Global Institute for Water, Environment, and Health
Tapping into Social Entrepreneurship to Alleviate Global
Water Scarcity
10.2013
Caleb Smith
GIWEH
10,RueChantepoulet
1201Genève
E-mail:[email protected]
www.giweh.ch
Tél:0227337511
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Table of Contents
Abstract
3
Preface
4
Acknowledgements
6
List of Abbreviations
8
Introduction
9
Section I: Social Entrepreneurship
10
Section II: Inclusive Businesses
13
Section III: Corporate Social Responsibility
16
Section IV: Funding/Social Investment
18
Section V: The Global Water Crisis
20
- The Millennium Development Goals
21
- International Involvement
23
Section VI: Case Studies
26
- Programme hydraulique Niger-Suisse
26
- Association of Private Water Operators in Uganda
27
- Grameen Veolia
28
- Manila Water Company
29
- Ecofiltro
30
Section VII: Future Steps
31
Conclusion
32
Works Cited
34
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Abstract
The field of social entrepreneurship is emerging as a viable way to alleviate many
global problems, especially access to safe water. Social entrepreneurs use conventional
business methods to generate a social or environmental impact. Instead of pursuing strategies
to maximize profits, social entrepreneurs search for practical, innovative, and sustainable
solutions to problems that marginalized populations are unable to solve independently. Social
entrepreneurship is a revolutionary concept that offers a sustainable alternative to
conventional development mechanisms such as philanthropy, private charity, and official aid.
This paper will explore how social entrepreneurship can facilitate multilateral cooperation
between investors, governments, civil society and local communities in order to achieve a
social or environmental objective. Social entrepreneurs specifically address global water
scarcity by developing technology for affordable safe water access, improving water
management systems, and/or finding ways to provide access to areas with extreme water
scarcity. This paper will explain how social entrepreneurs utilize inclusive business strategies,
CSR methods, and social investing in order to develop these technological innovations.
Additionally, this paper will examine five case studies that provide examples of how social
entrepreneurship has successfully alleviated water scarcity in various regions.
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Preface
I first became aware of social entrepreneurship while traveling through Guatemala in
2012. There I learned about Ecofiltro, a company that manufactures water filters using
sustainable practices and provides rural communities with access to clean water. I was
astounded by the idea that a business can use the profitability of a commercial market to
benefit a marginalized or poor population. I have always been passionate about helping those
less fortunate, however I have never considered philanthropy and charity as sustainable
practices. I was curious to see if social entrepreneurship could be a viable alternative for these
mechanisms.
While studying abroad in Geneva with the School for International Training, I decided
to use our final independent study project as an opportunity to learn more about the potential
capabilities of social entrepreneurship. After researching more I began to see all the practical
uses for social entrepreneurship, as it not only has the potential to benefit countless people but
also has the ability to generate sustainable economic and social development.
Initially my research was focused on the direct impact that social entrepreneurship can
have on the water scarcity in developing countries. However after learning more about the
dynamics between the public and private sector I realized that a multilateral approach is
needed to effectively address water scarcity. Due to time constraints I could not cover every
aspects of this issue, for example water scarcity effects agricultural and industrial users
however this paper focus solely on drinking water. The major themes of the paper are social
entrepreneurship, inclusive business strategies, corporate social responsibility, the
international aid system and investment, and the global water crisis.
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During my research I attempted to utilize a variety of sources from differing fields in
order to develop a better understanding of the major themes. Besides finding information in
peer-reviewed journals and official publications I interviewed individuals from academia,
NGOs, international organizations, and the private sector. Due to the complexity of the topic
and project limitations this paper is unable to provide a comprehensive analysis; continued
research is needed to fully understand the potential of social entrepreneurship and its
contribution to solving global water scarcity.
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Acknowledgements
Accomplishing this project has been one of the most challenging and rewarding
experiences of my life. However being able to even undertake such a task could not have been
possible without my friends and family.
First and foremost I’d like to thank my mom, Sandy, for literally everything. Without
your unconditional love and support I wouldn’t be who I am today. Also thank you Nate, my
mentor and best friend who has always been there to inspire, encourage, and support me no
matter what. I can’t imagine how I would’ve made it here without you.
I’d like to acknowledge all those at the School for International Training who made
this program possible. Thank you to our academic directors, Dr. Lambert and Dr. Csergai,
your jovial attitudes and expertise made this program fun and intellectually stimulating.
Thank you Aline Dunant, our academic coordinator, for your hard work and compassion. I
know that without you this program would fall apart. And to our homestay coordinator
Christina Cornes, thank you for making Switzerland such a welcoming place, your knack for
finding homestays is extraordinary.
Additionally I’d like to thank Hilary Parsons, Victorine Cassex, Daniel Fino, and
Samantha Caccamo who volunteered their time to help with my research. Also thank you Dr.
Salim Nidal for taking a special interest in my topic and helping me revise and edit my paper.
I look forward to working with you in the future.
