Research and Exploration
Gilt Coffin Ornaments from
Han Dynasty Tombs in Wushan
County: In the Context of Coffin
Decoration Customs during the
Han Dynasty
Meitian Li
Professor, Department of Archaeology and Museology,
School of History, Renmin University of China
C
ircular gilt plaques with a fastening
hole in the center are often found in
Han Dynasty tombs along the banks
of the Yangtze River in Wushan
County, Chongqing Municipality. Many of the objects are engraved with fine depictions of the Queen
Mother of the West or the Heavenly Gate, and they
are frequently unearthed together with tack nails.
These exquisite artifacts are generally considered to
be decorative plaques that were attached to wooden
coffins. This paper analyzes the way these gilt coffin
ornaments were used in the Han Dynasty tombs in
Wushan County, and further discusses the Han Dynasty custom of coffin decorations.
GILT COFFIN ORNAMENTS
FROM HAN DYNASTY TOMBS
IN WUSHAN COUNTY
In the summer of 2012, the Chongqing Institute
of Cultural Heritage, as well as Renmin University’s
222
School of History and other organizations, carried
out rescue excavations at the sites of Longtou Mountain and the Cement Plant, both of which are located
in the hydro-fluctuation belt of the Three Gorges
Dam. They unearthed more than 40 coffin ornaments
made of gilt bronze, including round and dragonshaped thin plaques, as well as umbrella-shaped
tack nails. Traces of a wooden coffin were found in
the vicinity. The round and dragon-shaped plaques
all have round holes in their centers sized to fit the
tack nails. It can thus be determined with certainty
that these were decorative elements for the coffin.
According to burial styles, characteristics of pottery
vessels and inscriptions on tomb bricks, the gilt coffin ornaments all date to the Eastern Han Dynasty.
Similar coffin ornaments were frequently found
in Wushan County in the past,[1] and most of these
are stored in the collections of the Wushan County Museum.[2] One type of coffin ornament is the
pierced fretwork plaque; such plaques can be shaped
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Gilt Coffin Ornaments from Han Dynasty Tombs in Wushan County
like humans, dragons, vermilion birds, que-gate towers, the Queen Mother of the West, or persimmon
stems. A gilt coffin ornament depicting the Queen
Mother of the West, which was found on WushanFutian Highway in Wushan County, is 17.3 centimeters long, 11.7 cm wide and 0.05 cm thick (Figure 1).
The goddess is shown in the center, a dragon to her
left and a tiger to her right. Further to her right, past
the tiger, stands a feathered man, who is depicted
on a mountain. The surface of the plaque is gilt and
decorated with fine incised lines; the center of the
plaque has a round hole, probably used to fasten the
plaque to its coffin with a tack nail.
Another type of coffin ornament is the circular
plaque; such plaques are decorated primarily with
images of the Queen Mother of the West and the
Heavenly Gate. These have round fastening holes in
their centers, and thus might also have been used as
ornamental plaques attached to the head panels of
coffins (Figure 2). A circular ornament unearthed at
Longtou Mountain has a diameter of 22.5 cm, and its
decoration is engraved in low bas-relief (Figure 2:1
and Figure 3). A seated woman is depicted between
two que-gate towers near the lower half of a Heavenly
Gate. She wears a basket headdress and a long gown;
both hands are held in front of her chest, and a pair
of wings is visible behind her shoulders. To the left
of both que-gate towers is a phoenix; to their right
is a nine-tailed fox; above the gate is a three-legged
crow. It is generally believed that the woman in the
center represents the Queen Mother of the West.[3]
The other circular plaques found in Wushan County
are decorated with similar compositions. Only the depictions of the Queen Mother differ slightly between
compositions: Sometimes she is shown directly between two que-gate towers, the characters for “Heavenly Gate” written in clerical script above her, such
as on the gilt plaque collected at the Dongjingkan
construction site in Wushan County (Figure 2:2).[4]
Round gilt coffin ornaments were also found
in the Three Gorges area outside Wushan County.
Figure 1: Gilt coffin ornament depicting the Queen
Mother of the West, unearthed at Wushan-Futian
Highway, Wushan County
Examples are two gilt plaques, one round and one
dragon-shaped, unearthed from Tomb M8 at Guling Town in Yunyang County, which is dated to the
middle of the Eastern Han Dynasty. However, the
surface of these objects is undecorated.[5] The Zoumaling and Lijiaba cemeteries in Yunyang County
also yielded similar gilt coffin ornaments.[6]
Such undecorated ornaments are unusual, however; the motif with which these coffin ornaments are
typically decorated is the Queen Mother of the West.
