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About the Set
Essential Primary Source titles are part of a ten-volume
set of books in the Social Issues Primary Sources
Collection designed to provide primary source documents on leading social issues of the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries. International in scope,
each volume is devoted to one topic and contains
approximately 150 to 175 documents that will include
and discuss speeches, legislation, magazine and newspaper articles, memoirs, letters, interviews, novels,
essays, songs, and works of art essential to understanding the complexity of the topic.
Each entry will include standard subheads: key facts
about the author; an introduction placing the piece in
context; the full or excerpted document; a discussion of
the significance of the document and related event; and
a listing of further resources (books, periodicals, Web
sites, and audio and visual media).
Each volume will contain a topic-specific introduction, topic-specific chronology of major events, an
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index especially prepared to coordinate with the
volume topic, and approximately 150 images.
Volumes are intended to be sold individually or as
a set.
THE ESSENTIAL PRIMARY SOURCE SERIES
Terrorism: Essential Primary Sources
Medicine, Health, and Bioethics: Essential Primary
Sources
Environmental Issues: Essential Primary Sources
Crime and Punishment: Essential Primary Sources
Gender Issues and Sexuality: Essential Primary
Sources
Human and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources
Government, Politics, and Protest: Essential Primary
Sources
Social Policy: Essential Primary Sources
Immigration and Multiculturalism: Essential
Primary Sources
Family in Society: Essential Primary Sources
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Introduction
Human and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources provides
insight into over two centuries of struggle for human
and civil rights and the issues that struggle engenders.
Human rights are universal guarantees of security of
person and freedom of conscience for all individuals
regardless of nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, or gender. The preamble of the United Nations Universal
Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 states: ‘‘ . . . recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family
is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world . . . disregard and contempt for human rights have
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which
human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief
and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as
the highest aspiration of the common people . . .’’
The resources in Human and Civil Rights: Essential
Primary Sources provide evidence to support the assertions of the U.N. Declaration and in doing so represent rights as natural rights (e.g. those of life, liberty,
pursuit of property) and as expressions of the highest
democratic ideals of equality, justice, and political and
religious liberty. The resources also provide insight
into emerging concepts of rights as related to security
and privacy in times of both war and peace.
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Universal rights should, by definition, embrace
all of humanity and transcend borders and political
systems. Alas, they are often subverted or repressed
by culture or governments. Accordingly, the primary sources contained in Human and Civil Rights:
Essential Primary Sources provide a global perspective regarding both success and failure in human
and civil rights movements. Although it is beyond
the scope of this collection to cover all rights
issues, and all facets of those issues, Human and
Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources provides a
wide-ranging and readable collection of sources
designed to stimulate interest and critical thinking,
and to highlight the complexity of rights related
issues.
The editors sincerely hope that this book helps to
foster respect for both the human and civil rights that
advance civilization and that ennoble humankind.
Moreover, the editors intend that readers gain from
the sources and commentary offered an appreciation
that the struggle for human and civil rights is an unfinished work in progress.
K. Lee Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, &
Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner, editors
Paris, France and London, U.K.
June, 2006
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About the Entry
The primary source is the centerpiece and main focus
of each entry in Human and Civil Rights: Essential
Primary Sources. In keeping with the philosophy that
much of the benefit from using primary sources derives
from the reader’s own process of inquiry, the contextual material surrounding each entry provides access
and ease of use, as well as giving the reader a springboard for delving into the primary source. Rubrics
identify each section and enable the reader to navigate
entries with ease.
ENTRY STRUCTURE
Primary Source/Entry
Title, Subtitle, Primary
Source Type
Key Facts—essential information about the primary
source, including creator, date, source citation,
and notes about the creator.
Introduction—historical background and contributing factors for the primary source.
Primary Source—in text, text facsimile, or image
format; full or excerpted.
Significance—importance and impact of the primary source related events.
Further Resources—books, periodicals, websites,
and audio and visual material.
NAVIGATING AN ENTRY
Entry elements are numbered and reproduced here,
with an explanation of the data contained in these elements explained immediately thereafter according to the
corresponding numeral.
