Chapter 16 Summary
Generativity begins in early adulthood but expands greatly as middle-aged adults face Erikson’s
psychological conflict of midlife: generativity versus stagnation. Highly generative people, who
contribute to society through parenthood, other family relationships, the workplace, and volunteer
endeavors, appear especially well-adjusted.
From Levinson’s perspective, middleaged adults go through a transition in which they reassess their
relation to themselves and the world. They confront four developmental tasks, each requiring them to
reconcile two opposing tendencies within the self. Vaillant added that middle-aged adults become
guardians of their culture, and the most successful and best adjusted enter a calmer, quieter time of life.
Only a minority experience a midlife crisis characterized by intense self-doubt and stress that lead to
drastic life alterations. Midlife changes in self-concept and personality reflect growing awareness of a
finite lifespan, longer life experience, and generative concerns. But certain aspects of personality remain
stable, revealing that individual differences established during earlier phases persist. Possible selves
become fewer and more realistic. Midlifers also become more introspective, and selfacceptance,
autonomy, environmental mastery, and coping strategies improve. Both men and women become more
androgynous in middle adulthood—a change that results from a complex combination of social roles
and life conditions.
Although adults change in overall organization and integration of personality, they do so on a
foundation of basic, enduring dispositions. Because of a declining birthrate and longer life expectancy,
the midlife phase of the family life cycle, called “launching children and moving on,” has greatly
lengthened over the past century. The changes of midlife prompt many adults to focus on improving
their marriages, but when divorce occurs, midlifers seem to adapt more easily than do younger people.
However, for women, midlife marital breakup often severely reduces standard of living, contributing to
the feminization of poverty. Most middle-aged parents adjust well to departure of children, especially if
parent–child relationships are sustained. But adult children who are “off-time” in development can
prompt parental strain. When family relationships are positive, grandparenthood is an important means
of fulfilling personal and societal needs.
A growing number of North American children live apart from their parents in households headed by
grandparents, a situation that can create great emotional and financial strain. Compared with earlier
generations, today’s adults spend more years not only as parents and grandparents, but also as children
of aging parents. The burden of caring for aging parents can be great. Many middle-aged adults become
“sandwiched” between the needs of aging parents and assisting young-adult children. Although middleaged adults often become more appreciative of their parents’ strengths and generosity, caring for
chronically ill or disabled parents is highly stressful. Sibling contact and support generally decline from
early to middle adulthood, although many siblings feel closer, often in response to major life events,
such as parental illness. Over the past decade, the average number of friendships rose among U.S.
midlifers, perhaps because of social media. Still, for both sexes, number of friends declines from middle
to late adulthood.
Work continues to be a salient aspect of identity and self-esteem in middle adulthood. More so than in
earlier or later years, people attempt to increase the personal meaning and self-direction of their
vocational lives. Job satisfaction has both psychological and economic significance. Overall job
satisfaction improves during midlife, but burnout has become a greater problem in recent years.
Vocational development is less available to older workers, and many women and ethnic minorities leave
the corporate world to escape the “glass ceiling,” which limits their advancement. Still, radical career
changes are rare in middle adulthood. Unemployment is especially difficult for middle-aged individuals,
and retirement is an important change that is often stressful, making effective planning important for
positive adjustment.
Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 6e 294 Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education,
Inc. All Rights Reserved.