Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Theories and Models of Language Change
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Session 3: Evolutionary Approaches - Variation and
Selection
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Roland Mühlenbernd
May 5, 2015
Motivation: Universal Darwinism
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
I
Universal Darwinism stands for general evolutionary
mechanisms: variation, selection and self-replication
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
I
biological and cultural (also linguistic) evolution, both are
manifestations of these mechanisms
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Motivation: Universal Darwinism
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Dennett’s conditions for evolution:
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
1. variation: continuing abundance of different elements
2. replication: elements have capacity to create copies
3. selection (differential “fitness”): number of copies of
element depending on interaction between element
features and environmental features
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Variation and Change
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
I
Labov and Herzog (1968) distinguish between the
emergence of a new variant from their spread through the
speech community
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
I
Both processes essentially mirror variation and selection:
new variants come into use, and selectional pressures lead
to their replication
I
But how does variation come about? How does linguistic
innovation arise?
Homeworks
Innovation and Actuation
I
Linguistic research has primarily addressed the
spread/propagation of change rather than its innovation
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
I
I
Notable exception: Milroy & Milroy 1985; Milroy 1992
address the process of actuation in terms of
social-network analysis1
New variants may emerge for various reasons, but they
only turn into a change once they come to bear on the
linguistic system
I
Actuation is the minimal step an innovation needs to
become a change
I
Croft (2000) distinguishes between creation (innovation/
actuation) and diffusion (propagation) of a new form
I
Note: it’s only the successful innovation that we register
1
Note that innovation and actuation are two separate processes.
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Emergence of New Variants
Three ways new linguistic variants can arise (Lass 1997)
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
1. borrowing from other languages
2. genuine invention/creation out of nothing
3. transformation of already existing material
I
exaptation: re-use of old material for different purpose
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Example from Traugott 2004: Exaptation and Grammaticalization
I
I
2
analogical extension: generalization of form/construction
to a new context (e.g. regularization of irregular forms like
English Plural ‘-s’ generalizes from OE masculine Plural
‘-as’ of strong nouns; metaphorical change)
reanalysis2 : creation of a new form/construction or rule on
the syntagmatic level (e.g. English modals: from full to
auxiliary verbs with specific properties: (i) no inflection,
(ii) defective (no infinitive/passive), (iii) do-support)
Reanalysis differs from analogy: the latter is just an extension to a new
form/context, the former leads to the creation of a new form/construction
Recombination of Linguistic Elements
Croft (2000) distinguishes various ways of reanalysis (of
form/function relationships):
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
1. hyperanalysis: reduction of function (e.g. semantic
bleaching (‘have got (to)’)
2. hypoanalysis: enlargement of function/exaptation
(e.g. German Umlaut emerged from phonetic adaption in
Plural forms, and became a Plural marker)
3. metaanalysis: shift of function (e.g. German new prepositions as case/gender markers ’in dem/das → im/ins’)
4. cryptoanalysis: enlargement of form (e.g. pleonasm
(semantic enlargement): “most unkindest”; “poodle
dogs”; “klammheimlich”; double coding: “Maurers”
(German, coll. masons), “you can’t tip no fireman.” )
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Random or Functional Innovation?
1. Claim: variation arises randomly, and only the process of
selection brings ‘order’ into language change (McMahon
1994)
2. Claim: innovation in language is amenable to functional
motivation (Croft 2000)
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
This controversy...
I
is often a question of theoretical interpretation: e.g.
Blevin’s CCC-model of sound change states that sources
of innovation in sound change are phonetically motivated
I
and therefore functionally motivated according to Croft
(2000)
I
whereas Blevin considers them as random3
3
Randomness might be interpreted in different ways: e.g. form partially
constrained/motivated transition steps a random process?
Homeworks
Exercise I
What are the mechanisms for the emergence of new variants
according to Blevin’s CCC-model?4 Assign each mechanism to
its description?