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Primary Source/Entry Title, Subtitle, Primary Source Type
[1]
Secretary of State’s Morning
Summary for June 5 and 6,
1989
[2]
For June 5 and 6, 1989
[3]
Government record
[1]
Primary Source/Entry Title: The entry title is usually
the primary source title. In some cases where long
titles must be shortened, or more generalized topic
titles are needed for clarity primary source titles are
generally depicted as subtitles. Entry titles appear as
catchwords at the top outer margin of each page.
[2]
Subtitle: Some entries contain subtitles.
[3]
Primary Source Type: The type of primary source
is listed just below the title. When assigning source
types, great weight was given to how the author of the
primary source categorized the source.
Key Facts
[4]
Author: James A. Baker, III
[5]
Date: June 5–6, 1989
[6]
Source: Baker, James. ‘‘Secretary of State’s
Morning Summary for June, 1989’’ and ‘‘Secretary of
State’s Morning Summary for June 6, 1989.’’
Department of State. Washington, D.C., 1989.
[7]
About the Author: Texan-born James A. Baker III
served as Secretary of State from January 1989 to
August 1992 under President George H.W. Bush.
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ABOUT THE ENTRY
Baker now serves as Chair of the James A. Baker III
Institute of Public Policy at Rice University in Houston,
Texas.
[4]
Author, Artist, or Organization: The name of the author,
artist, or organization responsible for the creation of the
primary source begins the Key Facts section.
[5]
Date of Origin: The date of origin of the primary
source appears in this field, and may differ from the date
of publication in the source citation below it; for example,
speeches are often delivered before they are published.
[6]
Source Citation: The source citation is a full bibliographic citation, giving original publication data as
well as reprint and/or online availability.
[7]
About the Author: A brief bio of the author or originator of the primary source gives birth and death dates
and a quick overview of the person’s work. This rubric
has been customized in some cases. If the primary
source is a written document, the term ‘‘author’’
appears; however, if the primary source is a work of
art, the term ‘‘artist’’ is used, showing the person’s
direct relationship to the primary source. For primary
sources created by a group, ‘‘organization’’ may have
been used instead of ‘‘author.’’ Other terms may also be
used to describe the creator or originator of the primary source. If an author is anonymous or unknown, a
brief ‘‘About the Publication’’ sketch may appear.
Introduction Essay
[8]
INTRODUCTION
In June 1989, the world watched as the China’s
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) forcibly removed thousands of demonstrators from Tiananmen Square in
Beijing. The circumstances which led to the unprecedented suppression of the protests in June of 1989 actually began in 1985 and 1986. During this time, students
and workers began to demonstrate in support of broad
democratic reforms in China. These protests originated
on university campuses as students opposed the presence
of the PLA in the schools. In addition, protesters
demonstrated against nuclear testing that occurred in
the Xinjiang province. The movement became a prodemocracy demonstration and adopted slogans of ‘‘Law,
not authoritarianism’’ and ‘‘Long live democracy.’’ As
these demonstrations escalated to nationwide protests,
members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) supported a harsh government response. However, party
chairman Hu Yaobang was sympathetic to the reformers
and refused to respond with military force. As a result, in
1987, he lost his position as party chairman.
On April 15, 1989, Hu Yaobang died. People began
to gather in Tiananmen Square in his remembrance and
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in support for his political stand. On April 26, however,
an editorial appeared in the People’s Daily newspaper
discrediting the gathering of Hu Yaobang’s supporters. As a result, the mood shifted from an expression of
grief to a political stand for democratic reforms.
According to Chinese government figures, the demonstrations that began in Tiananmen Square began to
spread to twenty-nine provinces and eighty-four cities.
On May 13, students began a hunger strike and by May
17, approximately one million demonstrators had converged on Tiananmen Square. Many of these protesters were students. However, unlike demonstrations in
the past, this gathering became a cross-class protest
that included students, urban workers, party and government employees, and others. In all, over seven
hundred organizations participated.
On May 20, the party leadership, under the control
of Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997), declared martial law.
Initial attempts on the part of the PLA to dispel the
demonstrators failed. By May 30, the protesters erected
a ten-meter-high (about 33.5-feet-tall) plaster statue
called the ‘‘Goddess of Democracy.’’ The statue,
inspired partly by the Statue of Liberty, was raised to
face the portrait of China’s historical Communist Party
leader Mao Zedong (1893—1976) hanging in
Tiananmen Square. As a result, the Chinese government began to implement a policy of forceful removal
and disbursement of the protesters. This policy began
on June 1, 1989, by removing the access of foreign
journalists to the events. The next day, convoys of
tanks and soldiers began to move into central Beijing.
