.448
0.590
0.335
Lowest NDVI value
- 0.260
-0.331
-0.600
6. CONCLUSION
It was clear from the different analysis that the study area is suffering from all
patterns of drought; which is caused by topographic characteristics. (SPI) results
presented in figures 5-6 and tables 3 - 4. Showed that only 1.6 classified as extremely
wet, while the completely severe droughts about 7.7% occurred in the years of
1984/1985, 1991/1992, 1992/1993, 1999/2000. And finally most of the years faced
Analysis of Drought Patterns in Azraq Depression (AD), During the Period (1984-2016) 355
with a near normal with 64% from all the study period (1980-2016). (IDW) main
resluts shown in figure 8 and table 5: the study area is characterized by drought; as the
results showed that only 3.3% from the study area have a yearly average from 161190 mm for the years 1988/1989 and 2015/2016. Finally, (NDVI) results as shown in
table 5. And figure 10 the area and density of vegetated cover have decreased by -9%
during the period of (1984-2016).
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