Fashion’s Influence
on
Garment Mass Production:
Knowledge, Commodities
and the
Capture of Value
Sally Weller
A thesis submitted in total fulfilment
of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Strategic Economic Studies
Victoria University, Melbourne
AUSTRALIA
October 2003
ABSTRACT
In affluent communities, it is difficult to think about clothing without considering issues
of fashion. Yet, in analyses of the garment industries, fashion is rarely considered in
detail, and is certainly not analysed as a structuring force over the configuration of
garment production industries.
Yet through fashion, garments as commodities are
complexly embedded in social and cultural processes and in the specificities of place.
Although the structures of the global garment production industries have been the
subject of numerous studies from a variety of theoretical perspectives, none hitherto
have addressed the influence of fashion on the structures and locations of garment
production.
This thesis begins with the idea that fashion is a complex and influential form
of knowledge. It explores the effects of fashion ideas on the global garment system
through a case study of the ideas and commodity flows that bring fashions and garments
to the Australian market. It traces the interconnections between global knowledge flows
and global commodity flows in a manner attuned to the relationships between
knowledge, power, industrial organisation and the capture of surplus value from the
production system.
The analysis highlights how Australia’s position in garment
production is framed by its geographical position on the periphery of the fashion world.
Fashion knowledge is a complex form of knowledge with four interrelated
expressions. First, fashion exists in the media, separate from the garment industries,
where it contributes to the construction of ‘dream worlds’ of unreality.
In this
expression fashion influences consumers’ preferences for particular styles. Second,
fashion exists in local communities, where fashion ideas spread through personal
interactions in complex flows that are related to social status and personal aspirations.
Third, fashion is expressed in garments, through their design qualities, where ideas are
embedded into the cloth to create garments as socially meaningful objects. However,
the meanings that garment convey are unstable and shift with the fashion mood. Fourth,
fashion is expressed in firms, through brands, which capture fashion ideas as intellectual
property and use them to generate profits. Fashion also influences firm strategies and
the ways that firms relate to each other. The garment production system is concerned,
fundamentally, with the coordination of these different expressions of fashion.
i
The first part of the thesis explores fashion’s impact on consumer desires and on
the production system. In contrast to previous analyses, which have focused on the
temporal movement of fashion changes, the discussion emphasises the stylistic aspects
of fashion − the knowledges that create fashion styling and the mechanisms by which
fashion knowledge diffuses in time and space. It shows that fashions in the globalised
media are dominated by the styles of a relatively small number of designers who are
located in key cities, who are linked closely to the beauty and media industries through
licensing agreements, and whose style authority is protected by intellectual property
rights. The uneven penetration of the elite fashions shown in the media generates
uneven global landscapes of fashion.
Nonetheless, the elite fashion system provides leadership to the mass production
system by orchestrating the fashion trend direction and the timing of fashion seasons.
This structure mitigates market uncertainty in the mass production sector. The mass
production garment system follows the lead of elite styles, generating a plethora of
interpretations, imitations, derivatives and copies depending on producer firms’ relation
to intellectual property rights. Through these processes, fashion produces a global
hierarchy stratified by style aesthetics, authenticity, production quality and price-income
clustering. These segmentations are expressed by firms as fashion brands.
The second part of the thesis examines the restructuring of the Australian
garment industries in the 1990s to show how fashion altered the trajectories of firms as
they adapted to Australia’s new market-oriented accumulation strategy. These chapters
examine changing retail, production and import sourcing frameworks to show how the
imperatives of fashion shaped the strategies of firms. Various examples specify how the
globalisation of garment production is patterned by the interaction of the world of ideas
and knowledges, in fashion, with the world of goods.
Because fashion knowledge is unevenly distributed across places, both the
values that people place on garments and the cost of producing garments vary from
place to place.
Firms in the fashion industries prosper by capturing the shifts in
valuation that as garments travel in space and time. Specifically, firms capture a form
of surplus value that is created as commodities shift between production-oriented value
frameworks, based on the costs of labour and materials, and consumer-oriented value
frameworks, based on the willingness to pay for fashion. The garment production
system is led by the firms that understand and exploit value shifts.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have assisted in the preparation of this thesis.