Her name occurs as early as the Warring States Period, when she is described as an avenging goddess.
The “Western Mountains” in the Classic of Mountains
and Seas [Shanhai jing – Xishan jing 山海经•西山
经] states the following: “The jade mountain is the
dwelling place of the Queen Mother of the West.
The Queen Mother of the West resembles a human,
but has a leopard’s tail and a tiger’s teeth, and roars.
She wears a sheng-crown atop her disheveled hair.
She deals out disasters from heaven as well as the
five punishments.”[7] During the Western Han Dynasty, probably influenced by the prevalent search
for immortality at the time, the Queen Mother of
the West gradually was imbued with the concept
of “immortality.” This idea resulted in legends such
as the one about (Hou) Yi requesting the elixir of
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Chinese Cultural Relics » Issue Number 1-2, 2015
1
2
4
7
3
5
6
8
9
Figure 2: Round decorative plaques
t 1. Unearthed at Longtou Mountain cemetery t 2. Collected at Dongjingkan construction site t 3. Collected
at Dianfen construction site t 4. Collected at Beigaotang construction site t 5. Unearthed at Maituo cemetery
t 6, 7. Unearthed at Jiangdongzui cemetery t 8. Collected at Yanchang construction site t 9. Collected at
Northern Xincheng highway construction site
immortality from the Queen Mother of the West
and Chang’e stealing it to fly to the moon,[8] and
also inspired a new enthusiasm for the goddess in
contemporary society. The chapter “Treatise on the
Five Elements” in the Book of Han [Han shu – Wuxing zhi 汉书•五行志] states: “In the fourth year
224
of the Jianping reign period of Emperor Ai of the
Western Han Dynasty [3 BCE] … people of the
capital, commanderies and princedoms gathered in
the alleys, lanes and footpaths. They set up a lot of
instruments, dancing and singing, sacrificing to the
Queen Mother of the West. They also handed out a
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Gilt Coffin Ornaments from Han Dynasty Tombs in Wushan County
written note that said: ‘The Mother tells the people
that those who wear this piece of writing will not die.
Those who do not believe in my words, look under
the door hinges, where there will be white hairs.’ It
all ended in autumn.”[9]
The belief in the Queen Mother of the West also
influenced Han Dynasty funerary customs. From the
point of view of the Han Dynasty people, if one believed in the Queen Mother of the West, one would
either not die, or would become immortal with her
help immediately after death. Otherwise, another
way to become immortal was to “die and cast off
the old skin,” i.e., to die first in order to ascend and
become a so-called “corpse-liberated immortal.”[10]
The idea of becoming immortal had a profound
influence on Han Dynasty burial rites. On the one
hand, various means were used to prevent the corpse
from decomposing: In addition to funerary jades,
the alchemists employed cinnabar, mica, lead and
other substances in order to preserve the corpses.
On the other hand, one would create an imaginary
paradise in the tomb. Thus, the Queen Mother of
the West naturally became the main theme of the
decorations in the tombs. However, the depictions
of the Queen Mother seen in Eastern Han Dynasty
tombs no longer resemble the goddess with a leopard’s tail, tiger’s teeth and a sheng-crown atop her
disheveled hair whom we encounter in the Classic
of Mountains and Seas. Instead, she is portrayed as a
secular person with a kind face, wearing a turban or
a basket headdress and Han Chinese-style gowns.
Even the dragon-and-tiger throne has become an
unimportant element of the composition. The only
differences from depictions of a mortal are the inclusion of wings behind her shoulders and elements
of a Han Dynasty imaginary paradise – such as a
Heavenly Gate, two que-gate towers, a nine-tailed
fox, a three-legged crow, a phoenix, etc. – in the surrounding landscape.
In Sichuan Province, pictorial sarcophagi are
very common. The date assigned to them corre-
Figure 3: Round decorative plaque unearthed at
Longtou Mountain cemetery
sponds with that of the aforementioned gilt coffin
ornaments. Given the proximity of the two areas,
these artifacts illustrate the rather lavish burial rites
of the Southwestern areas.