Thank you to all my friends that I shared this amazing experience with, your
friendships are what made this program so special. Best of luck in your future endeavors and
hope to see you all again soon!
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A special thank you to my host mother Cherry, your warmth and hospitality was more
than I could ever imagine. I will genuinely cherish the time we spent together for the rest of
my life.
Last but certainly not least, thank you to my girlfriend Jenny. I’m so grateful for your
continued support throughout this program…despite the fact that I left for four months “to do
cool things.”
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List of Abbreviations
APWO: The Association of Private Water Operators in Uganda
BoP: Bottom of the pyramid
CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility
EU: European Union
GIWEH: Global Institute for Water and Environmental Health
GWS: Global Water Solidarity
MDG: Millennium Development Goals
MWC: Manila Water Company
NGO: Non-governmental organization
PHNS: Programme hydraulique Niger-Suisse
SDC: Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
UN: United Nations
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Introduction
The international development agenda needs to find new ways to accomplish its
objectives. After establishing the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in 2000, many
experts believed official aid, international organizations, and private charities were going to
be the primary benefactors for achieving this pro-development agenda.1 More than a decade
later this methodology has failed to make much progress towards most of the MDGs. The
purpose of this paper is to explain how social entrepreneurship can offer an effective way to
improve access to safe water while also consolidating public and private powers to stimulate
economic and social development.
Many social entrepreneurs strive to alleviate global water scarcity by developing
technologies for affordable drinking water, improving water management systems, and/or
finding ways to provide access to areas with extreme water scarcity. These objectives are
achieved by employing a variety of mechanisms such as inclusive business strategies,
corporate social responsibility (CSR), public awareness, and social investing. The UN Global
Compact has published reports about the role of private sector engagement in development
and how CSR can contribute to achieving the MDG.2 These publications also examine how
businesses and local communities can benefit from social and environmental investments.
What is not mentioned in these publications is how investing in social entrepreneurship can
augment these benefits.
A report published in 2012 by Credit Suisse and the Schwab Foundation for Social
Entrepreneurship discusses how investors and entrepreneurs can use their capital to generate a
positive social or environmental impact while still allowing the potential for a financial
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1
"Innovating for a Brighter Future: The Role of Business in Achieving the MDGs." N/A. United Nations Global
Compact, n.d. Web. 08 Nov. 2013. 5.
2
See bibliography for a complete list of UN Global Compact references
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return.3 This report examines the features of a successful social enterprise and the importance
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of private sector investments. However the crucial aspect of public sector involvement is not
acknowledged. The public sector has the power to raise awareness about the problems social
entrepreneurs are attempting to solve, providing entrepreneurs with a necessary tool for
acquiring support and funding. Additionally, the public sector acts as a key linkage between
social entrepreneurs and the local community. As mentioned earlier, local engagement and
community involvement is paramount for the success of both social entrepreneurs and the
possibility for economic and social development. The following analysis will first discuss the
dynamics of social entrepreneurship and the importance of other related mechanisms to
alleviate global water scarcity.
I. Social Entrepreneurship
Social entrepreneurs strive to find practical, innovative, and sustainable solutions to
problems that marginalized populations are unable to solve independently. 4 Instead of
pursuing strategies to maximize profits, social entrepreneurs give priority to social wealth
creation rather than financial or capital gains. The diversity of social entrepreneurship gives
owners and investors the freedom to execute their ideas in many ways, from strict non-profit
enterprises to more profit-oriented social businesses.
Non-profits enterprises are a way for social entrepreneurs to address a market or
government failure, e.g. access to safe water, by engaging private and public actors to create a
multiplier effect.5 These ventures depend on continuous philanthropic funding and vested
interests by the partners involved. Due to this reliance on subsides and philanthropic support,
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3
"Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." N/A. Credit Suisse
and the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship, 5 Jan. 2012. Web. 15 Sept. 2013.
4
“What is a social entrepreneur?” Schwab foundation for social entrepreneurship.
5
Ibid.
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non-profits are shielded from the pressures of capital and profit markets, allowing more
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resources to be utilized for the social objective.6 Non-profits can have a tremendous social
and environmental impact by using philanthropic and state funding in a more effective manor
than official aid. However the reliance on these funding sources make non-profits vulnerable
during economic downturns and prevents them from becoming self-sustaining.
Most social entrepreneurs drift towards hybrid non-profit ventures in order to solve the
problem of sustainability. Even though the primary source of funding is usually mobilized
from public and/or philanthropic sources, they still generate some degree of cost recovery
through the sale of goods and services.7 Ecofiltro is an example of a hybrid non-profit that
relied on public funding and grants to get off the ground but then eventually became selfsustaining.
A subset of social entrepreneurship is social business. A social business is a for-profit
entity focused on creating a positive impact for those who are often poor or marginalized in
society. The main goal of a social business is to alleviate a social or environmental problem
while at the same time trying to recover its investments by using commercial methods.8 Once
revenue is generated, profits will be reinvested in order to grow the business and reach more
people in need. Social businesses are designed to maximize their investments and create more
cost-effective ways of achieving objectives while not compromising the integrity of their
service or product.9
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6
J. Gregory Dees and Beth Battle Anderson. “For-Profit Social Ventures.” Duke University. Senate Hall
Academic Publishing (2003). Web. 10 Oct. 2013. 2-3.