By June 3, the military began to use tear gas and rubber
bullets to force the demonstrators’ eviction of the
square. The PLA’s tanks entered Tiananmen Square
by midnight on June 3, at which time many demonstrators agreed to leave the square. However, the army
began to open fire on the protesters in the early morning of June 4.
In a cable written to the U.S. State Department
from the American Embassy in Beijing, approximately
10,000 troops surrounded the 3,000 remaining protesters resulting in violent clashes along Changan
Boulevard, the main thoroughfare in Tiananmen
Square. The military used automatic weapons, tanks,
and armored personnel carriers to suppress the
demonstration, which until this point had been peaceful. According to reports, the military opened fire on
unarmed civilians, to include members of the press.
The U.S. Embassy reported that journalists for CBS
had been beaten by the PLA and their equipment,
especially cameras, had been smashed.
As is customary with all pressing situations overseas, the U.S. Secretary of State, then James A. Baker
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ABOUT THE ENTRY
III, kept the president, then George H. W. Bush,
aware of developments through frequent updates.
The following reports, initially labeled ‘‘top secret’’
were excised of still-sensitive material and made available to the American public in 1993.
[8]
Introduction: The introduction is a brief essay on
the contributing factors and historical context of the
primary source. Intended to promote understanding
and equip the reader with essential facts to understand
the context of the primary source.
To maintain ease of reference to the primary
source, spellings of names and places are used in
accord with their use in the primary source.
According names and places may have different spellings in different articles. Whenever possible, alternative spellings are provided to provide clarity.
To the greatest extent possible, we have
attempted to use Arabic names instead of their
Latinized versions. Where required for clarity, we
have included Latinized names in parentheses after
the Arabic version. We could not retain some diacritical marks (e.g. bars over vowels, dots under consonants). Because there is no generally accepted rule or
consensus regarding the format of translated Arabic
names, we have adopted the straightforward, and we
hope sensitive, policy of using names as they are used
or cited in their region of origin.
[9]
n
PRIMARY SOURCE
1. China
A. After the bloodbath
Yesterday and this morning troops continued to fire
indiscriminately at citizens in the area near Tianamen
[sic] Square. Citizens tried to block streets and burned
armored vehicles and army trucks. Hundreds of military vehicles including at least 34 tanks and numerous
armored personnel carriers have been destroyed over
the last two days, according to [unidentified source]
and press reports.
Secured a university campus where students had captured an armored personnel carrier, and issued a warning that executions of students will begin tonight,
according to [unidentified source] units are poised outside several other colleges, and the military said troops
will move against the campuses if resistance does not
cease. Some students have seized weapons and are
vowing to resist. Non-violent protests have occurred
in half a dozen other cities. . . .
Press have reported hat more than 1,000 soldiers and
police were killed or wounded and that some civilians
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were killed. Foreign estimates range from hundreds
to as many as 2,600 civilians killed and thousands
injured. But the severity of the assault on Tianamen
Square is clear. Troops shot indiscriminately into
crowds of unarmed civilians, including women and
children, often with automatic weapons. In one case,
students attempting to parlay with troops were
gunned down. Foreign journalists report seeing fleeting protesters shot in the back. Enraged protesters
burned personnel carriers and killed some security
personnel.
Secretary of State’s Morning Summary for June 6, 1989,
China: Descent into Chaos
In the western edge of the city, according to press
reports, elements of the 28th army clashed with the
27th army, which is being blamed for the worst atrocities against civilians during Saturday night’s attack
on Tiananmen Square. Told [unidentified source] that
Chinese troops are out of control.
That at least some of the troops still entering Beijing
are arriving without authorization and are intent upon
attacking the 27the army. An unconfirmed Hong
Kong television broadcast today reported fighting at
Nanyuan military airport, where several thousand
fresh troops may have arrived today from the
Nanjing military region.