My supervisor Peter
Sheehan provided an environment that allowed me the flexibility to develop my ideas
and priorities. His comments at various stages of the research and writing process were
as insightful as they were supportive. Michael Webber provided numerous inspirations
to the development and theorisation of the work-in-progress. Our discussions pushed
ideas to new stages and directions.
Other people and institutions have given me help and support at different
stages of the ongoing research. Victoria University’s Tradedata service provided me
with the data sets for analysis in this thesis and in related work. I am grateful to the
many people who provided me with information and resources at different parts of the
project, especially to people in Australia, Hong Kong and Fiji who gave up their time to
explain their roles in the garment industry. Listening to the discussions in the Economic
Geography and International Political Economy list-servers connected me to wider
intellectual communities that I could possibly access locally.
The Australian Federal Government, through an Australian Post-Graduate
Award, enabled me and my children to (barely) survive financially for duration of this
project. I am indebted to other sources of funding: Victoria University assisted with
annual stipends, and supplemented some of my travel costs. I am also grateful to the
Commonwealth Department of Industry Science and Resources, the Woolmark
Company, and the Victorian Government and the Australian Council of Trade Unions
for providing intermittent consultancy work.
Finally, I am indebted to my children, Terry and Patrick Hartnett, who have
watched this project with amusement, and tolerated good-naturedly my apparently
endless preoccupation with the computer screen.
iii
DECLARATION
This thesis contains original research by me, unless otherwise stated in the text. This
work has not been submitted previously, in whole or part, in respect of any other
academic work. Content that draws on my own previously published work is indicated
in the text.
The dissertation is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of
appendices, bibliography and footnotes.
Sally Weller
September 2003
..............................................................
Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the author. Copies (by any process) either
in full, or extracts, may only be made in accordance with instructions given by the
author and lodged with the Victoria University Library. Details may be obtained from
the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. Further copies (by
any process) made in accordance with such instructions may not be made without
permission (in writing) of the Author.
The ownership of the intellectual property rights which may be described in this thesis
is vested in Victoria University, subject to any prior agreement to the contrary, and
may not be made available for use by third parties without the prior written permission
of the University, which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such agreement.
Further information on the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation may
take place is available from the Director, Centre for Strategic Economic Studies,
Victoria University.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract………………………………………………………..…………….
(i)
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….
(iii)
Declaration…………………………………………………………………...
(iv)
Table of Contents………………………………………….…………………
(v)
List of Tables………………………………………………………………...
(xiii)
List of Figures………………………………………….…………………….
(xv)
List of Abbreviations…………………………………. ………………….....
(xvii)
CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Overview……………………………………
1
1.1
Globalisation, Clothing and Fashion…………………………………..
2
1.2
Aim and Themes……………………………………………………….
4
1.3
The Scope of Enquiry…………………………………………………..
5
1.4
Placing the Study in Economic Geography…………………………….
7
1.5
Methodological Approach……………………………………………...
9
1.6
Field Methods and Analysis
11
1.7
Structure of the Thesis………………………………………………….
15
CHAPTER 2 Critique Of Geographies Of Garment Production……...……
18
2.1
19
2.2
Metaphors of Clothing Production…………..………………………...
2.1.1
Market-based Metaphors………………………………...…
21
2.1.2
The New International Division of Labour………..……….
24
2.1.3
Global Commodity Chains…………………………………
26
2.1.4
Networks and Garment Production Districts…………..…...
32
2.1.5
Global Production Networks…………………………..……
37
2.1.6
Conclusion: Practical Adequacy…………………………….
38
The Nature of Fashion………………………………………………….
41
2.2.1
Fashion, Status and Identity…………………..…………….
41
2.2.2
Fashion as Social Knowledge……………………………….
46
2.2.3
The Meaning of Clothes……………………………………..
46
2.2.4
Fashion’s Rhythms and Changes……………………………
48
v
2.2.5
The Value of Meaningful Objects…………………………...
49
2.2.6
Conclusion: Fashion, Value and Knowledge………………..
52
2.3
Fashion and Globalisation……………………………………………...
53
2.4
Conclusion……………………………………………………………..
56
PART 1 FASHION AND THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM ……….……….
59
CHAPTER 3 Australia In Global Flows Of Fashion Ideas.…………………
60
3.1
61
3.2
3.3
The Media in Australia………………………………………….……..