7
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 21.
8
Yunus, Muhammad. “Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience.” Long Range
Planning. Vol. 43, April–June 2010. Web. 09 Nov. 2013. 310.
9
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 20.
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It is important to note that those who run social businesses are considered social
entrepreneurs but not all social entrepreneurs are involved in social businesses. Certain social
entrepreneurs still aim to generate profits that benefit their shareholders.10 A social business
requires those involved to have an unwavering selfless mindset, one that is so passionate
about helping others that they relinquish any thought of generating profit for themselves.11
This is the ideal mindset for solving many global problems, however due to the fact that most
people think in terms of financial profits, a compromise must be made to ensure some degree
of progress. There is a range of different ways social entrepreneurs can balance profits with
social and environmental impacts. This diversity makes social entrepreneurship much less
daunting for businesses that still want some financial return.
Figure!1:!Social!investment!continuum!
The continuum above is from a UN Global Compact publication on the foundations of
social investment.12 It outlines the range of different business models depending on the degree
of social responsibility. On one extreme is the classic Milton Friedman core business, where
social responsibility is only considered if it increases profits. 13 The other extreme is
philanthropy, where resources are strictly allocated for social benefit and little or no energy is
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10
Yunus, Muhammad. “Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience.” 311.
11
Samantha Caccamo, personal interview, November 6, 2013.
"Discussion Paper: Foundations of Social Investment." N/A. United Nations Global Compact and Principles
For Social Investment Secretariat, n.d. Web. 08 Nov. 2013. 3.
13
Ibid., 4.
12
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put into profitability or financial return.14 Social entrepreneurship encompasses the models in
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between these two extremes.
Although social entrepreneurship is designed to have a positive impact on society,
sometimes investors are not committed to the social mission and leverage financial gains over
social returns, otherwise known as mission drift.15 In order to avoid mission drift, the social
and financial mission of the business should be clearly defined before any action is taken on
the ground. Putting these mission-related provisions in the business statutes and investment
documentation will ensure that the both parties’ expectations will align with their desired
outcomes.16 Furthermore the types of co-investors that a social entrepreneur chooses are key
to the success of the business. Having partners that are like-minded and passionate about
creating a positive impact will help prevent mission drift.
II. Inclusive Businesses
Inclusive business strategies are an intrinsic part of social entrepreneurship, whereby
the strategies take into account the multidimensional framework associated with global
problems such as poverty and water scarcity.17
The basis of an inclusive business is to balance
short-term profits with long-term social and
environmental sustainability. The primary
function of an inclusive business is to include
Figure!2:!The!Economic!Pyramid!
the “base of the pyramid” (BoP), or the
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14
Ibid., 7-8.
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 38.
16
Ibid., 17.
17
Beth Jenkins, et. al. “Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a
Difference.” Washington, DC: IFC (2011). Web. 10 Nov. 2013. 6.
15
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enormous population that is conventionally ignored because the consumers live below a
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certain income or spending threshold.18 Targeting the BoP allows inclusive businesses to
achieve economies of scale by providing affordable products and services to this largely
untapped market.19 Figure 2 shows the comparison of the BoP population to emerging and
mature markets.20 One advantage of inclusive business strategies is the opportunity to access
funding that is generally unavailable to strictly commercial enterprises.21
However inclusive businesses don’t exclusively target the BoP, the idea is to take a
whole pyramid approach, whereby companies are then able to “leverage existing
infrastructure, achieve economies of scale, and cross-subsidize.” 22 This provides the BoP
with goods and services that would otherwise be inaccessible. The whole pyramid approach
essentially charges industrial users and higher-income households more in order to crosssubsidize the lower-income market and even expand access to their good or service.23 Once
the business becomes involved in the BoP, the increased business activity can have a
multiplier effect on local development by creating jobs, building human capital and physical
infrastructure, and generating taxes for governments.
In the water sector, companies like Manila Water and Ecofiltro have utilized what the
International Finance Corporation calls last-mile and off-grid utilities.24 These strategies aim
to create a multiplier effect on local development by extending water access to neighborhoods
that were previously considered inaccessible or unprofitable. However in order to maximize
the multiplier’s potential it is necessary to have proper management and a complete
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18
Ibid., 6.
“About Growing Inclusive Markets.” United Nations Development Programme. N.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.
20
“What is Inclusive Business at the BoP?” Inclusive Business Sweden. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.
21
Funding sources include government, multilateral and bilateral donors, and private foundations.
22
“Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference.” 4.
23
Ibid., 19.
24
Ibid., 18-20.
19
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understanding of local geopolitical factors.
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25
Cross-sector involvement, like active
cooperation with local institutions and governments, will provide the business with the means
to be successful. Inclusive business strategies can be used as a tool for creating an
environment where the private sector takes accountability for the social and environmental
affects of its business activity.