The Nanijng commander is believed to be personally
loyal to Deng. A security guard in the great hall of the
people shot Premier Li Peng in the thigh yesterday,
according to press reports. The would-be assassin was
immediately killed by security forces. The report, from
a reliable Hong Kong newspaper, will gain wide
dissemination.
Sporadic gunfire continued in the center of Beijing
yesterday, with some civilian casualties, according to press reports. Troops, supported by tanks,
have taken up defensive positions near the US
embassy.
Strikes and protests are spreading to other cities; martial law has been declared in Chengdu where violent
clashes between troops and demonstrators have left at
least 300 dead. According to the consulate general, on
Monday night an angry mob tried to break into the
hotel where the consulate is housed, although looting,
rather than attacks on foreigners, was believed to be
the purpose.
Unconfirmed accounts suggest that troops are poised
outside Shanghai to intervene if ordered, and the city is
paralyzed by strikes and roadblocks erected by protesters. Demonstrations have also occurred in
Guanghzhou and other cities.
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ABOUT THE ENTRY
Leaders and army commanders who have ordered or
conducted atrocities now feel they are fighting for
their lives. They have ringed the Zhongnanhai leadership compound with armored vehicles and troops.
Convoys of limousines like mini-buses, escorted by
tanks, left Zhongnanhai Sunday night for a wartime
command center in the suburbs, according to unconfirmed press reports.
nnn
[9]
Primary Source: The majority of primary sources
are reproduced as plain text. The primary source may
appear excerpted or in full, and may appear as text, text
facsimile (photographic reproduction of the original
text), image, or graphic display (such as a table, chart,
or graph).
The font and leading of the primary sources are
distinct from that of the context—to provide a visual
clue to the change, as well as to facilitate ease of reading. As needed, the original formatting of the text is
preserved in order to more accurately represent the
original (screenplays, for example). In order to respect
the integrity of the primary sources, content some
readers may consider sensitive (for example, the use
of slang, ethnic or racial slurs, etc.) is retained when
deemed to be integral to understanding the source and
the context of its creation.
Primary source images (whether photographs,
text facsimiles, or graphic displays) are bordered with
a distinctive double rule. Most images have brief
captions.
The term ‘‘narrative break’’ appears where there is
a significant amount of elided (omitted) material with
the text provided (for example, excerpts from a work’s
first and fifth chapters, selections from a journal article
abstract and summary, or dialogue from two acts of a
play).
were exiled. Policy changes also occurred. The CCP
intensified the political education of students through
programs such as an eight-week university program
that teaches party principles. Many schools adopted a
state written curriculum that focuses on China’s
achievements and the perceived excesses of the West.
[ 10 ] Significance: The significance discusses the importance and impact of the primary source and the event it
describes.
Further Resources
[ 11 ] Further Resources: A brief list of resources categorized as Books, Periodicals, Web sites, and Audio and
Visual Media provides a stepping stone to further
study.
Books
Casserly, Jack. The Triumph at Tiananmen Square.
Lincoln, Neb.: ASJA Press, 2005.
Periodicals
Mason, T. David., Clements, Jonathan. ‘‘Tiananmen
Square 13 Years After: The Prospects for Civil Unrest
in China.’’ Asian Affairs: An American Review. 29 (2002):
159.
Web sites
Guardian Unlimited. ‘‘Tiananmen: Ten Years On.’’ 1999.
<http:// www.guardian.co.uk/Tiananmen/0,2759,193066,
00.html> (accessed April 30, 2006).
National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No.16.
‘‘Tiananmen Square, 1989.’’ <http://www.gwu.edu/
nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB16/> (accessed April
30, 2006).
SECONDARY SOURCE CITATION FORMATS (HOW TO
CITE ARTICLES AND SOURCES)
Significance Essay
Alternative forms of citations exist and examples of
how to cite articles from this book are provided below:
The U.S. Embassy in Beijing reported that relative
calm had been restored to the region by June 8, 1989.
Human rights organizations assert that approximately
1,000–2,600 people were killed during the protests in
Tiananmen Square.
APA Style
Books: Cridge, Ann Denton. (1870). Man’s Rights, or,
By 1991, the Chinese government had confirmed
2,578 arrests of those involved in participating and
organizing the protests. Unlike the gentle handling of
the 1985–1986 pro-democracy protests, the CCP leadership enacted sweeping responses to prevent future
demonstrations from occurring. In addition to jailing
protesters, many of the demonstration’s leadership
Periodicals: Constable, Pamela. (2003, September 8).
