International Journal of Training and Development 4:4
ISSN 1360-3736
Networking characteristics of
African-American managers:
empirical validation and
training applications
Stéphane Brutus and Ancella Livers
This article describes the impact of informal networks on
managerial effectiveness in general and, more specifically, for
that of African-American managers. Previous research has
demonstrated that network characteristics conducive to
increased performance for African-Americans differed significantly from those of white managers (e.g. Ibarra, 1995). These
results are further validated in this study through the use of
a different performance measure. Networking characteristics
and multi-raters’ performance information were collected
from 185 managers. Results show that high performing
African-American managers possess informal networks composed of a higher proportion of other African-Americans than
their low performing counterparts. The reverse trend was
found for white managers. A description of a training module
based on these results is offered.
Introduction
The importance of ‘linking up’ with others to progress in organisations has been folk
wisdom for a long time. Tornow and Pinto (1976) analysed the job of over 400 managers and found that middle-level managers spend relatively more time on ‘coordinating the effects of those over whom one has no direct control’ and ‘working across
organizational boundaries’ than more traditional managerial tasks. In his seminal
studies of managerial work, Mintzberg (1973) also underscored the liaison role of
managers in organisations. Today, most competency models include the ability to
❒ Stéphane Brutus, Concordia University, Faculty of Commerce and Administration, 1455 de Maisonneuve W. (GM 503–15), Montréal, Québec, Canada H3G 1M8. Ancella Livers, Center for Creative
Leadership, PO Box 26300, Greensboro, NC 27438–6300, USA.
 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2000, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148, USA.
Networking characteristics of African-American managers 287
span organisational boundaries or the ability ‘to network’. In the past few years,
behavioural scientists have investigated this issue in more systematic fashion. A
stream of empirical research on the role that personal relationships play in the life of
managers is slowly emerging in the literature. The determinants of these relationship
patterns (or informal networks) and the extent to which these are linked to meaningful workplace outcomes are fast becoming an important field of study in organisational sciences. Carrol and Teo (1996) found that individuals in managerial positions
have much larger informal networks than non-managers. The present article continues along those lines by (a) describing the importance of informal networks for
the effectiveness of managers; (b) adding some empirical support for this assertion;
(c) investigating the special case of African-American managers; and (d) describing
a training module based on this research. A natural evolution of the research generated on this topic is its application in organisations, as an additional tool that managers can use to increase their effectiveness at work. This article also describes how
knowledge on informal networks has been integrated in a leadership development
programme specifically designed for African-American managers.
Informal networks
Informal networks have been defined as discretionary patterns of interaction as
opposed to formal, specified relationships between individuals (Ibarra, 1993). These
patterns are influenced but certainly not restricted to those relationships prescribed
by the organisational chart. They emerge naturally within organisations and are usually broader than formal networks (Tichy, 1981). Informal networks serve various
purposes for managers. First, they have expressive utility in that they constitute
important sources of friendship and social support. They also possess instrumental
utility as managers benefit from these relationships by gaining access to resources
and information, increasing their exposure across the organisation, and receiving
feedback on their performance (Ibarra, 1993). In essence, informal networks represent
a critical element of managerial work.
Racial differences in networking characteristics
The management of one’s informal network is particularly important to AfricanAmerican managers because the context within which they work is often different
than that of their white counterparts. Making these contextual differences even more
salient are issues specific to the African-American experience that often go unnoticed
or are discounted by the corporate culture. Often people do not recognise, for
example, that many African-Americans find it stressful to work daily in a culture
that is simply different or that does not always recognise and value their contributions and worth. Consequently, African-Americans frequently seek out other
African-Americans with whom they can practise their own cultural behaviours, gain
emotional support and ease the stress the workplace creates. This concept of wanting
to be with like-kind is not unique to African-Americans. Indeed, the desire to be
with similar-others is universal. Similarity brings comfort, ease of communication,
and a level of understanding of each other that is harder to achieve otherwise. Homophily is the extent to which two individuals are similar in identity (Ibarra, 1993); it
tends to guide network formation in that people like to associate with similar-others
(Tuma and Hallinan, 1979). Although there exists many bases for similarity, it is
generally well accepted that race is one of the most salient feature of similarity. The
salience of race for the formation of African-Americans’ networks also increases by
virtue of their low representation in organisations (Mehra et al., 1998). Although these
effects are interesting they may mask the fact that, for members of different groups,
different networking patterns may lead to similar outcomes (Ibarra, 1995; Burt, 1992).
