The strength of a chain
is its weakest link.
Cohesion
• What makes a paper cohesive
• How to begin and end a sentence
• How to construct a paragraph
• How to structure a document
Cohesive
• Adhere one kind of material clings to another:
Adhesive tape adheres to the skin.
• Cohere suggests a thing is attracted to and held by
something like itself:
Particles of candle wax cohere and form a
mass that will adhere to the candle-holder.
Cohesion
for the reader
• Structure orchestrates the thoughts
– Coherent: a logical analysis
– Directions for travel or for assembling parts
– Right and wrong applies: “This doesn’t make sense.”
• Style makes events happen in reader’s mind
– Better and worse applies: “This reads well.” Why?
– Clear ideas let the reader forget about the prose
– Cohesive sentences connect; paragraphs hold; story told
Principles
of Cohesion
• Keep your topics visible
• Begin with the familiar
• End with the new
– information to stress!
– information to expand on
• Apply transition words and phrases
– connect ideas in a fluid and comprehensible way
– Micro: sentences and paragraphs
– Macro: sections and paper
Keep Your
Topics Visible
• First 5 or 6 words
• Locate your reader in familiar territory
• Subject-verb-object builds a familiar topic string
characters as subject
+ subjects immediately connect with verbs that express action
cohesive and coherent
Passive replaces long subject of new information with short, familiar
Active: Economists, ecologists and a host of other researchers familiar
with the problems raised by conventional political ecology have confirmed
these observations.
Passive: These observations have been confirmed by economists,
ecologists and a host of other researchers familiar with the problems
raised by conventional political ecology .
Micro migraine:
Beginning the Sentence
• Harder to begin than end
• Subordinate clause:
Despite the fact that… Notwithstanding the fact that…
– Excessive use is the hallmark of pseudo-academic writing
– Appear to clarify the main clause by
• first declaring reservations about it
• thereby implying precision
• rather than demonstrating it
• Likely difficult to understand. Why?
Reader’s
short-term memory
Thus, although there were too few respondents
to the questionnaire to yield reliable results
[apologetic subordinate clause], and the
questionnaire did not ask the right questions to
produce valid results [conditional subordinate clause],
most students indicated that procrastination was
their greatest writing problem.
Thus, most students indicated that procrastination was their greatest
writing problem, although too few respondents produced…
• But beginning with a conditional clause is justified:
If there is insufficient rainfall, it is uneconomical to apply fertilizers.
Monotonous
beginnings
•
•
•
Did your teachers advised you how to avoid monotony?
– Vary how you begin your sentences
– Avoid beginning sentences with the same subjects
– Bad advice
Monotony comes from more serious reasons:
– one short sentence after another
– one long sentence after another
– Too many passive sentences stuffed with nominalizations
You avoid monotony by…
– Writing as clearly as you can
– Engaging your readers in your ideas
– “Stories” typically have several different characters
Complex endings
Newest information goes last:
– a new term
– information that is long and complex
– a concept that you intend to develop
Introducing
technical terms
Rule of thumb: it appears in the last two words
•
Calcium blockers can control
muscle spasms. Sarcomeres are
the small units of muscle fibers in
which these drugs work. Two
filaments, one thick and one thin,
are in each sarcomere. The
proteins actin and myosin are
constained in the thin filament.
When actin and myosin interact,
your heart contracts.
•
Muscle spasms can be controlled
by drugs called calcium blockers.
Calcium blockers work in small
units of muscle fibers called
sarcomeres. Each sarcomere has
two filaments, one thick and one
thin. The thin filament contains
two proteins, actin and myosin.
When actin and myosin interact,
your heart contracts.
Introducing
complex information
bundle long complex phrases at the end
•
•
There is a second reason
historians have concentrated on
Churchill rather than Warner.
Hundreds of letters, both personal
and public, from scores of
different scholars, including
leading military figures,
illuminate Churchill’s genius. Only
ten letters from disgruntled
students and disappointed faculty
represent Warner.
Subjects are complex and run for
several lines.
•
•
Historians of conflict have
concentrated on Churchill rather
than Warner for a second reason.
Churchill’s genius is illuminated by
hundreds of letters, both personal
and public, from scores of
different scholars, including
leading military figures. Warner is
represented by only ten letters
from disgruntled students and
disappointed faculty.
Subjects are short, simple, easy to
read, because passive verbs (is
illuminated and is represented)
allows us to move from the short,
familiar to long, complex.
Introducing
what follows
The last few words should be contextually relevant
The political situation changed,
because disputes over succession
to the throne caused a palace
revolt or popular revolution in
seven out of eight reigns of the
Romanov line after Peter the
Great.