Although inclusive businesses aim to benefit a lower-income or marginalized
population, some have been criticized for having false motives and taking advantage of the
model. Inclusive strategies can be perceived as an opportunity for companies to profit from
marketing themselves as ”socially-aware” or “green” while not being held accountable for
actually delivering a social or environmental impact.26 In fact, some businesses target a
particular developing region but completely exclude marginalized groups in the area because
they aren’t considered profitable.27 This is a loophole in the inclusive business model that is
further compounded by the accountability of these businesses to their shareholders instead of
their beneficiaries.28 Involvement by governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
and other civil-society actors is important for the legitimacy of social enterprises, as they
reinforce accountability and represent the voice of the consumer population that is often
missing from inclusive businesses. It is important to note that inclusive business strategies
alone are unable to generate a social or environmental impact on the scale of social
entrepreneurship. These strategies are rather an essential aspect of social entrepreneurship,
providing mechanisms that effectively address the profitability problem in low-income
markets.
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25
Beth Jenkins, "Expanding economic opportunity: the role of large firms” pg 4.
Dellas, Eleni. “CSD water partnerships: Privatization, participation and legitimacy.” Ecological Economics.
Vol. 70 (2011). Print. 1916.
27
Ibid., 1917.
28
Ibid., 1917.
26
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III. Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) emerged from the recognition that business is
an integral part of society and businesses have a responsibility to use their resources to
support environmental and societal goals.29 The UN Global Compact, established by former
Secretary General Koffi Annan, is the original promoter of CSR. The Compact requires
companies to voluntarily integrate responsibilities such as protection of human rights, labor,
and the environment into their business model while also actively fighting against
corruption.30 Many large transnational companies have discovered that CSR can be a lucrative
way to access global markets and ensure long-term sustainability and success.31 32 In order to
ensure businesses follow the CSR framework it is paramount that the public sector is
proactively involved.
One transnational company that takes a long-term approach to CSR is Nestlé.33 Nestlé
has teamed up with various international actors, including the Swiss Agency for Development
and Cooperation (SDC), in order to ensure its water supply chain uses sustainable practices.34
Nestlé and the SDC have developed a program in Vietnam to reduce the consumption of
water while simultaneously increasing coffee yields. This program not only promotes
sustainable practices by reducing water consumption but also increases farmer incomes
through increased yields and reduced energy and labor usage.35 Official aid agencies like the
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29
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 5.
“Overview of the UN Global Compact.” United Nations Global Compact. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Nov. 2013.
31
There are over 10,000 corporate participants and stakeholders from all over the world that voluntarily adopt
the 10 universally accepted principles.
32
"The Role of Governments in Promoting Corporate Responsibility and Private Sector Engagement in
Development." Bertelsmann Stiftung. United Nations Global Compact, 2010. Web. 23 Oct. 2013. 8.
33
Hilary Parsons, personal interview, October 29, 2013.
34
“More Coffee with Less Water, Vietnam.” Nestlé. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.
35
Ibid.
30
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SDC and other government actors are encouraging CSR because of its ability to stimulate
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sustainable development, national competitiveness and increase foreign investment.36
The problem associated with CSR is that many companies have streamlined their
responsibility campaign only after being confronted for discrepancies in their operations and
supply chain. This can pollute the legitimacy of CSR because companies are adopting
responsible practices solely to correct their tainted image. Social responsibility should be
motivated by selflessness, not by the need to adopt certain practices in order to ensure the
stability of your own company. Of course CSR had to start somewhere, and correcting the
current problems is an essential step towards a more socially conscious world. For now the
concept of CSR should only be considered a foundation; real social change requires a bottomup approach and multilateral involvement, elements of social entrepreneurship.
IV. Funding/Social Investment
Social entrepreneurs often have trouble acquiring funding or investments from likeminded sources. Impact investing is a way for investors from all sectors to use their capital for
a social or environmental gain.37 Social investors, or those who partake in impact investing,
see the benefit of investing in social enterprises rather than philanthropic organizations
because of the potential to recover their initial investment.38 This gives social entrepreneurs a
tremendous comparative advantage over philanthropic and charity organizations because they
appeal to more types of investors. In the long run, investments in social enterprises are able to
go further because the initial investment has the potential either be reinvested or invested in
another social enterprise.
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36
"The Role of Governments in Promoting Corporate Responsibility and Private Sector Engagement in
Development." 8.
37
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 3.
38
Ibid., 5.
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Impact investing has emerged as a result of evolving CSR methods, where companies
are going beyond their basic social responsibilities and investing directly in social
businesses.39 The continuum mentioned earlier illustrates the diversity of impact investing.
The Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship and Credit Suisse are major promoters of
this concept. They encourage businesses and clients to balance capital investments with
philanthropy to create a positive social and environmental impact while still allowing the
potential for a financial return. Large transnational companies like Danone and Veolia have
invested directly in social businesses in order to improve health and safe water conditions in
developing communities around the world.40 Many times impact investors look to see how
their investments can support a specific project with a specific development objective.