3.1.1
Fashion on Television……………………………………….
62
3.1.2
Fashion in Magazines………………………………………..
65
3.1.3
Advertising as Linkage……………………………………...
66
3.1.4
The Media as Image Creation……………………………….
68
Globalising Fashion: the Case of Marie Claire ………………………..
69
3.2.1
Marie Claire and Global Fashion ……………………….......
70
3.2.2
Marie Claire’s Format ………………………………………
71
3.2.3
Marie Claire’s Content ……………………………………...
71
3.2.4
Marie Claire and Elite Fashion……………………………...
73
3.2.5
Marie Claire compared to Vogue……………………………
76
3.2.6
Summation: The Media and Global Elite Fashion…………..
77
Diffusion and Resistance………………………………………………
78
3.3.1
The Penetration of Media Information………………………
78
3.3.2
The Effectiveness of Advertising……………………………
78
3.3.3
Fashion as Hybridisation…………………………………….
80
3.3.4
Local Culture?.........................................................................
81
3.3.5
Conclusion: Global and Local Fashions ……………………
85
Conclusion …………………………………………………………….
85
CHAPTER 4 The Commodification Of Fashion Ideas ………………….…
87
4.1
88
3.4
Creating the Landscapes of Fashion…………………………………..
4.1.1
Fashion Design…………………………………….………..
88
4.1.2
The Structuring of Style………………………….….……...
90
vi
4.1.3
4.2
4.3
4.4
Fashion as Intellectual Property…………………..………...
93
The Restructuring of Elite Design…………………………………….
97
4.2.1
Expansion into Licensing…………………………………...
98
4.2.2
Restructuring of the Elite Garment Production………….…
101
4.2.3
Corporatisation of the Luxury Goods Sector…………….....
105
4.2.4
Globalisation of Luxury Goods Sector…………………......
108
Fashion’s Coordination of Space and Time…………………………...
110
4.3.1
The Place of Elite Fashion…………………………..……...
110
4.3.2
Fashion Events as Regulating the Rhythms of Fashion….....
112
4.3.3
Clothing’s Place in the Fashion System…………………….
114
Conclusion…………………………………………………….………
115
CHAPTER 5 Fashion Knowledge in Mass Production …………………..
117
5.1
Capturing Fashion Knowledge………………………..……………...
118
5.1.1
The Protection of Complexity………………………….…...
118
5.1.2
The Transmission of Fashion Knowledge……….…………
119
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Managing Fashion’s Uncertainty ………………..………………
120
5.2.1
Elite Fashion Shows as Peer Review ………………………
120
5.2.2
The Role of the Cognoscenti ………………………………
121
5.2.3
Fashion Predictions and Uncertainty …………………..…..
122
5.2.4
Fashion Predictions and Production Planning ……………..
123
The Transmission of Elite Styles into the Mass Market ……………..
125
5.3.1
Sanctioned Copying …………………………………..……
125
5.3.2
Licensing …………………………………………………...
126
5.3.3
Designer Ready-to-Wear Ranges …………………………..
128
5.3.4
Diffusion Lines …………………………………………….
129
The Transmission of Fashion Styles beyond Elite Firms…………….
131
5.4.1
Copies and ‘Knock-offs’……………………………………
132
5.4.2
Imitations …………………………………………………..
133
5.4.3
Interpretations ……………………………………………...
136
Style Authenticity and Power ……………………………………..…
138
5.5.1
Intellectual Property Rights in Production…………...........
138
5.5.2
A Hierarchy of Style………………………………………..
139
vii
5.5.3
Knowledge and Power……………………………………...
141
Conclusion ………………………..………………………………….
142
CHAPTER 6 Fashion Ideas, Brands and Firm Strategies……….………...
144
6.1
The Economics of Fashion…………………………………………....
145
6.1.1
Fashion Business as Time Competition.. . ………………...
146
6.1.2
Fashion Business as Controlling Market Spaces…………....
149
6.1.3
The Basis of Competition
152
5.6
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Fashion, Brands and Commodities…………………………………...
152
6.2.1
The Nature of Fashion Brands……………….……………..
153
6.2.2
Brands and Commodities…………………………………..
154
6.2.3
The Qualities of Fashion Brands……………..……………..