Homophily is one network characteristic where this interaction effect has been found.
The under-representation of minorities in the power circles of organisations puts
288 International Journal of Training and Development
 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2000.
homophily in direct competition to instrumental ties for minority group members
(Ibarra, 1993). In other words, for African-American managers, homophily often
comes at the expense of instrumentality. It has been suggested that, to achieve similar
success as their white counterparts, African-Americans need to emulate their network
strategies (i.e., have networks composed mainly of majority group members)
(Nkomo, 1992). This strategy, labelled the ‘deficit’ or ‘assimilation’ perspective, stems
from the traditional distribution of power in organisations and the paucity of minorities in high hierarchical levels. According to this perspective, informal networks
composed largely of majority group members provide critical access to instrumental
ties and create the perception of assimilation and conformity to organisational norms.
Naturally, affective needs are less likely to be met with the assimilation perspective.
Note that the tension between homophily and access to instrumental ties is not
present for white managers—both are easily attainable.
Another option, the pluralist or functional differentiation perspective, poses that
African-American managers can integrate racial and professional identity by
developing instrumental relationship with majority group members (without relying
on them exclusively) and by obtaining psychological support from other minorities.
This perspective requires that managers navigate the organisation by adapting their
networks and that they leverage the need for homophily with organisational constraints. This approach provides managers with instrumental benefits as well as
affective ones. Although the benefits of this approach are obvious, the costs are also
significant; these include the energy required to maintain these two circles and the
fact that membership in one group often creates difficulties for membership in the
other.
Empirical validation of pluralistic perspective
In order to further validate Ibarra’s (1995) findings, data on the networking characteristics of African-Americans and whites were collected. Research on the instrumentality of networks has used a variety of criteria such as finding a job, future promotion (Brass, 1984), and career mobility (Burt, 1992). Ibarra (1995) used a
comparison of a few dozen of high potential and ‘regular’ managers to investigate
this issue. To replicate Ibarra’s (1995) findings, a large sample and a continuous performance criterion of performance were used. Both of these methodological features
allow for a more powerful test of the hypotheses than previously. In this design,
network characteristics (i.e., homophily) from African-American and white managers
from different organisations are analysed and contrasted. Moreover, the relationships
between homophily and multi-source ratings of managerial effectiveness are investigated. Specifically, the intent of these analyses is to test whether differences in networking patterns of African-Americans and white managers lead to similar performance outcomes. Again, it was hypothesised that homophily would be present (i.e.,
managers tend to network with same-race others) and that the relationship between
homophily and managerial effectiveness would be positive for African-American
managers (i.e., more African-Americans, more effectiveness).
Methodology
Data from 185 managers participating in a leadership development programme was
used for the study. These managers were part of one of two programmes offered by
the Center for Creative Leadership: the African-American Leadership Program (ALP)
or the Leadership Development Program (LDP). Participants in both programmes
were from different organisations, representing a wide range of industries. The average age of the participants was 42 years, most managers were male (60 per cent),
and held a middle to high-level managerial position (87 per cent). Although some
African-American managers participated in the LDP, a large majority of the AfricanAmerican sample came from the ALP (98 per cent). In total, 140 African–American
managers and 45 white managers were included in the sample.
 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2000.
Networking characteristics of African-American managers 289
Data collection
Prior to the development programmes, each manager and selected subordinates,
peers, and supervisors had to complete a performance survey targeted at the programme participant. This process, commonly referred to as multi-source feedback,
involves the collection of performance evaluation from multiple others. Data collection also involved the distribution of a sociometric questionnaire which was similar
to a questionnaire used by Ibarra (1995). The questionnaire required each manager
to list the names of the ‘people with whom they associate with at work’. From this
list, a series of questions were to be answered. First, respondents had to provide
demographic and organisational information about each tie: race, gender, hierarchical
position in relation to the respondent, frequency of interaction, and intimacy. The
last part of the questionnaire consisted of a series of pairwise judgements about
whether or not the ties knew each other.
