MYSTICAL ELEMENTS IN WALT WHITMAN'S
LEAVES OF GRASS: A STUDY OF "INSCRIPTIONS"
AND "CHILDREN OF ADAM"
BY
ZUL SHAHARUDDIN BIN SETAPA@ MUSTAFA
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for
the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English
Literary Studies)
Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
International Islamic University
Malaysia
OCTOBER 2012
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this thesis is to provide a study of mystical elements in Walt
Whitman's (1819- 1892) Leaves of Grass (1855). The study will investigate the
mystical elements specifically in two of his major poems, "Inscriptions" and
"Children of Adam". Mysticism is essentially associated with the transcendentalist
Walt Whitman. It is a deep understanding of, and an urge to seek, the absolute truth of
the universe connected with divinity. It raises the spirit to a higher level of
consciousness that goes beyond the norms. In this study, two poems from Whitman's
Leaves of Grass will be examined to analyse the mystical elements he uses. The
analysis will discover Whitman's reasons and aims of using them. By doing this. the
significance of the elements used for American literature will be also be found. In
addition, it will demonstrate the relevance of transcendentalism in Whitman's
mysticism. As transcendentalism will be used as the theory to support arguments
regarding the content of Leaves of Grass, this study will define it and explain how it
influences Whitman's work. Concerning methodology, this study is conducted
qualitatively. It depends on library materials such as books, journals and magazines in
which Leaves of Grass is discussed with specific references to "Inscriptions" and
"Children of Adam". Thus, the findings explain the meanings of Leaves o.f Grass and
the importance of mystical elements as well as their relation with transcendentalism
from the point of view of a twenty-first century researcher. It brings a new dimension
to Whitman studies.
11
iii
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary
Studies),
IY!::,~,,~
Md Mahmudul Has an
Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),
~ oJ\f aw.i!:--~N~~"JC-.--
~ ~i~~ij;~ H,~~h,i~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
This thesis was submitted to the Department of English Lan age and Literature and
is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the d
e of Master of Human
Sciences (English Literary Studies),
Zaharia
Head, Department of
English Language and Literature
This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge & Human
Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of
Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),
Mah
di Abdul Majid
Dean. Kulh;ah of Islamic
Revealed
Knowledge & Human Sciences
IV
DECLARATION
I hereby declared that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declared that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Zul Shaharuddin Bin Setapa @ Mustafa
.r?
>. 10 .
Signature: ................ ~····················
.!l..0{1-
Date: ............................. .
v
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION
OFFAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright@ 2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
MYSTICAL ELEMENTS IN WALT WHITMAN'S LEAVES OF
GRASS: A STUDY OF "INSCRIPTIONS" AND CHILDREN OF
ADAM"
I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University (IIUM) holds all rights in the
copyright in this Work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form or by
means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent ofl!UM. No part of this
unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,
in any form or by means, electronic, mechanicaL photocopying. recording or
otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Affirmed by Zul Shaharuddin Bin Setapa @ Mustafa
(]
······················~*······
Signatur~(l" ...
Date
Vl
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to the Almighty Allah who has given me
the strength to produce this academic writing.
Many thanks to my supervisor Dr Umar Abdurrahman and my examiner Dr
Mahmudul Hassan who have guided me in writing. The guidance and comments have
helped much in the process of completing this thesis.
Moreover, I would like to thank my family. My father, Setapa @ Mustafa
Ibrahim and my mother, Sansider Mohamed. Thank you for the all the support. I also
would like to thank my my eldest sister, Intan Suhaila, my elder brother, Ikhwan
Rudaini and my youngest sister, Intan Shafini who have given the same support for
me.
Last but not least, to everyone who have involved in the process of
accomplishing this thesis either directly or indirectly. Thank you for making it as a
successful project.
VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... iii
Approval Page .......................................................................................................... iv
Declaration Page ...................................................................................................... v
Copyright Page ........................................................................................................ vi
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... I
Background of the Study ............................................................................. I
Statement of Problem ................................................................................... 13
Scope of Study ............................................................................................. 14
Objectives of Study ...................................................................................... 15
Significance of Study ................................................................................... 15
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................ 16
Methodology ................................................................................................ 22
Limitations of Study .................................................................................... 22
Organization of Chapters ............................................................................. 23
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 25
CHAPTER 3: WHITMAN"S MYSTICISM IN INSCRIPTIONS .................... 29
CHAPTER 4: DELVING DEEP INTO THE SELF: A STUDY
OF "CHILDREN OF ADAM ............................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................... 53
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 58
Vlll
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1.1 Whitman's Background
Walt Whitman's (1819- 1892) experience in the country he lived, America, hugely
influenced him and his works. During his childhood, Whitman suffered financial and
psychological hardships. At the age of II, he stopped his formal education and
became an apprentice in Brooklyn printing shops for five years, According to
Greenspan (2005), "'the poet's start was inauspicious" (l ), Things changed when he
was 17 as he started teaching at several Long Island schools. Then in 1948 when he
was 29 years old, he entered journalism and chose it as his career. In the meantime, he
built houses, using skills he learned from his father. There is little information about
how some events shaped his life and inspired him to produce Leaves of Grass in 1855.