155
6.3.4
Brands as Communities of Practice………………………...
156
6.3.5
Conclusion: The Power of Brands……………………….....
158
An Articulated Production System……………………………..…….
159
6.3.1
Brandspaces………………………………………………...
160
6.3.2
Concept Flows……………………………………………...
161
6.3.3
Translation Flows…………………………………………...
161
6.3.4
Commodity Flows…………………………………….…….
165
6.3.5
Coordinating Multiple Flows………………………………
169
The Organisation of Fashion into Firms……………………………...
170
6.4.1.
Spatialising Multiple Flows…………………………………
170
6.4.2
Vertical Integration and Disintegration…………………….
171
Conclusion…………………………………………………………....
173
PART 2 FASHION’S INFLUENCE ON INDUSTRIAL
ORGANISATION AND COMMODITY FLOWS…………………………
175
CHAPTER 7 Australia’s Internationalisation Strategy………………..…
176
7.1
Australian Trade and Industry Policy……………………….
176
7.1.1
Re-regulating the TCF Sector ……………………………...
179
7.1.2
Managed Change …………………………………………..
181
7.1.3
Implementing the Reforms…………………………………
182
viii
7.1.4
Contradictory Policy Objectives…………………………....
183
7.1.5
Conclusion: Australia’s Internationalisation…………….....
185
Global Garment Trade ……………………………………………….
186
7.2.2
Global Trade Patterns ……………………………………..
186
7.2.1
The Effects of Global Trade Regulation …………………..
188
7.3
Regionalised Trading Patterns ……………………………..……….
190
7.4
Conclusion …………………………………………………………...
194
CHAPTER 8 The Restructuring of Australian Garment Retailing……..
195
8.1
196
7.2
8.2
8.3
8.4
Clothing Markets in Australia ……………………………..…………
8.1.1
Aggregate Demand for Garments…………………………..
196
8.1.2
Changing Demographics …………………………………..
198
8.1.3
The Capacity to Consume ………………………………....
200
8.1.4
Segmentation in Market Spaces ……………………………
200
8.1.5
Summary: Preferences and Demand ……………………….
202
The Clothing Retail Sector ……………………………………………
202
8.2.1
Department Stores………………………………………….
203
8.2.2
Specialty Chains…………………………………………....
205
8.2.3
Small Retailers, Boutiques and Local Designers ………….
206
8.2.4
New Retail Forms ……………………………………….....
207
8.2.5
Summary: Competing Retail Forms ………………………
208
Retail Restructuring ………………………………………………......
208
8.3.1
Department Stores versus Specialty Chains ……………….
209
8.3.2
Changing Market Shares …………………………………...
210
8.3.3
Industry Concentration and Firm Size ……………………..
212
Retailer Power and Retailing Profits…………………………………..
214
8.4.1
The Restructuring of Retail Capital ………………………..
214
8.4.2
Retailing and the Capture of Surplus ………………………
214
8.4.3
The Production-Consumption Interface…………………….
217
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………
217
CHAPTER 9 The Internationalisation of Garment Commodity Flows..…
219
9.1
220
8.5
The Organisation of Australian Production…………………………..
ix
9.2
9.3
9.4
Effects on Prices and Volumes………………………………………
222
9.2.1
Effects on Clothing Prices………………………………….
222
9.2.2
Price Relativities…………………………………………....
224
9.2.3
Import Penetration …………………………………………
225
Domestic Restructuring and Convergence ……………………………
227
9.3.1
Local Restructuring…………………………………………
229
9.3.2
The Growth of Outworker Production ………………..……
230
9.3.3
Changing Employment Conditions…………………………
231
9.3.4
Convergence in Business Strategies……………..…………
232
9.3.5
Changing Production to Retail Flows………………………
235
9.3.6
Price Setting and Margins…………………………………..
236
International Commodity Flows and Local Specialisation……………
238
9.4.1
Import Strategies……………………………………………
238
9.4.2
International Retailers’ entry into the Australian Market…..