The pictorial sarcophagi and wooden coffins
decorated with gilt ornaments are all fairly sumptuous, and in the Han Dynasty ritual system they are a
high-class type of burial container. In literature they
are often called “cinnabar coffins” or “pictorial coffins,” and are described either as signs of excess or as
bestowals in recognition of excellence. During the
reign of Emperor Ai of the Western Han Dynasty,
when the emperor’s favored minister Dong Xian was
accused of misconduct and committed suicide, it is
said that “(Dong) Xian killed himself in submission
to the just penalty for his crime. After his death, his
father Gong and others did not hold his transgressions against him. He was buried in a coffin painted
with pigments in the colors of the four seasons: a
blue dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, and
silver and gold depictions of the sun and moon on
top. A jade burial suit, beads and bi-discs were placed
in his coffin, showing the utmost reverence, which
could not be surpassed.” Yan Shigu commented on
this by explaining: “ ‘Pictorial coffin’ means ‘painted
with cinnabar and additionally decorated with carvings.’ ”[11] It is said of the meritorious official Geng
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Chinese Cultural Relics » Issue Number 1-2, 2015
Yan (an Eastern Han Dynasty hero) that after his
death, “He was granted a cinnabar coffin and a jade
burial suit; master craftsmen built his burial mound.
They borrowed drums and wind instruments, and
more than 300 cavalrymen from five battalions attended the funeral.”[12] When Emperor He of the
Eastern Han Dynasty bestowed a posthumous title
upon Liang Song, “He went to the capital to modify the funeral plan, granting to Liang Song funeral
goods a high official would have gotten, such as a
pictorial coffin, a jade case, burial clothing and a
blanket. The grave was built next to the mausoleum
of Empress Gonghuai. The emperor personally attended the funeral and, with hundreds of officials,
participated in the event.”[13] When Yuan Feng,
the father of General Yuan Shao of the late Eastern
Han Dynasty, passed away, “The imperial household
treated Yuan Feng as if he were an Elder [San Lao
三老], granting him a ceremony in an extraordinary
fashion, giving him a precious pictorial sarcophagus
and, upon special imperial order, 26 imperial items,
such as feeding-filling beads and jades.”[14]
In actual funerary activities, however, restrictions on this kind of luxury sarcophagus or wooden
coffin may not have been so strict. This applies especially to Sichuan and the Three Gorges areas, which
were far away from the capital. According to coffin
inscriptions found in the Sichuan area, only a small
number of people buried with pictorial sarcophagi
were county magistrates or other local officials. Most
of the deceased buried in such coffins were ordinary
people without any official post, but probably with
considerable economic clout, some of them perhaps
part of the local gentry.[15] The people who were buried in coffins with gilt decorations in the Wushan
area probably had similar status.
During the Han Dynasty, the salt production
industry flourished in the area of Wushan County.
According to the “Treatise on Geography” [Dili zhi
地理志] in the Book of Han, the “Chronicles of Ba”
in the Chronicles of Huayang [Huayang guo zhi – Ba
226
zhi 华阳国志•巴志] and other written records,
state administrative units such as Wuxian County in
Nan Commandery (present-day Wushan County),
Quren County (present-day Yunyang County) and
Linjiang County (present-day Zhong County) in
Ba Commandery each had a Salt Office [Yan Guan
盐官], and “the rich and powerful families all had
their own brine wells.” During the reign of Emperor
Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Dan Wang, the
Governor [Taishou 太守] of the Ba Commandery,
presented a memorial to the emperor stating: “According to the ‘Illustrated Map of Ba Commandery’ [Ba Jun tujing 巴郡图经], the boundaries of
the commandery comprise 4,000 li north to south
[one li in the Eastern Han Dynasty was equivalent
to 415.8 meters – Trans.], 5,000 li east to west, and
thus in total more than 10,000 li around. It comprises 14 counties and five Iron and Salt Offices, each
with a Deputy Chief Administrator [Cheng 丞] and a
Clerk [Shi 史].” Liu Lin comments, in the “Treatise
on Bureaucracy” in the Continuation of the Book of
Han [Xu Han shu – Baiguan zhi 续汉书•百官志]:
“Each commandery and county produces a lot of salt
and establishes Salt Offices to collect salt taxes.”[16]
The fact that during the Western Han Dynasty, only
Quren County had a Salt Office illustrates that the
iron and salt industry enjoyed further advancement
in Ba Commandery during the reign of Emperor
Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.