Although putting all your eggs in one basket can generally have the biggest impact on a
singular project, however spreading that investment or leveraging capital can potentially have
just as big of an impact.
An alternative to social investing is to use capital as a leveraged financial guarantee
for smaller entrepreneurs in developing regions. A lot of the time developing communities
want to develop but don’t have the resources to obtain financing. Other times the local
currency is so unstable that it would be too risky to invest in a long-term project.41 Financial
guarantees allow entrepreneurs to receive international funding and develop on their own.
FIG is an example of an organization that facilitates financing for micro and small enterprise
development by acting as a safety net for entrepreneurs.42 In order for entrepreneurs to obtain
a loan in developing regions they need to show international financial institutions that they
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39
Brooks, Graham Pansing, "Investing with an Impact: Moving Business Beyond Profits" (2012). Independent
Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 1445. 11.
40
Yunus, Muhammad. “Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience.” 321.
41
Daniel Fino, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
42
Ibid.
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have the responsibility and capacity to pay it back. Due to unreliable local administrative
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services, that often only have partial or incomplete records, providing evidence of
responsibility or capacity can be a challenge. FIG makes this process easier by backing up to
50% of the loan and only asking for 10% of the guarantee amount as collateral.43 This model
can significantly contribute to bottom-up development in regions where official aid or other
international development mechanisms have failed.
The current international aid system is often considered to have a contrary effect
development. 44 Official aid provides assistance directly to governments in hopes of
stimulating economic development that will have a spillover effect on local development.
However official aid has not had much of an impact in developing countries because the aid is
used ineffectively. Corruption is partly to blame, however many developing countries lack the
institutional capacity to ensure that aid is used responsibly.45 What’s missing is the link
between economic and social development. Official aid, private charities and international
organizations alone do not have the current capacity to connect this link. The international aid
system needs to shift its methodology to include the involvement of the private sector as well
as encourage more active involvement from donor countries, NGOs, and local communities.
This multilateral relationship will facilitate the engagement needed to make aid more effective
and stimulate both economic and social development.
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43
“How FIG’s Loan Guarantees Work.” FIG: Finance for Human Development. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
Daniel Fino, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
45
Ibid.
44
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V. The Global Water Crisis
At the moment it is estimated that over a quarter of the world population lacks access
to clean drinking water. Demand for freshwater has increased by over 700% in the last 100
years mostly due to agricultural and industrial use, however with a steadily increasing global
population the demand for freshwater is only going to increase further.46 In order to combat
water scarcity it is important to determine what type of scarcity a region is experiencing.
Economic water scarcity occurs when a region has water but lacks the capacity or
infrastructure to purify or properly manage it.47 Physical water scarcity takes place when a
region is unable to meet the demand for water because of a physical water shortage.48 Figure
3 illustrates the regions around the world experiencing some degree of water scarcity.49
Despite the obvious difference between physical and economic scarcity, finding solutions for
each requires a holistic geopolitical understanding of the region 50 and the following
fundamental components: improved technology, infrastructure building, capacity building,
and multilateral engagement. Based on evidence provided earlier, social entrepreneurship is
able to address the majority of these components, however multilateral engagement and a
holistic understanding require the involvement of the public sector and civil society.
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46
Csurgai, Gyula. “Geopolitics: Schools of Thought, Method of Analysis, Case Studies.” Pregny: Ed. De
Penthes, 2009. Print. 20.
47
Dr. Salim Nidal, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
48
Ibid.
49
Water Scarcity.” United Nations. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2013.
50
Bates, B.C. “Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” 7.
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Figure!3:!Global!physical!and!economic!water!scarcity!
The Millennium Development Goals
At the Millennium Summit in 2000, 189 world leaders met at the UN General
Assembly to develop a agenda for addressing global depravations and establish a framework
for their solutions by the year 2015.51 The Millennium Development Goals were created as a
result of this Summit, identifying eight major challenges for global development.52 The only
MDG that explicitly mentions water is target 7-C, “Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the
population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.”53 However
the role of water in achieving the MDG’s is incredibly understated, solving the global water
crisis is a foundational component for the success of any MGD.54 A more realistic agenda
needs to be developed in order to make further progress towards these goals. Acknowledging
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
51
“Background.” Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015. The United Nations, n.d. Web. 19 Nov.
2013.
52
"Millennium Development Goals | UNDP." United Nations Development Programme. United Nations, n.d.
Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
53
"Innovating for a Brighter Future: The Role of Business in Achieving the MDGs." 6.
54
Water Scarcity.” United Nations.
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the importance of water, promoting private sector involvement, and decentralizing the role of
!
international actors are key components for this future agenda.
When the MDGs were established many experts considered official aid, international
organizations, and private charities to be the main driving forces behind this pro-development
agenda.55 After more than 10 years it was clear that these mechanisms failed to generate
progress due to a missing linkage between economic and social development. Fortunately the
international aid system started to realize that the private sector could actually enhance the
capabilities of these mechanisms. Private sector involvement has proven to be a revolutionary
international aid approach for aligning social and economic objectives.