Measures
Homophily consisted of the percentage of same-race ties in a manager’s network.
Performance data were collected through Benchmarks, a multi-source feedback
instrument designed by the Center for Creative Leadership. Benchmarks is a multirater feedback instrument that utilises ratings from self, subordinates, superiors, and
peers (McCauley et al., 1989; McCauley and Lombardo, 1990). The development of
Benchmarks is described by McCauley and Lombardo (1994). Ratings on the Managerial Skills and Perspectives section of Benchmarks (16 scales, 106 items) from subordinates, peers, and supervisors were used as the basis for this study. Note that selfratings were not included for their lack of validity (Mabe and West, 1982). A threestep aggregation procedure yielded one overall performance rating for each manager;
first, the ratings on the 16 scales were averaged for each individual rater, and, second,
the average of the 16 scales was further aggregated within sources to derive an average performance rating for self, subordinates, peers, and supervisors (alphas ranging
from .89 to .95). The aggregation of multiple peers and subordinates is justified by
the results of previous studies that used this instrument and reported interclass correlations (ICCs) within each of these sources that ranged from .43 to .70 (Fleenor et al.,
1996; Atwater et al., 1998). Third, the resulting three ratings were further aggregated
to served as the index of managerial effectiveness (see Tables 1 and 2).
Control variable
In order to account for the number of available similar others for network composition, the percentage of African-Americans in repondents’ organisations, measured
through self-report, was used as a control variable in the regression analyses.
Table 1: Means
Variable label
Race
Percentage minority
Homophily
Density
Performance index
N
185
185
185
165
182
Mean
Std
Dev
1.24 0.43
15.37 10.08
48.01 30.93
69.70 21.90
60.20 4.62
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Table 2: Correlations
1
1 Race
2 Percentage
minority
3 Homophily
4 Density
5 Performance
index
2
.14*
.81** .23**
.11
.07
−.09
.07
3
4
−.01
.00
−.04
Table 3: Mean differences in homophily between
African-American and white managers
African-Americans
Whites
33.77
92.34
19.77
10.59
Mean
Standard
deviation
Results
Managers in the samples displayed a tendency for homophily. Organisations from
which the sample was drawn included an average of 15 per cent African-Americans
in their ranks and the informal networks of African-Americans contained an average
of 34 per cent African-Americans (SD = 19.77) (see Table 3). Conversely, organisations
were composed of 85 per cent of white managers while their networks were composed of 92 per cent of other whites (SD = 10.59). Thus, it appears that whites and
African-Americans do display the tendency of forming informal ties with others of
the same race above what would be expected if this process was random.
A hierarchical regression model was used to test the second hypothesis. The model
included the control variable (i.e., percentage of African-Americans in the
organisation), the race of the participant, the performance index, and an interaction
term composed of the product of race and the performance index. Homophily was
used as the dependent variable. The results are presented in Table 4. A significant
interaction between homophily and race was found (b = −1.08, p ⬍ 0.05), lending
Table 4: Results of the regression analyses
Race
b
Homophily 0.81**
1.88**
Performance
Race X
performance
s.e.
b
s.e.
b
s.e.
R2
⌬R2
3.04
40.09
0.06
0.26*
0.28
0.87
−1.08*
0.67
0.689**
0.695**
0.01*
Note: *p ⬍ 0.05
** p ⬍ 0.01
 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2000.
Networking characteristics of African-American managers 291
support to our hypothesis. Results are displayed in Figure 1; they point to different
relationships between homophily and managerial effectiveness for African-American
and white managers. For African-Americans, the relationship appears to be positive
in that high performing managers tend to have more same-race contacts than low
performers. For white managers, the relationship is reversed and high performing
managers have less same-race contacts.