According to more recent research on the history of the salt industry in the Three Gorges area,
Wuxi County, which neighbors Wushan County
and is located on the upper reaches of the Daning
River, has natural brine springs that were exploited
at least from the Han Dynasty on. Yunyang is also
an important area of salt production, and probably
the point of origin of the Yudong well salt.[17] Ancient literature also calls the Daning River the “salt
river,”[18] maybe because it was one of the prime
waterways used for the transport of salt. The Daning
River flows into the Yangtze, thus becoming a natu-
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Gilt Coffin Ornaments from Han Dynasty Tombs in Wushan County
ral resource and convenient route of transport. Very
likely this also promoted the emergence of a very
prosperous local gentry. The distribution of these
gilt coffin ornaments is not coincidentally related to
the development of local salt resources. Rather, it
reflects the economic power of the local elite, which
flourished during the Eastern Han Dynasty as a result of the salt industry.
COFFIN DECORATION CUSTOMS
DURING THE HAN DYNASTY
According to the ancient funerary ritual system,
decorating coffins was a necessity in elite tombs.
“The coffins as well as the funerary carts carrying
the bier, which the ancient people provided for the
dead, were different for the Son of Heaven, vassals,
senior officials and military dignitaries. They were
also given different kinds of decorative ornaments,
called coffin ornaments.”[19] Large numbers of coffin ornaments unearthed from the Shang and Zhou
dynasties once formed part of the funerary canopy
and the coffin drape.
In Zhou Dynasty funerals, the coffin was decorated before being transported to the tomb pit. Apart
from textiles, which were used to wrap the coffin
tightly, an outer wooden funerary canopy in turtleshell shape was draped with pieces of silk from which
colorful ribbons, strings of cowries, bronze fish and
other objects were suspended. Ribbons (also made
of silk) were used to fasten these pieces. The coffin
drapes were often brightly colored. Depending on
the status of the tomb occupant, the motifs they were
embroidered with could include pictures of dragons, fire and hatchets.[20] Hence, they are often called
“pictorial drapes.” During the funeral, the wooden
funerary canopy, the drapes and other coffin ornaments were all interred at the same time.
According to Zheng Xuan’s explanation, the
purpose of decorating coffins was “to prevent evil
spirits from populating the tomb passage and tomb
pit.”[21] It would also prevent the attendees from ex-
periencing grief at the sight of the deceased (even
though there were public parts in a funerary ritual). Decorating the coffin with a wooden funerary
canopy and drapes might also have served another
purpose: to simulate a living space. “Once the coffin was placed on the hearse, it would be decorated
before proceeding to the funeral. The coffin would
be put inside a canopy and drapes decorated with
embroidered patterns, just as when the departed
was alive in his bedroom.”[22] For this reason, the
wooden funerary canopy was often shaped like a
house with a four-sloped roof – with a ridge and
hip at each corner, a pointed top, and eave-shaped
drapes below.[23] Elite tombs of the Zhou Dynasty
were often built as vertical earthen pit tombs housing
inner coffins inside wooden outer coffins. The inner
coffin was decorated with the funerary canopy and
coffin drapes. It was thus placed in an environment
that resembled a residence and was sealed completely after the funeral.[24]
Thus, Zhou Dynasty coffin ornaments mainly
included the wooden funerary canopy, the coffin
drapes and other installations above the inner coffin.
Since the coffin itself was going to be sealed, decorative ornaments applied directly to it were insignificant. Remains of decorated Zhou Dynasty coffins
are commonly found, as proven by such items as the
strings of cowries and bronze fish uncovered beside
the coffin in the Zhou Dynasty tomb at Zhangjiapo
Village in Fengxi New Town, Xianxi New District,
Shaanxi Province;[25] the substantial remains of
coffin drapes unearthed from the large Zhou Dynasty tomb at Hengshui Town in Jiangxian County,
Shanxi Province;[26] and the coffin drapes from the
Warring States Period unearthed in Tomb M1 at
Mashan Brick Kiln Site in Jiangling County, Hubei
Province.[27] The wooden funerary canopy hardly
ever survives. However, attempts to reconstruct the
usage of the bronze hooks found at a Warring States
tomb at Gangxin Village in Changqing District, Jinan
City, Shandong Province, as well as at the Western
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Chinese Cultural Relics » Issue Number 1-2, 2015
Han Dynasty tomb of Liu Sheng in Mancheng District of Baoding City, Hebei Province, have proven
that these belonged to a structure with a rectangular and hipped roof, similar to the wooden funerary
canopies described in historical literature.[28]
From the Han Dynasty on, this type of coffin
decoration became rare, but “cinnabar coffins” and
“pictorial coffins,” on which the ornaments were
directly fastened, are often found in both the literature and the archaeological findings. The pictorial
sarcophagi popular in the Sichuan area and the gilt
coffin ornaments of the Wushan area are evidence
of this change, which is probably related to a change
in Han Dynasty tomb structures.