International Involvement
International actors from numerous developed and developing countries recognized
the importance of the private sector in the development agenda by constructing the 2005 Paris
Declaration. 56 This declaration established a framework for improving aid through five
action-oriented principles outlining specific measures for donors and beneficiaries to follow.
These principles include ownership, alignment, harmonization, results, and mutual
accountability. 57 This mandate encourages governments to work alongside international
organizations and the private sector to find more effective ways to use aid for generating
development. Paris Declaration also established the Accra Agenda for Action and the Busan
Partnership, which provide mechanisms for gauging the progress of this mandate and the
framework to ensure accountability on the political level.
58
Integration of social
entrepreneurship, inclusive business strategies, and CSR into the international aid system is a
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
55
"Innovating for a Brighter Future: The Role of Business in Achieving the MDGs." 5.
“Paris Declaration and Accra Agenda of Action.” OECD. N.p. n.d. Web. 09 Nov. 2013.
57
Ibid.
58
“Paris Declaration and Accra Agenda of Action.”
56
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key part of this multilateral involvement, however there needs to be an intermediary actor that
!
provides expertise and facilitate exchanges between the private and public sector.
Third party actors like NGO’s and institutions are key components for any interaction
between the public and private sector. They facilitate technology transfers, dialogue between
all types of stakeholders, training and capacity building, and public awareness. The Global
Institute for Water and Environmental Health (GIWEH) is a prime example of an institution
in the water sector that facilitates linkages between various organizations, companies,
academia, and research institutes with similar objectives. Another institution is Global Water
Solidarity (GWS), an international platform that facilitates the development of solidarity
funding mechanisms for access to drinking water and sanitation.59 GWS works with local
actors in a participative process and acts as a linkage between the need in water management
and sanitation projects in developing countries and international experts. Both these platforms
provide technical expertise, logistical knowledge, and financial resources for social
entrepreneurs. Without institutions like the GIWEH and GWS both the entrepreneurs and
investors would be unable to effectively and sustainably achieve their objectives. Institutions
like these provide exceptional examples of how civil society can play a key role in developing
appropriate strategies for economic and social development.
In 2010 the UN General Assembly published resolution 64/292, part of which
acknowledges access to safe drinking water as a basic human right. The resolution also calls
for governments and international organizations to provide financial resources, build capacity,
and transfer technology to developing countries in order to fulfill this right.60 This resolution
not only recognizes the importance of access to safe drinking water but also encourages
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
59
60
Victorine Castex, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
“Water for Life Decade: Human right to water.” United Nations. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2013.
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governments and international organizations to invest in mechanisms, such as social
!
entrepreneurship, that are working towards alleviating water scarcity.
In 2011 the European Union (EU) responded to this resolution by launching the Social
Entrepreneurship Initiative as a part of its Europe 2020 strategy to fight poverty and social
exclusion. The program focuses on promoting the creation and development of social
enterprises through new laws and regulatory frameworks designed to simplify the European
microcredit process. The EU has made social enterprises an investment priority of the
European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund by designating 90 million
euros specifically for social enterprise investment.61 Although this initiative is exclusively
provided to members of the EU, developing countries experiencing water scarcity will likely
benefit the as a result of technology transfers from the EU.
Recently the American Chemical Society launched an initiative to address the global
water scarcity crisis. The concern is that developing countries don’t currently have the
capacity or the technology to develop solutions on their own. The ACS is asking its members
to develop new technologies that more efficiently recycle municipal and industrial wastewater
while also adopting “more stringent standards for waterborne pollutants.” 62 This is a
tremendous step towards finding more sustainable innovations for both developing and
developed countries. Once new sustainable water systems are created, developing countries
will be able to address their physical water scarcity problem via technology transfers and the
global demand for water will subsequently decrease.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
61
“Citizens’ summary: EU initiative to promote social entrepreneurship.” N/A. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Nov. 2013. 12.
62
Shakhashiri, Bassam Z., et al. “ACS Global Water Initiative: The Grand Challenge of Water,” American
Chemical Society, May 20, 2013. Web. 09 Nov 2013.
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Solving the global water crisis and providing the poor with access to safe water has
the potential to catalyze other global development. Although the connection is not explicit,
social entrepreneurship plays an intrinsic role in achieving the MDGs. The fundamental
principles of social entrepreneurship, vis-à-vis impact investing and inclusive business
strategies, provide the framework to effectively address global depravations like access to
safe drinking water. It’s important to note that social enterprises are not the solution, rather a
tool that can be used to effectively consolidate public and private powers to have a positive
social impact.