However, his experience of working in printing shops is crucial in creating the urge
and need to write. Newspaper editorship turned him into a mature man who put
feelings and imagination in the form of writing. Greenspan points out that "he was so
sensitive to tactile character of ink, press, and paper that it affected his poetic
imagination" (14).
Moreover, his career as a journalist provided him with an
opportunity to encounter many types of people and that gave him an understanding of
the people whom he describes in Leaves of Grass. What inspired him to be interested
in literature was the encounter with other writers who helped to develop his theory on
poetry, One ofthem is Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) who influenced his writing
extensively,
1.1.2
Whitman's Mysticism
Mysticism deals with higher thinking inspired by divinity. It leads to a higher
understanding of the universe beyond the norms. This understanding becomes a guide
that influences actions. These actions aim at achieving glorious results.
As regards Whitman, Underhill (2004) mentions that "amongst modem men,
Walt Whitman possessed in a supreme degree the permanent sense of this glory. the
light rare, untellable, lighting the very light" (192). It means that Whitman's mystical
ideas come rrom an illumination he possessed which functioned as a guide of his
actions. It is also more than what senses can perceive. Someone can only feel it in the
company of a higher spirit that is able to translate the meanings of a particular idea
into desirable outcomes by taking certain actions. The person will explore the idea to a
very large extent, going beyond comprehensible arguments to understand complex
matters. Once the person is able to explore it, there will be benefits for human
development as it is based on the reality of the surrounding. In short, the illumination
is a practical idea for life. Underhill (1993) argues:
The mystics show us this independent spiritual life, this rruition of the
Absolute, enjoyed with a fullness to which others cannot attain. They
are the heroic examples of the life of spirit; as the great artists, the great
discoverers, are the heroic examples of the life of beauty and the life of
truth. (34)
Whitman is one of the poets with these qualities.
In Leaves of Grass, Whitman shows that he is self-reliant. He generates his
own ideas of individuals, the masses and the politics that can determine the progress
of the country. He then expresses them in Leaves of Grass. The purpose is to show
that he has achieved a deep realization about life, in which he has the power to
perceive what others are not able to. By being a self-reliant, perceptive person and
achiever, Whitman becomes someone who can look up to himself. This can be an urge
2
to be a visionary with the help of the divine self. Underhill (2004) argues that it is
"closely connected with the sense of the presence of God, power of perceiving the
Absolute, is the complementary mark of the illuminated consciousness: a vision of a
new heaven and a new earth. or an added significance and reality in the phenomenal
world" (254). After getting these influences, Whitman goes beyond the norms by
having powerful ideas of God and his creations. He expands his views on reality
beyond what he can see it by puning his spirit above what senses can experience.
There comes the idea of mysticism in Leaves of Grass. He starts with the idea of
creating the new self, and at the same time he does not abandon the old one. The new
self-creation will be an excellent one with the aim to play a big role in shaping human
qualities. The self will have its own divinity. Bucke (2009) says that "for over twenty
years he has been guided by this (seeming) supernatural illumination. He has yielded
freely to it and obeyed its behests as being from God Himself' (233). This means
expressions of knowledge in Leaves of Grass are a guide from God that a mystic like
Whitman can feel. As it is the nature of a knowledgeable man to spread the knowledge
to others, Whitman puts efforts to tum Americans from what they are as a democratic
nation to what his mystical ideas want them to be.
1.1.3 Mystical Ideas and American Literary Tradition
The mystical ideas in Leaves of Grass are related with the time when
transcendentalism was quite influential in America. Prior to this, American literature
was about forming a new life. Then, the theme in American literature was related to
gaining liberty.
It was followed by the theme about preserving values of the
American land.
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The earliest literature in America is concerned with the experience oflife in a
new place. It discusses the circumstances of people who came to explore and live in
America after Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) discovered the land in 1492. Even
though the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, Swedes and Portuguese arrived with a
mission of searching for gold, the interest of establishing stable settlements grew. As a
result the writers like John Smith (1580-1631), William Bradford (1590-1657) and
William Byrd (1674-1744) shared a common feeling which was linked to a type of life
that was yet to be explored. They expressed the eagerness to transform America into a
better place to live their life.