During the Western Han Dynasty, a shift occurred from vertical earthen pit tombs with coffins
inside wooden outer coffins to horizontal earthen
pit tombs. The impetus for this change in structure
might have been the construction of an offering
space inside the tombs.[29] Tombs with a horizontal
earthen pit additionally had a tomb ramp, passage,
antechamber and burial chamber, as well as a number of side chambers. This type of horizontal structure extended the burial space both vertically and
horizontally. In comparison to vertical earthen pit
tombs with coffins inside wooden outer coffins, the
horizontal spaces thus imitated a living space even
more by using pictorial stone carvings and murals,
etc. This type of construction assumes the function
originally fulfilled by the wooden funerary canopy
and coffin drapes. In this kind of environment, the
inner coffin was no longer put in a sealed enclosure,
but presented in the open main burial chamber, and
thus served as the recipient for offering and worship.
Hence, the decoration on the coffin itself became
rather important.
During the Han Dynasty, as the structure of
tombs changed, the custom of decorating coffins was
added to the existing customs of using wooden funerary canopies, coffin drapes, etc. These changes were
basically completed during the Eastern Han Dynasty.
By then, the tombs were all horizontal earthen pit
tombs with brick or stone chambers, their structures
imitating houses. Features such as wooden funerary canopies and coffin drapes no longer occurred.
Instead, the walls of the tomb were decorated with
murals, pictorial stone carvings, pictorial bricks, etc.
At the same time, a strong emphasis was placed on
the center of the ritual space inside the tomb; therefore, the coffin was decorated.
The main types of coffins used in the Han Dynasty were wooden and stone coffins, either painted
with lacquer or carved with intricate designs. Pictorial sarcophagi mostly occur in the Sichuan basin
and the coastal area of the Yangtze, and mainly date
between the Eastern Han Dynasty and the era of the
Shu-Han Kingdom.[30] The use of pictorial wooden
coffins was more common. However, they are unlikely to be preserved, and it is difficult to discover
their physical remains in archaeological findings. The
gilt coffin ornaments from the Wushan County area
are thus evidence of a new way of decorating coffins
after the disappearance of vertical earthen pit tombs
with coffins placed inside wooden outer coffins.
References Cited
[1] Cultural Relics Administration of Wushan County, Chongqing Municipality et al. 1998. “Chongqing Wushan
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Discovery and Research of the Gilt Coffin Ornaments of the Eastern Han Dynasty from Wushan County,
Chongqing Municipality). Kaogu 考古 (Archaeology) No. 12.
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County). In Chongqing kuqu kaogu baogaoji (1998) 重庆库区考古报告集 (1998年) (Anthology of Reports on
the Archaeological Excavations in the Chongqing Reservoir Area [1998]), pp. 58-102. Science Press, Beijing.
228
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Bureau of Cultural Affairs of Chongqing Municipality et al. 2005. “Chongqing Wushan Maituo gumu qun di er
ci fajue baogao” 重庆巫山麦沱古墓群第二次发掘报告 (The Second Excavation of the Maituo Cemetery in
Wushan County, Chongqing Municipality). Kaogu xuebao 考古学报 (Acta Archaeological Sinica) No. 2.
[2] Bureau of Cultural Affairs of Chongqing Municipality et al. 2012. Wushan bowuguan – Wushan chutu wenwu
巫山博物馆——巫山出土文物 (Wushan County Museum – Artifacts Unearthed in Wushan County),
pp. 155-161. Southwest Jiaotong University Publishing House, Chengdu.