VI. Case Studies
Modern social entrepreneurship can range from small local business like Guatemala’s
Ecofiltro, to large transnational companies like Veolia Water. Regardless of their size, these
entities are having a significant impact in the communities where they are involved. However
the size of the business does correlate with the impact that they can have. Larger entities play
a more important role in solving global water scarcity because they have the capacity to reach
more people in need. On the other hand, smaller entities are incredibly effective at local
capacity building and developing models that can be adopted elsewhere. In order to alleviate
global water scarcity, development must start from the ground-up. This is why encouraging
social entrepreneurship is important for development in local communities because it can then
potentially manifest to the regional and national level. Of course support from public and
private actors is key to facilitate this development. What follows are handful of case studies
that represent the varying degrees of social entrepreneurship. Each case study has either
excelled in CSR, inclusive business strategies, or social entrepreneurship.
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Programme hydraulique Niger-Suisse:
Programme hydraulique Niger-Suisse (PHNS) is a water management project that has
successfully incorporated synergies from international development partners, national
government, local councils, and private water operators to effectively alleviate economic
water scarcity in rural Niger communities. PHNS was a bilateral water program between
Swiss Official Development Assistance and the Niger government to build wells in rural
communities. 63 Daniel Fino, former Director and founder of the “Executive Master in
Development Policies and Practices,” was a coordinating partner for the program and
explaines how they were able to improve water supply while concurrently reinforcing local
institutions to eventually manage the project. Community involvement played a major role for
the success of the PHNS. Utilizing local labor for the initial construction and continued
maintenance created an ownership mindset, while active involvement from international
actors and the Niger government provided the tools and training needed for the sustainability
of the program. Subsidies provided only enough funding to support 50 of the 200 villages in
need per year. Due to this shortfall, aid distribution was based on weighted criteria that were
established by all involved parties in order to determine the qualifications for funding.
Transparency of these criteria was key for preventing corruption. By knowing why a certain
village did not qualify, that village was forced to make improvements in order to be a more
eligible candidate the following year. This incentivized local initiative and had an indirect
impact on local development. Although the PHNS ended in 2000, the model it used provided
a revolutionary new way of combining international actors, subsidies, and local participation
to improve access to water. In fact a variation of this model was established three years later
in Uganda.
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63
Daniel Fino, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
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Association of Private Water Operators in Uganda:
With support from the German Technical Corporation and the Ugandan government,
the Association of Private Water Operators in Uganda (APWO) followed the blueprint laid
out by PHNS and was able to improve access to water through a sustainable system while also
stimulating local economies.64 The APWO works as follows: the government finds sites,
facilitates community land purchases, and subsidizes installments. The cost of connecting a
singles household to the water source costs $321, however the household only pays $35.65
This is a significant subsidy that makes water access much more realistic for the poor. Private
operators distribute the water, assure safety regulations are met, and have the option of
retailing the water themselves or subcontracting out the function in the form of retail outlets
or kiosks. A five-member Water Board comprised of local residents has ownership of the
assets, sets tariffs and policies for their community, and mediates possible disputes between
the operators and the community. Both PHNS and APWO provide excellent examples of how
the public sector and civil society can effectively work together to improve water access for
the poor. Additionally each of them also managed to incentivize innovation and local
economic development through community involvement.
Grameen Veolia
The French company
Veolia Water has partnered
with Grameen bank to provide
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
64
“Association of Private Water Operators in Uganda: Affordable and Safe Water for the Urban Poor.” United
Nations Development Programme. Sept. 2007. Web. 29 Oct. 2013. 3.
65
Ibid., 8.
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affordable access to safe drinking water for rural Bangladeshi populations. This partnership
!
represents the future of CSR, demonstrating how a large transnational company can integrate
a social business branch into its core business strategies. This social business model recycles
and purifies surface water tainted with arsenic, then distributes it either directly to households,
public drinking fountains, or in the form of water cans transported by rickshaw to more
isolated areas.66 Grameen Veolia also uses a prepaid card system to make paying for clean
water simple and effective. This partnership is able to distribute water at a very affordable
price by simplifying the Goalmari water plant in Bangladesh and maintaining World Health
Organization standards, thus reducing the cost of the water treatment as much as possible.67
Samantha Caccamo notes that after this social business was established and operational the
challenge was to educate the public about water contamination.68 The local citizens need to be
aware of the dangers from drinking contaminated water and that paying for purified water is
more important than the potential risks from arsenic poisoning.
Manila Water Company
Due to an incredibly inefficient
government-owned water system, the
Pilipino
government
turned
over
control of Manila’s water distribution network to the Manila Water Company (MWC) in the
late 1990’s.69 With an inclusive business approach and support from the government, the
MWC has been able to increase 24-hour access to water from 26 percent to 99 percent; all
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
66
Yunus, Muhammad. “Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience.” 321.
Ibid., 321.
68
Samantha Caccamo, personal interview, November 6, 2013.
69
“Manila Water Company, Inc.” G20 Challenge on Inclusive Business Innovation. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Nov.
2013.