The problems began in
1722, when Peter the Great
passed a law of succession that
terminated the principle of
heredity and required the
sovereign to appoint a successor.
The political situation changed,
because after Peter the Great
seven out of eight of the
Romanov line were plagued by
turmoil over disputed succession
to the throne.
The problems began in
1722, when Peter the Great
passed a law of succession that
terminated the principle of
heredity and required the
sovereign to appoint a successor.
Ending with
Emphasis
Give the right information the right emphasis
• Less important, old, simple information to the left.
The data are not valid for the most part.
For the most part, the data are not valid.
• Important, new, complex information to the right.
Moving the important information to the end of a sentence is another
way to manage the flow of ideas.
Another way to manage the flow of ideas is to move the important
information to the end of a sentence.
Tips
Cut final unnecessary words
Thus, many social psychologists
claim that wealth determines our
social behavior in the way we act
in situations we find around us
every day.
Since social behavior means the
way we act, drop everything after
behavior.
•
•
Keeps topic visible
Easier to bridge
Bridge a key word
• Find a key word/concept in
the last 5-7 words of the
paragraph.
• Bridge it to the next
paragraph:
Social behavior, however, creates
wealth…
Here and There
syntax devices
• Like passives, there and here beginnings have functions:
– stress ideas that you intend to develop
– add weight to the end of a sentence
There is a way to stress an idea…
Here are a few ways to add weight…
• here and there
– locations
– suggest something to point out
What
is the emphasis?
Beginning with ‘what’
• emphasizes what follows a linking verb,
• which typically comes at the end.
This course needs a lecturer who comes to class prepared.
What this course needs is a lecturer who comes to class prepared.
Paragraph
Principles
Like a sentence
• Keep the topic visible
• Begin with the familiar and simple
• End with the new, complex, and that what will follow
Among groups of related sentences
–
–
–
Keep your topics consistent
Topics should constitute a string of focused thoughts.
Similar to characters of a sentence
Beginning the Paragraph
Topic Sentence
Each paragraph should be crystallized into a topic sentence.
•
•
Illuminate, do NOT summarize
An original, analytical interpretation based upon evidence
Weak Topic Sentence: a statement of fact
Day’s (1993) How to Write a Scientific Paper explains the misuse of English.
Strong Topic Sentence: an analysis
Day (1993) transforms rules of grammar to principles of style.
Paragraph Topic
To determine how well you’ve managed a paragraph
1. Underline the first 5 or 6 words of every sentence.
2. Read the underlined phrases.
3. Do they orbit the topic sentence?
T-R-I sentences
• Topic: Establish the general idea of the paragraph
• Restrictive: Limits the topic’s scope
• Illustrative: Provide examples of the topic
The time a person spends planning a project will never go wasted.
What will be wasted is the time people spend correcting mistakes in a
poorly-planned project. Poorly-planned papers leave people wondering
how they should proceed, so they spend their time addressing minor details
instead of working on major issues. At the end of the project, they have no
time, lots of stress, and, considering the hours they have spent on the project,
little to show for it.
T-R-I-R
Never before had the world known a
thinker like Sir Isaac Newton. He prompted a revolution in
mathematics that still influences the way scientists think
about empirical world. In 1687, he published Principia
Mathematica, which explains his laws of motion and his law
of universal gravitation. As he developed these laws, he also
developed calculus, a math system that is still taught to
mathematics and science students. Although Newton’s ideas
were similar to those of other mathematicians of his era, his
writing is more elegant, so he is usually credited as a
revolutionary genius.
SEX tells
State the general idea
Explain the topic’s scope
x
E amples of the topic
Subject-Verb-Object rhythm
The public hears mainly from people towards the
extremes of the global-warming issue, people who
function as spokespersons for interest groups.
These spokespersons cite results from scientific
research, but they do so [cite] in a highly selected
way, omitting caveats that are part of a full
scientific assessment, failing to place the results
they quote in a larger context, and ignoring
contradictory information that would frame a
larger view.
Subject
Verb
Repetition of key terms
The public hears mainly from people towards the extremes of
the global-warming issue, people who function as
spokespersons for interest groups. These spokespersons cite
results from scientific research, but they do so in a highly
selected way, omitting caveats that are part of a full scientific
assessment, failing to place the results they quote in a larger
context, and ignoring contradictory information that would
frame a larger view. It is not particularly difficult to extract
isolated scientific findings and string them together so as to
support only one side or the other of a complex issue. The
two extreme advocacy groups on the global warming issue
can be called “environmental” and “ industrial,” even though
these labels are obviously simplistic.