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SIGNIFICANCE
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How Would You Like It? Comprising Dreams.
Wellesley, Mass.: E.M.F. Denton. Excerpted in
K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds.
(2006) Human and Civil Rights: Essential Primary
Sources, Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale.
Attacks Beset Afghan Girls’ Schools. Washington
Post. Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda
Wilmoth Lerner, eds. (2006) Human and Civil
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ABOUT THE ENTRY
Rights: Essential Primary Sources, Farmington Hills,
Mich.: Thomson Gale.
Web sites: Yale Law School; The Avalon Project. ‘‘League
of Nations. Convention to Suppress the Slave
Trade and Slavery. September 25, 1926.’’ Retrieved
May 29, 2006 from http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/
avalon/league/lea001.htm. Excerpted in K. Lee
Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. (2006)
Human and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources,
Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale.
Girls’ Schools.’’ Washington Post, 8 September,
2003. Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda
Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human and Civil Rights:
Essential Primary Sources, Farmington Hills, Mich.:
Thomson Gale, 2006.
Web sites: ‘‘League of Nations. Convention to Suppress
Chicago Style
Books: Cridge, Ann Denton. Man’s Rights, or, How Would
You Like It? Comprising Dreams. Wellesley, Mass.:
E.M.F. Denton, 1870. Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner
and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human and Civil
Rights: Essential Primary Sources, Farmington Hills,
Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006.
Periodicals: Constable, Pamela. ‘‘Attacks Beset Afghan
Periodicals: Constable, Pamela. ‘‘Attacks Beset Afghan
the Slave Trade and Slavery. September 25, 1926.’’
Yale Law School; The Avalon Project. 29 May 2006.
<http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/league/lea001.
htm>. Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda
Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human and Civil Rights:
Essential Primary Sources, Farmington Hills, Mich.:
Thomson Gale, 2006.
Turabian Style
Books: Cridge, Ann Denton. Man’s Rights, or, How
Girls’ Schools.’’ Washington Post (September 8,
2003). Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda
Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human and Civil Rights:
Essential Primary Sources, Farmington Hills, Mich.:
Thomson Gale, 2006.
Would You Like It? Comprising Dreams (Wellesley,
Mass.: E.M.F. Denton, 1870). Excerpted in K. Lee
Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human
and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources
(Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006).
Web sites: Yale Law School; The Avalon Project. ‘‘League of
Periodicals: Constable, Pamela. ‘‘Attacks Beset Afghan
Nations. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade
and Slavery. September 25, 1926.’’ <http://
www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/league/lea001.htm>
(accessed May 29, 2006). Excerpted in K. Lee
Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human
and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources, Farmington
Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006.
Web sites: Yale Law School; The Avalon Project. ‘‘League
MLA Style
Books: Cridge, Ann Denton. Man’s Rights, or, How
Would You Like It? Comprising Dreams, Wellesley,
Mass.: E.M.F. Denton, 1870. Excerpted in K. Lee
Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds., Human
and Civil Rights: Essential Primary Sources, Farmington
Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006.
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Girls’ Schools.’’ Washington Post 8 September, 2003.
Excerpted in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth
Lerner, eds., Human and Civil Rights: Essential
Primary Sources (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson
Gale, 2006).
of Nations. Convention to Suppress the Slave
Trade and Slavery. September 25, 1926’’ available
from http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/league/
lea001.htm; accessed 29 May, 2006. Excerpted
in K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner,
eds., Human and Civil Rights: Essential Primary
Sources (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale,
2006).
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Using Primary Sources
The definition of what constitutes a primary source is
often the subject of scholarly debate and interpretation. Although primary sources come from a wide
spectrum of resources, they are united by the fact that
they individually provide insight into the historical
milieu (context and environment) during which they
were produced. Primary sources include materials
such as newspaper articles, press dispatches, autobiographies, essays, letters, diaries, speeches, song lyrics,
posters, works of art—and in the twenty-first century,
web logs—that offer direct, first-hand insight or witness to events of their day.