[3] Liu, Hong. 1994. “Sichuan Han mu zhong de sishen gongneng xin tan – jiantan Wushan tongpai shangshi
renwu de shenfen” 四川汉墓中的四神功能新探——兼谈巫山铜牌上饰上人物的身份 (New Explorations
on the Functions of the Four Legendary Guardian Beasts in the Tombs of the Han Dyansty in Sichuan
Province – As Well as on the Identity of the Figures Depicted on Decorative Bronze Plaques From Wuhan
County). Sichuan wenwu 四川文物 (Sichuan Cultural Relics) No. 2.
This article voices the opinion that, in terms of its cap, seat and other characteristics, this human figure differs
from the Queen Mother of the West depicted in historical literature, so that it is probably the tomb occupant
who is depicted. However, although this kind of depiction does not possess a sheng-crown, a dragon-and-tiger
throne or some other features associated with the Queen Mother in historical literature, the wings growing
from its shoulders permit us to conclude that it is not a mortal human being.
[4] Cultural Relics Administration of Wushan County, Chongqing Municipality et al. 1998. “Chongqing Wushan
xian Donghan liujin tongpaishi de faxian yu yanjiu” 重庆巫山县东汉鎏金铜牌饰的发现与研究 (The
Discovery and Research of the Gilt Coffin Ornaments of the Eastern Han Dynasty from Wushan County,
Chongqing Municipality). Kaogu 考古 (Archaeology) No. 12.
This article includes 14 gilt coffin ornaments from the area of Wushan County. Most of them are round, and
three of them include variations on the theme of the Heavenly Gate; see also [2], p. 156.
[5] Archaeological Field Crew of Guling Town of the National Museum of Chinese History et al. 2003. “Yunyang
Guling Chu mu fajue baogao” 云阳故陵楚墓发掘报告 (Excavation of Chu Polity Tombs at Guling town,
Yunyang County). In Chongqing kuqu kaogu baogaoji (1998) 重庆库区考古报告集 (1998年) (Anthology of
Reports on the Archaeological Excavations in the Chongqing Reservoir Area [1998]), pp. 389-415. Science
Press, Beijing.
[6] Jiang, Xiaochun. 2007. “You guan liujin guanshi tongpai de jige wenti” 有关鎏金棺饰铜牌的几个问题 (A Few
Questions on Gilt Coffin Ornamental Plaques). Kaogu 考古 (Archaeology) No. 5.
[7] Yuan, Ke (editor). 1992. “Xishanjing” 西山经 (Classic of the Western Mountains). In Shanhaijing jiaozhu 山海
经校注 (A Collation and Annotation to the Classic of Mountains and Seas), Ch. 2, p. 60. Ba-Shu Publishing,
Chengdu. Ke Yuan comments on Guo Pu’s annotation by saying: “[The Queen Mother] is known to have a way
of dealing out disaster and the five punishments as well as slaughtering [people].”
[8] Zhang, Shuangdi (editor). 1997. “Lanmingxun” 览冥训 (Peering into the Obscure). In Huainanzi jiaoshi 淮南子
校释 (The Masters of Huainan: A Collation and Explanation), Ch. 6, p. 710. Peking University Press.
[9] Ban, Gu (Han Dynasty). 1962 (reprint). “Wuxing zhi” 五行志 (Treatise on the Five Elements). In Han shu 汉书
(The Book of Han), p. 1476. Zhonghua Book Company.
[10] Ge Hong (Jin Dynasty). 1985 (reprint). Wang Ming (editor). Baopuzi neipian jiaoshi 抱朴子内篇校释 (The Inner
Chapters of the [Book of the] Master Embracing Simplicity: A Collation and Explanation), p. 20. Zhonghua
Book Company.
Ge Hong says in the “Treatise on Immortality”: “The upper masters who lift their physical form and ascend
to emptiness are called celestial immortals; the intermediate masters who journey to a famous mountain
are called earthly immortals; the lower masters who die and cast off their skin are called corpse-liberated
immortals.”
[11] Ban, Gu (Han Dynasty). 1962 (reprint). “Ningxingzhuan” 佞幸传 (Biographies of Flatterers). In Han shu 汉书
(The Book of Han), pp. 3739-3740. Zhonghua Book Company.
[12] Fan, Ye (Former Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties). 1965 (reprint). “GengYan zhuan” 耿弇传
(Biography of Geng Yan). In Hou Han shu 后汉书 (The Book of Later Han), p. 718. Zhonghua Book Company.