240
9.5.1
Patterns of Internationalised Commodity Flows……………
241
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………
248
CHAPTER 10 Fiji: Capturing Value in Production Networks……………
251
10.1
Background to the Fiji Industry ………………………………………
252
10.2
The Configuration of the Garment Industry in Fiji……………………
257
9.5
10.3
10.4
10.2.1
Transnational Branch Plants…………………………...…
258
10.2.2
Australian Offshore Production……………………….…
259
10.2.3
Fiji’s Independent Producers……………………………..
259
Local Relationships in the Fiji Independent Sector…………………..
260
10.3.1
Complementary Specialisation…………………...............
260
10.3.2
Production-based Cooperation……………………………
261
10.3.3
Political Co-operation…………………………………….
261
10.3.4
Cultural Commonalities…………………………………..
261
10.3.5
Conclusion: Localised Embeddedness……………………
262
Transnational Relationships in the Supply Chain………………..……
263
10.4.1
Role Definitions………………………………………..…
263
10.4.2
The Role of Trust…………………………………………
264
10.4.3
Knowledge Flows……………………………………...…
265
x
10.4.4
Translating Designs into Garments……………………….
266
10.4.5
Market Risk……………………………………………….
267
10.4.6
Capturing Value…………………………………………..
267
10.4.7
Conclusion: Transnational Networks…………………….
269
Events Surrounding the Speight Coup…………………………….…..
270
10.5.1
Changing Conditions………………………………………
270
10.5.2
Altered Perceptions of Risk……………………………….
271
10.5.3
Bargaining and Inter-firm Relationships…………………..
273
10.5.4
Restructuring and Industrial Upgrading…………………...
273
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………
274
CHAPTER 11 Hong Kong: Capturing Value from Global Flows…………
277
11.1
278
10.5
10.6
11.2
11.3
11.4
Background to Hong Kong’s Development…………………………..
11.1.1
Regional Geo-Politics…………………………………….
278
11.1.2
Hong Kong’s Local Growth Trajectory………………….
279
11.1.3
Global Positioning……………………………………….
280
11.1.4
Hong Kong as a Global City……………………………..
282
Fashion Knowledge Flows and Garment Commodity Flows…………
282
11.2.1
The Hong Kong-PRD Garment Production Complex……
283
11.2.2
Fashion-Oriented Export Specialisation………………….
285
11.2.3
Hong Kong and Fashion Knowledge……………………..
287
11.3.4
Conclusion: Hong Kong in Global Garment Production…
289
The Role of Hong Kong’s Intermediaries…………………………….
290
11.3.1
Relationships with Globalising Brands……………………
290
11.3.2
Intermediaries in the Production System…………………
293
11.3.3
Relationships with Production Plants in the PRD…………
297
11.3.4
Cross Border Garment Trade in the PRD
300
Relationships with Australian Buyers…………………………………
303
11.4.1
Making Up Australian Designs……………………………
304
11.4.2
Buying Hong Kong Designs………………………………
304
11.4.3
Price Negotiations…………………………………………
306
11.5
Capturing Value: Hong Kong’s Re-export Margin……………………
307
11.6
Conclusion……………………………………….……………………
309
xi
CHAPTER 12 Conclusion: Ideas, Commodities and Value ………..…….
311
12.1
312
12.2
12.3
Fashion in Garment Mass Production: Summary of Findings………...
12.1.1
The Fashion System………………………………………
312
12.1.2
Fashion and Mass Production…………………………….
313
12.1.3
Fashion and Restructuring………………………………..
315
12.1.4
Fashion and Trade……………….…………………..……
317
Power, Profit and The Capture of Surplus Value……………………...
319
12.2.1
Capturing Value from the Production System…..………..
320
12.2.2
Inter-Regional Transfers of Value………………………..
322
Implications for Industrial Organisation…………..…………………
325
12.3.1
Knowledge in Production and in Place………………….
325
12.3.2
Knowledge and Power……………………………………
326
12.3.3
Spatialised Industrial Organisation……………..……..…
329
12.3.4
Social Embeddedness……..…………………………...…
331
12.3.5
Regulation and Industrial Organisation……………..……
332
12.5
Further Research ……………………………………………………...
332
12.6
Conclusion ………………..……………………….………………….
333
Appendices…………………………………………………………………….
336
References…………………………………………………………………….
347
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1
Fifteen Main Garment Exporting Nations, 1990 and 1999……...