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
I
Change: misinterpretation of the phonetic signal due to
perceptual similarity
Example: 2nb@"liv@b@l → 2mb@"liv@b@l
I
Chance: phonetic signal is accurately received, but
different association due to phonological ambiguity
Example: bit → bIt
I
Choice: receiver associates a phonological form with the
set of variants which differs from the phonological form in
the speaker’s grammar, therefore makes a different
selection due to various representation
Example: dA:ns → dæns
4
According to Blevin (2004): Evolutionary Phonology.
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Linguistic Selection: Choose a Variant
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
d
A:
æ
you can’t tip
I
ns
a
no
’ve got to
gotta
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
fireman.
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
go.
They offer the best cattle
beef in town.
taught
My daddy teached
me all I know.
dem
Strand.
Wir gehen zuzum
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Linguistic Selection
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Two pathways of linguistic selection:
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
1. One variant ousts the other: e.g. ‘village’ substitutes
‘thorp’
2. The variants persist over time and become specialized
(functionally and/or socially)
I
I
5
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
e.g. semantic function: ‘pork/pig’ refer to ‘meat/animal’
e.g. speaker groups:5 pal, buddy [Am.], dude [Am.], bro
[Am.], mate [Br.], cobber [Aus./NZ], cully [archaic]
classification according to dict.cc for finding a translation for German Kumpel.
Exercise II
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
What is "differential replication"?
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
I
I
I
Selection according to structural patterns of linguistic
variants
Selection according to social factors of linguistic variants
Selection according to the distribution of linguistic
√
variants
Differential replication: Selection does not lead to a specific
variant, but to a stable distribution (or eqilibrium) of variants.
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Exercise III
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
What are - according to Croft (2000) - main determinants of
linguistic choices?
I
context
I
I
social status
√
prestige
I
accommodation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
√
Note: Croft argues that the selection process
I
is only driven by social factors
I
has an outcome that must be functionally adaptive
Homeworks
Subsequent Functional Adaptation
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Note: prepositional dative marker is an optional marker,
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
I
used as a compensatory strategy for missing case
distinction (Bavaria)
I
determined by information structure (Northern
Switzerland)
I
used to avoid stress clashes, thus driven by phonological
factors (Central Switzerland)
Ergo: i) functional differentiation cannot be part of innovation,
but of a subsequent (selection/adaptation) process OR ii) the
same variant is produced simultaneously.
Homeworks
Exercise IV
Allocate the following descriptions to the ‘initiation’ and
‘realization’ processes of evolutionary ‘selection’/‘drift’.
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Evolitionary Selection
I
R
Evolutionary Drift
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
emergence of an innovation at one particular
point in time
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
propagation of a newly
invented variant
Exercise IV
Allocate the following descriptions to the ‘initiation’ and
‘realization’ processes of evolutionary ‘selection’/‘drift’.
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
I
R
Evolitionary Selection
Evolutionary Drift
emergence of an innovation at one particular
point in time
emergence of an innovation at
multiple times, indep., and due
to same functional pressure
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
propagation of a newly
invented variant
cumulative effect of many individual speaker actions
Exercise V
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
What is - according to the author - the main problematic nature
of distinguishing between ‘functional’ and ‘social’ factors
guiding selection processes in language change?
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
I
There are factors that are neither ‘functional’ nor ‘social’,
but rather of ‘psychological’ nature.
I
Language change is only driven by social factors, whereas
a ‘functional fit’ is only the result of social optimization
processes.
I
The label ‘functional’ or ‘social’ simply reflects a
terminological choice in most cases, and depends heavily
√
on the theoretical framework.
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
The Problem of Linkage
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Selection operates on language use, so how does it make its
way into grammar?
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
observed constraints on variation
?%?
⇓
?-?
corresponding pattern of functional preferences (selection)
Note: this problem is related to the question of (the locus of)
replication.
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks
Homeworks
Roland
Mühlenbernd
Introduction
Motivation
Linguistic Variation
Innovation
Recombination
Randomness
Linguistic Selection
I
I
Read the article ‘Language change as cultural evolution:
Evolutionary approaches to language change’(Rosenbach,
2008), Sections 4.3 - 6 (pages 48 - 63)
solve the appropriate exercises given on ILIAS
Social VS Functional Factors
Selection and Drift
The Problem of Linkage
Homeworks