67
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while maintaining 100 percent water standard compliance.70 MWC relies on a micro-business
!
model that allows low-income communities to take part in the management system. This
model provides the communities with not only an additional source of income but also
reduces the incentive for illegal tapping.71 MWC practices social responsibility and inclusive
business strategies by being actively involved in the community, installing washing facilities
and drinking fountains in public establishments, and is expanding their social impact to
nearby regions.72
Ecofiltro
Ecofiltro manufactures water
purifiers made from locally sourced
materials such as clay and sawdust,
then
coated with colloidal silver, a natural antibacterial.73 The business is classified as a hybrid
non-profit74 because it sells more-expensive ceramic filters to the urban market and uses that
revenue to subsidize more basic filters for rural customers; i.e. cross-subsidizing. Ecofiltro’s
basic filter comes in a generic five-gallon bucket and has the ability to filter 22 gallons of
clean water a week.75 By employing local labor and sourcing materials locally, Ecofiltro is
able to provide the poor with inexpensive access to clean water while creating economic
opportunity in the community. Rural communities also indirectly benefit from Ecofiltro
because they save money by using less firewood (needed to boil water for purification) and
decreased their risk of waterborne illness from contaminated water (not having to purchase
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
70
Ibid.
“Investing for Impact: How Social Entrepreneurship is Redefining the Meaning of Return." 14-15.
72
“Manila Water Company, Inc.” G20 Challenge on Inclusive Business Innovation.
73
Ecofiltro: One. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Nov. 2013.
74
"Philip Wilson." Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013.
75
Ibid.
71
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medicines). The exciting thing about Ecofiltro is that it is a model that could easily be
!
implemented and successful in other regions experiencing economic water scarcity.
VII. Future Steps
The cases presented in this report were chosen to reflect the diversity of social
entrepreneurship; they represent only a minute portion of successful social enterprises
operating today. Further research needs to be conducted on numerous aspects of social
entrepreneurship and the global water crisis. Aspects such as: the viability of social
entrepreneurship in different contexts, the protection of intellectual property rights to ensure
proper facilitation of technology transfers, and how to increase the level of CSR in
transnational companies. Additionally, this paper does not discuss the possible negative side
effects of social entrepreneurship and does not examine failed social enterprises. A holistic
analysis of the relationship between social entrepreneurship and sustainable development is
needed in order to fully understand the impact that social entrepreneurship can have on global
disparities. This analysis should include more evidence for increasing multi-sector
cooperation and involvement as well as more case studies from different regions.
An important step for solving many global disparities, including global water scarcity,
is to enable developing communities to become self-sustaining. This can be accomplished
through public awareness and education campaigns that stress the importance of sustainability
and empower these communities to eventually develop without assistance. There are three
pillars of sustainable development: social/economical, environmental, and the people. Dr.
Nidal argues that the most important pillar is the people.76 Teaching individuals how to be
sustainable is fundamental for generating development, and sustainable development is
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
76
The other two pillars are social/economical and environmental.
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essential for finding a solution for many global disparities. 77 The private sector has a
!
responsibility to streamline this sustainability campaign because of their influence in
developing communities. Also in the long run the private sector can actually benefit from
implementing sustainable practices.
Holding the private sector accountable requires additional public awareness and
education. Governments need to enforce CSR, while at the same time the private sector needs
to hold the government accountable for supporting an environment where transnational
companies, small and medium enterprises, and investors can become involved in social
endeavors. The question now is how can civil society encourage businesses to be truly
socially and environmentally responsible instead of just projecting a responsible image, while
simultaneously increasing government accountability? Informing the public about the
responsibility of each sector is the first step towards mutual governance, the next step is
coordination between international and local actors in order to secure universal trust and
reliance.78
Conclusion
The modern development system is currently entering an era where multilateral
cooperation is being recognized as an effective way to accomplish development objectives.
Social entrepreneurship fosters an environment of multilateral participation by engaging
international actors, governments, local communities, and private investors. Multilateral
engagement is key for alleviating social and environmental disparities. In the case of the
global water scarcity, social entrepreneurs are developing technology for affordable drinking
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
77
78
Dr. Nidal Salim, personal interview, October 31, 2013.
Margareta Wahlstrom, “Meeting the Sustainability Challenge in the post-2015 Era.” UNOG Library Talk. 15
November 2013.!!
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water access, improving water management systems, and/or finding ways to provide access to
!
areas with extreme water scarcity. We see water innovation taking place around the globe,
mostly due to this multilateral engagement. Social entrepreneurs utilize a variety of funding
sources to get their ideas or projects of the ground and then work with governments and local
communities to ensure that their involvement has a positive impact on society while also
being sustainable.
Solving the global water crisis should be a priority on the international development
agenda. Many global problems, most notably those outlined in the MDGs, can benefit from
simply improving access to safe drinking water. Social entrepreneurship is a tool that can
effectively consolidate public and private powers to alleviate global problems. Increasing the
leveling of multilateral involvement as well as public awareness and education is essential for
the progress of the international development agenda. Civil society should act as an
intermediary between the public and private sectors, providing technical and logistical
assistance as well as promoting public awareness and education campaigns. In the end many
global problems can only be accomplished by empowering people to develop solutions on
their own, this is why social entrepreneurship is so important for the future of international
development.
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