20
Table 2.2
Limitations of Commodity Chain Analysis………………….….. 31
Table 2.3
Metaphors for Clothing Industries ……………………………… 39
Table 3.1
Penetration of Communications Media in Australia……………
62
Table 3.2
Australian Fashion and Transnational Media Groups…….........
65
Table 3.3
Advertisements in Marie Claire, April 2000, Four Editions…...
73
Table 3.4
Clothing Designers in Five Marie Claire National Editions….....
74
Table 3.5
Country of Edition and Origin of Clothing Firms………..…......
75
Table 3.6
Most Mentioned Brands, April 2000……………………………
76
Table 3.7
Leading Designers: Marie Claire and Vogue, April 2000…........
77
Table 4.1
The Spaces of Fashion…………………………………….….…
92
Table 4.2
Haute Couture, circa 2000…………………………………..….
97
Table 4.3
Ralph Lauren Licences, circa 1990……………………………..
99
Table 4.4
Consolidation of Elite Fashion Firms…………………………… 107
Table 4.5
Markets for Luxury Goods………………………………………
109
Table 5.1
Couture, Designer Ready-to Wear and Diffusion Lines………...
130
Table 5.2
Examples of Interpretation ……………………………….……..
137
Table 6.1
Traditional and Customer Capitalism Compared………………..
151
Table 6.2
Flows in Relation to Space, Time and Uncertainty……………... 169
Table 7.1
Growth in Global Garment Trade……………………………….
186
Table 7.2
Garment Import Shares, Selected Countries, 1999……………...
187
Table 7.3
Regional Garment Trade as Share of World Apparel Trade…….
191
Table 8.1
Clothing and Footwear in Household Consumption Expenditure
197
Table 8.2
Household Consumption Expenditure, 1993-94………………...
199
Table 8.3
Market Segmentation: ‘The Female Persuasion’……………..…
201
Table 8.4
Competitive Structure of the Specialty Sector, Australia……….. 206
Table 8.5
Australia’s Clothing Markets………………………………........
Table 8.6
Retail Sales of Clothing Sales By Retail Sector………………… 211
Table 8.7
Retail Sales: Market Shares by Store Type …………………….
Table 8.8
Retail Concentration, 1998/99…………………………..………. 213
Table 8.9
Performance of Publicly Listed Clothing Retailers………..……
Table 8.10
Profit Margins in Australian Industry……………………..…….. 216
208
212
215
xiii
Table 9.1
Comparative Price Level Indexes for Clothing, OECD, 1990…..
223
Table 9.2
Occupational Changes, 1986-96……………………………...…. 232
Table 9.3
Occupational Change in the Fashion System…………………...
233
Table 9.4
Vertical Integration in the Garment Production System ………
234
Table 9.5
Profits Rates in Garment Production……………………….…..
237
Table 9.6
Country of Origin, Outerwear Imports, 1990 and 2000 ……….
243
Table 9.7
Specialisations by Country of Origin, Selected Countries, 2000..
245
Table 9.8
Port of Loading of Women’s Outerwear………………….…….
246
Table 11.1
Top Ten of Global Brands Made in the HK-PRD………..…......
284
Table 11.2
Main Destinations, Hong Kong Garment Exports…………...….
285
Table 11.3
Garment Importers and Agents in Hong Kong…………..……...
290
Table 11.4
Organisational Forms in the Hong Kong Garment Trade…...…..
294
Table 11.5
Firm Inter-linkages in the HK-PRD……………………………
303
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1
The Organisation of Global Commodity Chains …………..…
29
Figure 2.2
Complementarities in Industrial Districts………………..........
35
Figure 3.1
Fashion Designers in Marie Claire…………………….………
72
Figure 4.1
Competing Styles in Fashionspace…………………………….
93
Figure 4.2
The Internationalisation of the Elite Sector……………..…….
104
Figure 4.3
The Spring/Summer 2002 Fashion Calendar………………. …
113
Figure 4.4
The Fashion Image-Production System……………..…………
115
Figure 5.1
Sanctioned Copying……………………………………………
127
Figure 5.2
Imitation in the Australian Garment Market…………………..
135
Figure 5.3
Knowledge Flows and Mass Production Forms……………….
139
Figure 5.4
Fashionspace as a Hierarchy based on Design Authenticity ….