Transitional words
and phrases that…
• Provide more information: additionally, again, also, besides,
furthermore, in addition to, moreover, too
• Indicate chronology: after, finally, meanwhile, later, before,
afterward, then, next, first/second/third
• Summarize: finally, in closing, in conclusion, in other words,
in short, in summary, therefore, to close, to summarize
• Compare and contrast: also, although, but, however, in
contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand
Be careful with contrast
•
•
•
•
also, although, but, however, in contrast, despite,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand
Connecting dissimilar ideas in a sentence takes the
reader in different directions
Use only when the intent is to signal an about-face
Use sparingly: can confuse more than clarify
Focus on the part of the sentence to emphasize than
put it in opposition to another point.
Know your audience
On the same day, Zorcon invaded Limlam, making
rapid progress by using aggressive tactics. At the end
of the month, Norpalese troops were forced to evacuate
the continent, abandoning their heavy equipment. On
June 10th, Tak-tak invaded, declaring war on Limlam
and Norpal. Twelve days later, Limlam surrendered
and was soon divided between Zorcon and Tak-tak. In
early July, the Norpalese attacked Limlam’s fleet in
Zoot to prevent their seizure by Zorcon.
Audience knows
your characters
On the same day, Germany invaded France, making
rapid progress by using aggressive tactics. At the end
of the month, British troops were forced to evacuate
the continent, abandoning their heavy equipment. On
June 10th, Italy invaded, declaring war on France
and Britain. Twelve days later, France surrendered
and was soon divided between Germany and Italy. In
early July, the British attacked Italy’s fleet in
Algeria to prevent their seizure by Germany.
Cohesive
Structures
• Structure helps audience anticipate
• Different structures for different and purposes
• But all follow same patterns for cohesion:
– General to specific
– Familiar, new, expand
– Opening
Body
Closing
Basic Structure
Owner’s Manual
Article
Introduction
Opening
List of parts/tools
Methods
Results
Body
Safety information
Ordered steps
Discussion
Conclusion
Introduction
Closing
Conclusion
Sentence
Familiar
New
Paragraph
Expand
Document
State topic
General
Introduction
Explain
Specific
Body
eXample
Conclusion
Six-step
Opening
1. Subject: What is the paper about?
Avalanches have become a concern for the Norwegian
Tourist Association (DNT) in recent years.
2. Purpose: What your paper will do.
This report offers avalanche management strategies for DNT.
3. Main point: Solution, decision, or conclusion
Specifically, it details techniques for rapid response during
emergency situations in Jotunheimen National Park.
Six-step
Opening
4. Justification: Stress pertinence, “So what?”
Without this information, avalanches could injure or kill tourists.
5. Background: Known or non-controversial
Since 2000, avalanches have injured or killed 38 tourists.
6. Forecast: What will follow
This report will outline three management strategies for
rapid response. Then, for each strategy, it will detail
techniques for prioritizing emergency tactics. Finally, it will
identify resources to implement an avalanche response
program for DNT in Jotunheimen National Park.
Body
•
•
•
Organized in different ways
Purpose of a document will determine how
Organizational strategies include:
Cause/Effect
If…then
Comparison/Contrast
Either…or
Better/Worse
Chronological order
Cost/Benefit
Problem/Need/Solution
Closing
1. Make a transition:
In conclusion, To sum up, In closing, In summary, Finally,
Overall, As a whole, In the end, In brief, Ultimately
2. Restate main idea
In summary, to respond rapidly to avalanches, DNT should…
3. Re-stress importance
DNT can reduce the risk of life from avalanches by…
4.Look to the future
If DNT takes these steps, visitors will… Moreover, DNT will…
Paragraph like Paper
The purpose of this paper is to improve •
our understanding of the relationship
between the sustainable management
of natural resources and poverty
reduction by analyzing a specific
example: an inland fishery in
Bangladesh. The use of an example
allows the choice of assumptions to be
guided by direct observation and ensures
•
the relevance of the results to at least
one practical situation. Nonetheless, the
modeling techniques used in the analysis
can readily be adapted to other fisheries
and perhaps even to other sorts of
natural resources. As the main aim is to
provide insights that can be applied more
•
generally, the paper starts with a
discussion of the general issue that are
illustrated by the example, and
concluded with an evaluation of the
wider implications of its results.
Opening
– Purpose: to improve our
understanding of…
– Problem: understanding the
relationship between sustainable
management of natural
resources and poverty
reduction…
Body
– Solution: the analysis can readily
be adapted to other…
– Justification: to provide insights
that can be applied more
generally…
Concluding
– Main aim
– What follows