[13] Fan, Ye (Former Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties). 1965 (reprint). “Liang Song zhuan” 梁竦传
(Biography of Liang Song). In Hou Han shu 后汉书 (The Book of Later Han), p. 1174. Zhonghua Book Company.
[14] Fan, Ye (Former Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties). 1965 (reprint). “Yuan An zhuan” 袁安传 (Biography
of Yuan An). In Hou Han shu 后汉书 (The Book of Later Han), p. 1523. Zhonghua Book Company.
Chinese Cultural Relics No. 1-2, 2015. Copyright East View Press. All rights reserved.
www.eastviewpress.com/Journals/CulturalRelics.aspx
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Chinese Cultural Relics » Issue Number 1-2, 2015
[15] Luo, Erhu. 2002. Handai huaxiang shiguan 汉代画像石棺 (Pictorial Carving Stone Coffins of the Han Dynasty),
p. 255. Ba-Shu Publishing, Chengdu.
[16] Chang, Qu (Jin Dynasty). 1984 (reprint). Liu Lin, (editor). “Ba zhi” 巴志 (Chronicles of Ba). In Huayang Guo zhi
jiaozhu 华阳国志校注 (Chronicles of Huayang Polity: A Collation and Annotation), Ch. 1, pp. 48-50. Ba-Shu
Publishing, Chengdu.
[17] Sun, Hua. 2003. “Sichuan pendi yanye qiyuan lungang – Yudong yanye kaogu de xianzhuang, wenti yu
zhanwang” 四川盆地盐业起源论纲—渝东盐业考古的现状, 问题与展望 (A Discussion of the Salt Industry
in the Sichuan Basin as well as of the Current Situation, Challenges and Prospects of the Archaeology of the
Yudong Salt Industry). Yanyeshi yanjiu 盐业史研究 (Studies on the History of the Salt Industry) No. 1.
[18] Li, Daoyuan (Northern Wei Dynasty). 1985 (reprint). Wang Xianqian (editor; Qing Dynasty). “Jiangshui” 江水
(Rivers and Waterways). In Shuijingzhu jiaozhu 水经注校注 (Commentary on the Waterways: A Collation and
Connotation), Ch. 34, p. 789. Ba-Shu Publishing, Chendgu.
There we read: “[The Yangtze] flows eastward, passing to the South of Wushan County. The salt river flows
into it from the southeast of the county.”
[19] Yang, Bojun (editor). 1981 (reprint). Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhu 春秋左传注 (Annotated Commentary to the
Commentary of Zuo), Vol. 2, pp. 609-610. Zhonghua Book Company.
“(Entry from ‘the fifteenth year of the reign period of Duke Wen of Lu Polity’ in the Commentary of Zuo)
Someone from Qi gave counsel in regard to the circumstances of the Meng family, saying, ‘Lu and you are kin.
Decorate the coffin and place it in Tangfu. Lu will certainly take it away.’ ”
[20] Chen, Shuguo (editor). 2004 (reprint). “Sang Daji” 丧大记 (Greater Record of Mourning Rites). In Liji jiaozhu 礼记
校注 (Book of Rites: A Collation and Connotation), p. 349. Yuelu Publishing House.
“Ornamenting the coffin (on its way to the grave), there were for a ruler: the curtains with dragons ([depicted]
on them), and over them three gutter-spouts; the fluttering ornaments (with pheasants [depicted] on them and
the ends of the curtains); above (on the sloping roof of the catafalque) were figures of ax-heads, of the symbol of
discrimination, thrice repeated, and of flames, thrice repeated. These occupied the pall-like roof of white silk, as
embroidery. … For the catafalque of a Great Officer, there were painted curtains, with two gutter-spouts (above
them); there were not the fluttering ornaments; above (on the sloping roof) there were flames painted, thrice
repeated; and three symbols of discrimination. These formed the pall-like roof …” [English translation quoted
from “The Li Ki I-X,” trans. James Legge, 1885, in The Sacred Books of China: The Texts of Confucianism 3, The Sacred
Books of the East: Translated by various oriental scholars, ed. F.M. Müller, Vol. 27, p. 197-198, Clarendon Press,
Oxford. – Trans.]
[21] Li, Xueqin (editor). 1999 (reprint). “Jixili” 既夕礼 (Mourning Procedures of the Evening Preceding the Burial). In
Yili zhushu 仪礼注疏 (Annotations to the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial), Ch. 40. Commentary by Zheng
Xuan, p. 761. Peking University Press.