It was followed by a type of literature that emphasized liberty starting from
1750 to 1800. The starting point was when a minuteman fired a market shot near the
British redcoats in Concord, Massachusetts as a sign of protest against the rule of
British government Colonies were dissatisfied with such unfair treatment of their
people. They believed that the practice of laws and taxes of the Stamp Act, the
Quartering Act and the Townshend Acts was a burden for people but it gave
advantages to the stability of the government As it was the period when many people
thought of separation from the then government, writers started to write about the
hope to be independent Writers like Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), Patrick Henry
(1736-1799) and Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) shared the same hope with common
people and emphasized the Declaration oflndependence that could free them from the
colonial power. As American literature was connected with the making of an
independent nation, writing then was associated much with politics and in the form of
an urge for liberty.
Once the American nation had gained independence, its literature changed
agam. American literature turned into expressions of nationalism, stressing
4
Americanism. However, the writers then like Washington Irving ( 1783-1859),
William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878) and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) still got the
influence of Romanticism, a European literary movement in the late eighteenth
century. It is a movement that was associated with personal experience and high
emotions. Its main characteristics were love of nature. importance of the individual,
attraction to the supernaturaL longing for charming unusual manner, strong idealism
and nationalism. As a result. the influence of Romanticism in American writers had
established a national identity of America. The identity had succeeded in developing
America to a large extent when more states joined the confederation, means of
transportations and communications improved and agricultural economy turned into
an industrialized one.
It was the next generation of literature which differed or was free from
Romanticism. Emerson had inspired this new American literature. He was connected
with a literary movement called transcendentalism. This movement was about a belief
that the ultimate truths of the universe could only be understood when someone was
able to experience life beyond the help of senses. It emphasized that every individual
had a right to reject any established dogma and could become superior in spirit.
Transcendentalism believed that anyone could know what was beyond reality through
intuition. It was the power of writers' attitude that created this intuition. There was no
concrete doctrine of transcendentalism but it placed importance on nature as a divine
thing. Moreover, this intuition that transcendentalists believed could only be there to
experience when people had allowed themselves to be individuals. The
transcendentalists also emphasized democracy in which they asserted that all people
could have this intuition and became powerful in governing the selves. This led to the
height of moral enthusiasm and transcendentalists had become the agents of reform by
5
stressing the quality of individuals in connection with divine nature. Other writers
known as transcendentalists are Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) and Nathaniel
Hawthorne (1804-1864). As it was a popular theory of fundamental truths beyond
senses and emphasized a high intuition of the soul, it questioned the established
cultural forms. Transcendentalists asked for a reform in combining spirit and material
as well as ideas and actions. The main elements of it were individuals and divine
nature. In other words, it was associated with individuals' capacity to be self-reliant
using the power they got from their union with nature. They believed that God was in
everything and every creation was in unity with God. This showed that mysticism
played an important role in transcendentalists' belief.
Things changed to some extent in the time of Whitman. The American nation
was in a crisis because of the incompatible way of life in the northern and southern
areas. A different economic growth in the north had created dissatisfaction among the
people in the south. The slave system which the south still practiced also created
tension. These circumstances led to a secession of South Carolina from the Union. It
was followed by six other states and four others finally had joined the newly-formed
confederacy. Finally, a civil war began on 12 April 1861. This made the nation divide
and hatred level was high. After the war ended, America became strong. The war
resulted in a fast technological advancement. What caused the civil war, what impact
it had and what change it brought in the end created a new form of literature for
America.
The transcendentalist, Whitman who was one of the poets of this period
emerged with a different type of poetry of free verse. He believed that he should
express the new American experience in a new way as two other poets Emily
Dickinson (1830-1886) and Mark Twain (1835-191 0) did. Whitman also enhanced the
6
transcendentalists' love of nature by recommending the love of humanity which was
wider in scope. This love asked individuals to discover the self to the highest degree
both physically and spiritually no matter who the person was. For him, there was
divinity in the self In addition, he recommended that the self must consider other
selves and reconcile their differences. Whitman's idea was to approve and celebrate
the divine nature of the individual by observing the nature of other creations. The
purpose was to create a relationship among all things and form a unity.
Thus, like Emerson, Whitman placed importance on mysticism. However, his
mysticism is more towards the process of knowing the self and others. He believes
that an individual must rely on this divine self. However, at the same time the selfreliant individual has to be associated with others in order to have a unity among the
nation and all aspects of the universe. Compared to Emerson·s type of mysticism,
Whitman's mysticism is a step forward in which the idea of high intuition and selfreliance are developed to create a united nation that stands firm even in turbulence
times. It is a reform of American transcendental literature.
Whitman's deep thinking with the inspiration of the divine is a force to
comprehend the world better. In this case, Whitman specifically wanted to
comprehend America as a whole in order to create a better perspective of it. He
needed to see the progress of America and he realised that he had to be an agent of
change. There came Leaves of Grass as a new means to express his ideas regarding his
understanding of America with an expectation to be able to transform the country.
1.1.4 Element oflndividuality
Firstly, Whitman emphasizes individuality. He explains that greatness is in every
individual, so, everyone should celebrate himself or herself The idea he discusses
7