Categories of primary sources include:
Documents containing firsthand accounts of historic events by witnesses and participants. This
category includes diary or journal entries, letters,
email, newspaper articles, interviews, memoirs,
and testimony in legal proceedings.
Documents or works representing the official
views of both government leaders and leaders of
terrorist organizations. These include primary
sources such as policy statements, speeches, interviews, press releases, government reports, and
legislation.
Works of art, including (but certainly not limited
to) photographs, poems, and songs, including
advertisements and reviews of those works that
help establish an understanding of the cultural
milieu (the cultural environment with regard to
attitudes and perceptions of events).
Secondary sources. In some cases, secondary
sources or tertiary sources may be treated as primary sources. In some cases articles and sources
are created many years after an event. Ordinarily, a
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historical retrospective published after the initial
event is not be considered a primary source. If,
however, a resource contains statement or recollections of participants or witnesses to the original
event, the source may be considered primary with
regard to those statements and recollections.
ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY SOURCES
The material collected in this volume is not
intended to provide a comprehensive overview of a
topic or event. Rather, the primary sources are
intended to generate interest and lay a foundation for
further inquiry and study.
In order to properly analyze a primary source,
readers should remain skeptical and develop probing
questions about the source. As in reading a chemistry
or algebra textbook, historical documents require
readers to analyze them carefully and extract specific
information. However, readers must also read ‘‘beyond
the text’’ to garner larger clues about the social impact
of the primary source.
In addition to providing information about their
topics, primary sources may also supply a wealth of
insight into their creator’s viewpoint. For example,
when reading a news article about an outbreak of disease, consider whether the reporter’s words also indicate something about his or her origin, bias (an
irrational disposition in favor of someone or something), prejudices (an irrational disposition against
someone or something), or intended audience.
Students should remember that primary sources
often contain information later proven to be false, or
contain viewpoints and terms unacceptable to future
generations. It is important to view the primary source
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within the historical and social context existing at its
creation. If for example, a newspaper article is written
within hours or days of an event, later developments
may reveal some assertions in the original article as
false or misleading.
TEST NEW CONCLUSIONS AND IDEAS
Whatever opinion or working hypothesis the
reader forms, it is critical that they then test that
hypothesis against other facts and sources related to
the incident. For example, it might be wrong to
conclude that factual mistakes are deliberate unless
evidence can be produced of a pattern and practice
of such mistakes with an intent to promote a false
idea.
The difference between sound reasoning and preposterous conspiracy theories (or the birth of urban
legends) lies in the willingness to test new ideas against
other sources, rather than rest on one piece of evidence
such as a single primary source that may contain errors.
Sound reasoning requires that arguments and assertions guard against argument fallacies that utilize the
following:
false dilemmas (only two choices are given when in
fact there are three or more options)
arguments from ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam; because something is not known to be
true, it is assumed to be false)
possibilist fallacies (a favorite among conspiracy
theorists who attempt to demonstrate that a factual statement is true or false by establishing the
possibility of its truth or falsity. An argument
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where ‘‘it could be’’ is usually followed by an
unearned ‘‘therefore, it is.’’)
slippery slope arguments or fallacies (a series of
increasingly dramatic consequences is drawn from
an initial fact or idea)
begging the question (the truth of the conclusion
is assumed by the premises)
straw man arguments (the arguer mischaracterizes
an argument or theory and then attacks the merits
of their own false representations)
appeals to pity or force (the argument attempts
to persuade people to agree by sympathy or force)
prejudicial language (values or moral judgements—good and bad—are attached to certain
arguments or facts)
personal attacks (ad hominem; an attack on a person’s character or circumstances)
anecdotal or testimonial evidence (stories that are
unsupported by impartial or data that is not
reproducible)
post hoc (after the fact) fallacies (because one thing
follows another, it is held to cause the other)
the fallacy of the appeal to authority (the argument
rests upon the credentials of a person, not the
evidence)
Despite the fact that some primary sources can
contain false information or lead readers to false conclusions based on the ‘‘facts’’ presented, they remain an
invaluable resource regarding past events. Primary
sources allow readers and researchers to come as
close as possible to understanding the perceptions
and context of events and thus, to more fully appreciate
how and why misconceptions occur.
P R I M A R Y
S O U R C E S