140
Figure 6.1
The Product Cycle for Fashion Garments…………………….
148
Figure 6.2
Time and Uncertainty…………………………………………
149
Figure 6.3
Brands in the Production System……………………………..
160
Figure 6.4
Concept Flows – Design and Consumption…………………..
162
Figure 6.5
Translation Flows – Design and Reproduction……………….
164
Figure 6.6
Commodity flows – Production to Consumption……………..
167
Figure 6.7
Firms in Brandspaces …………………………………………
171
Figure 7.1
Regional shares in World Trade in Clothing, 2000……..……..
190
Figure 7.2
Import Sources, Italy and the United States, 1990-96………...
193
Figure 8.1
Changes in Household Consumption Expenditure………….…
197
Figure 8.2
Change in Population, 1996-2001…………………................
199
Figure 8.3
Department Stores’ Share of Sales……………………………
205
Figure 9.1
Retail Prices of Clothing and All Groups, 1973 to 1997……..
223
Figure 9.2
Price indices for clothing production, 1989-90 = 100………..
224
Figure 9.3
Clothing Imports and Manufacturers Sales……………...........
226
Figure 9.4
Market Shares of Australian TCF Producers 1968-1995..........
227
Figure 9.5
Parallel Imports of Designer Brands…………………………..
242
Figure 9.6
Imports by Garment Type, Australia, 1996-99……………….
244
Figure 9.7
Port of Loading and Country of Origin, 2000…………..........
247
Figure 10.1
Fiji Garment Exports, 1986 – 1997 …………………………..
256
Figure 10.2
Garment Production Locations, Viti Levu, Fiji……………….
257
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Figure 10.3
The Fiji Garment Industry before the Speight Coup…………..
258
Figure 10.4
Revenue, Cost and Profit Margins, Fiji ……………………….
269
Figure 11.1
Hong Kong Exports of Articles of Apparel and Clothing……... 283
Figure 11.2
Hong Kong Exports by Product Type……………..…………..
286
Figure 11.3
Hong Kong’s Outward Processing Trade………………...........
302
Figure 12.1
Vertical Disintegration and Value Frameworks……………….
321
Figure 12.2
Global Flows of Ideas and Commodities………………………
324
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABS
Australian Bureau of Statistics
ACP
Australian Consolidated Press
AFTA
ASEAN Free Trade Area
ARA
Australian Retailers Association
ASIC
Australian Standard Industrial Classification
ANZCERTA
Australia - New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement
ANZSIC
Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification
APEC
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
ASEAN
Association of South East Asian Nations
ATC
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing
CIF
Customs, Insurance and Freight (inclusive of, in trade price)
DCs
Developed Countries
EBIT
Earnings Before Interest and Tax
EDI
Electronic Data Interchange
EOI
Export Oriented Industrialisation
ETMs
Elaborately Transformed Manufactures
EU
European Union
FDB
Fiji Development Bank
FDI
Foreign Direct Investment
FOB
Free On Board (exclusive of customs, insurance and freight)
FTIB
Fiji Trade and Investment Board
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GCC
Global Commodity Chains
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
HK
Hong Kong
ICS
Import Credit Scheme
IPR
Intellectual Property Right
JIT
Just-in-Time
LDCs
Less Developed Countries
LVMH
Möet Hennessy Louis Vuitton
MFA
Multi-Fibre Arrangement
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement
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NIE
Newly Industrialised Economy
NIDL
New International Division of Labour
NTB
Non Tariff Barrier
OAP
Overseas Assembly Provisions
OBPT
Operating Profit Before Tax
OECD
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
OEM
Original Equipment Manufacture
OPT
Outward Processing Trade
PPP
Purchasing Power Parity
PRD
Pearl River Delta
QR
Quick Response
SEZ
Special Economic Zone (South China)
SITC
Standard International Trade Classification
SOE
State Owned Enterprise
SPARTECA
South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement
TCF
Textiles Clothing and Footwear
TNC
Transnational Corporation
TRIP
Trade-Related Intellectual Property
UNCTAD
United Nations Conference of Trade and Development
UNIDO
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
VAN
Value Added Network
WIPO
World Intellectual Property Organisation
WTO
World Trade Organisation
YSL
Yves St. Laurent
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