Discussion
Research on networks has produced some exciting findings on the experience of
minorities in organisations. The literature has demonstrated how individual factors,
such as homophily, and organisational characteristics (e.g., paucity of other
minorities) influence the networks of minority and majority-group members differently. In this article, we further validate existing knowledge on networking characteristics of African-American managers by using a different criterion and a larger data
set. Results are consistent with those of Ibarra (1995). African-American managers
have a tendency to make same-race ties within their organisations. This principle,
homophily, is a critical one for African-American managers because of organisational
demography. The distribution of African-Americans at various hierarchical levels of
organisations creates a tension between homophilious tendencies and the desire to
access more instrumental networks. Previous literature has identified two approaches
to this tension. The first one, the assimilation paradigm, promotes access to instrumental networks at the expense of homophily and its affective benefits while the
other, the pluralistic perspective, argues for both the development of homophily and
the development of ties with the dominant coalition. Support for the pluralistic perspective was found and African-American managers who were more effective in their
work also had a higher proportion of African-Americans in their networks than those
who were less effective.
The implications of these findings for managers are important because informal
networks, contrary to formal organisational structures or policies, are within the control of managers (Kaplan, 1984). These relationships can be initiated or terminated
almost at will and minority managers can be strategic in the elaboration of their
networks (Friedman et al., 1998). In our opinion, an important benefit of the research
on informal network lies in its prescriptive value. Some of these are discussed in the
next section. Of course, the main limitation of these results is the cross-sectional
design used to investigate a developmental issue. It is not possible to assert with
any certainty that specific networks lead to better performance; the reverse may also
be true.
Design of a training module on networking and implications
for organisations
In revising the design of a leadership development programme aimed at AfricanAmericans a team of researchers and trainers at CCL introduced some of the above
100
Homophily
80
60
AA
40
White
20
0
lo
hi
Figure 1: Interaction between performance and race
292 International Journal of Training and Development
 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 2000.
findings characteristics. As a result of this effort a networking module was created.
The two-hour training module was designed to promote managers’ awareness of
their own networking patterns and of the implications of these patterns on their
organisational and personal lives. The module begins with an introduction to the
networking literature as it relates to African-American experience in organisations.
During this portion of the module, the concept of homophily and the pluralistic
perspective of network development are described to participants. Following the
theoretical portion, participants are guided through a networking exercise. Here,
participants are asked to create a list of the people with whom they network, and
the reasons and frequency with which they network with these people. This activity
helps participants to gain an understanding of how they are using their networks.
Participants are then asked to engage in a second activity which consists of using
grid and coloured pencils to help graphically depict their informal network. This
drawing helps participants denote the various hierarchical levels, gender and race
of the contacts that compose their network. Additionally, the grid shows how
emotionally intimate participants feel towards these individuals. This depiction of
networks helps highlight behavioural patterns that participants often find startling.
Not until they see it before them do they recognise, for example, that they have very
few people at work with whom they have close relationships, or that all of their
networking relationships are of one race or another. After reflecting on these patterns,
participants are asked to share their grids with others and are encouraged to help
each other strategise on ways to strengthen their networks. After, a group discussion
on networking techniques ensues. The networking module is consistently rated as
one of the most valuable modules of the programme.
We recognise that the delivery of a formal training module on networking may
not be an option for many organisations. We do feel, however, that our results can
be used in other ways. Human resources department can formally encourage and
promote the networking of African-Americans. Xerox Corporation, for example, created a series of national networks for their African-Americans and Asian employees
(Lesly, 1993). These programmes, also known as affinity groups, are also used by
organisations such as R.J. Reynolds and Glaxo-Wellcome. Formal mentorship initiatives can also facilitate links between minority group members. These formal initiatives are relatively inexpensive when considering their potential rewards. On a more
informal level, organisations can sensitise employees to the need for homophily
through seminars or internal communications. The fact that, on occasions, AfricanAmericans seek out other African-Americans for lunch should be understood for
what it is: a basic human need which, it turns out, may also be related to meaningful
organisational outcomes.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Center for Creative Leadership for this research project. We are especially grateful to Drs Cynthia McCauley,
Lily Kelly-Radford, and Marian Ruderman for their continuous encouragement
throughout the project.
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