[22] Li, Xueqin (editor). 1999 (reprint). “Fengren” 缝人 (The Tailors) section of “Tianguan” 天官 (On General
Governance). In Zhouli zhushu 周礼注疏 (Annotations to the Rites of Zhou), Ch. 8, p. 208. Peking University
Press.
[23] Qian, Xuan. 1996. “Sangzang” 丧葬 (Funerary) section of “Mingwupian” 名物篇 (Names of Objects). In Sanli
tonglun 三礼通论 (Discussion of the Three Rites), Figure 90. Nanjing Normal University Press.
Xuan Qian reconstructed the coffin decoration as the form of a house with a hipped roof and pointed top.
[24] Li, Xueqin (editor). 1999 (reprint). “Jixili” 既夕礼 (Mourning Procedures of the Evening Preceding the Burial). In
Yili zhushu 仪礼注疏 (Annotations to the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial), Ch. 40, p. 760. Peking University
Press.
“Upon placing a coffin in a grave … the items are placed beside it and then a jian is added.” Zheng Xuan
comments: “The items are utility objects, serving items. A jian is a coffin decoration. It is also called a jian
because when it is added, the coffin and the bier can no longer be seen.”
[25] Fengxi Excavation Team, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. 1990. “Shaanxi
Chang’an Zhangjiapo M170 hao Jing Shu mu fajue jianbao” 陕西长安张家坡M170号井叔墓发掘简报 (The
Excavation of Tomb M170 of Jingshu at Zhangjiapo Village in Chang’an County, Shaanxi Province). Kaogu
考古 (Archaeology) No. 6.
230
Zhang, Changshou. 1992. “Qianliu yu huangwei – 1983-1986 nian Fengxi fajue ziliao zhi wu” 墙柳与荒
帷—1983～1986年沣西发掘资料之五 (Funerary Canopies and Coffin Drapes – Set No. 5 of the Excavation
Data in Fengxi New District, 1983-1986). Wenwu 文物 (Cultural Relics) No. 4.
Chinese Cultural Relics No. 1-2, 2015. Copyright East View Press. All rights reserved.
www.eastviewpress.com/Journals/CulturalRelics.aspx
Gilt Coffin Ornaments from Han Dynasty Tombs in Wushan County
[26] Ji, Kunzhang and Jinping Wang. 2006. “Qian nian qiyu de huangwei” 王金平《千年奇遇的荒帷》 (Coffin
Drapes – A Rare Discovery in 1,000 Years). Zhongguo wenhua yichan 中国文化遗产 (China Cultural Heritage)
No. 2.
Ji, Kunzhang et al. 2006. “Shanxi Huangshui Xi Zhou mudi yanjiu san ti” 山西横水西周墓地研究三题 (Three
Questions in Research on the Cemetery of the Western Zhou Dynasty at Huangshui Town, Shanxi Province).
Wenwu 文物 (Cultural Relics) No. 8.
[27] Jingzhou Museum of Hubei Province. 1985. Jiangling Mashan yi hao Chu mu 江陵马山一号楚墓 (Tomb M1 of
the Chu Polity at Mashan Brick Kiln Site, Jiangling County), pp. 8-9, Plate 4.1. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing.
[28] Zhang, Changshou. 1992. “Qianliu yu huangwei – 1983-1986 nian Fengxi fajue ziliao zhi wu” 墙柳与荒
帷——1983～1986年沣西发掘资料之五 (Funerary Canopies and Coffin Drapes – Set No. 5 of the Excavation
Data in Fengxi New District, 1983-1986). Wenwu 文物 (Cultural Relics) No. 4.
[29] Huang, Xiaofen. 2003. Han mu de kaoguxue yanjiu 汉墓的考古学研究 (Archaeological Research on the Han
Dynasty Tombs), p. 92. Yuelu Publishing House.
Xiaofen Huang postulates that the main function of the offering space was twofold. On the one hand, it
would separate the offering space and burial chamber; on the other hand, it would raise and expand the roof
of the burial chamber.
[30]See [15], pp. 243-246.
Wenwu (Cultural Relics) Editor: Ran Wu
Translated by Catrin Kost, Postdoctoral fellow, Graduate School for Ancient Studies, Munich University, Munich,
Germany
This article was originally published in Wenwu (Cultural Relics) No. 9, 2014, pp. 71-75.
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