CHATHAM COUNTY
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS PLAN
INCIDENT ANNEX A, APPENDIX 5
HISTORIC STORM TIDE ELEVATIONS
Prepared by:
U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
SAVANNAH DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
THE CHATHAM EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
JULY 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
NUMBER
TITLE
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
1.1 Authority ...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Measurements ...................................................................................................1
2.0 PLACES OF INTEREST WITH OBSERVED OR TIDE GAGE DATA ...................3
A. Chatham County Hurricanes 1854, 1881, 1893, and 1898 .........................3
B. Chatham County Hurricane of October 1947 .............................................5
C. Chatham County Hurricane David, September 1979..................................6
3.0 NUMERICAL MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR HYPOTHETICAL
HURRICANE SURGE EVENTS IMPACTING CHATHAM COUNTY, GA ...........6
4.0 SOME FACTORS EFFECTING HIGH TIDES IN HURRICANES ...........................7
5.0 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................9
5.1 Summary Reference Table ................................................................................9
6.0 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................11
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1
2
3
DESCRIPTION
Location Map of Surge Height Measurements ................................2
Construction Drawing Fort Pulaski, Georgia ..................................4
Components of Water Levels During Hurricane Winds
and Tides .....................................................................................8
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
1
DESCRIPTION
SAFFIR/SIMPSON Hurricane Scale ...............................................7
LIST OF TABS
TAB A
TAB B
STORM SURGE HEIGHT BASED ON OBSERVER’S DESCRIPTION
AND TIDE GAGE
SLOSH MODEL PEAK STORM ELEVATION CALCULATIONS
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FLOOD HAZARD INFORMATION REPORT
STORM TIDE ELEVATIONS
CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA
1.0
INTRODUCTION
While numerous hurricanes struck the Georgia Coast during the 16th and 17th century Spanish
occupation and the 18th century British Colonial Period, little, if any, information is available
that can be used to adequately reference the height of the tidal surges in these storms to the
various vertical datums in use during the present era such as: Mean Sea Level (MSL), National
Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) or North American Vertical Datum of 1988
(NAVD88). Only a few of the many descriptions available in official records, newspaper
accounts, letters and other narratives following powerful 19th century storms (which impacted
the Georgia Coast in 1804, 1813, 1824, 1854, 1881, 1893, and 1898) and lesser storms after 1898
(which produced surges only slightly higher than a strong “northeaster” blowing onshore during
a high spring tide) can be used to derive reasonably accurate indications of surge heights relative
to a common vertical datum.
1.1
AUTHORITY
This study of hurricane surge heights in Chatham County, Georgia was prepared for the Chatham
County Emergency Management Agency under continuing authority of Section 22 of the Water
Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1974, as amended. The purpose of the study was to
provide flood hazard information for use in public information programs and hurricane
evacuation planning.
1.2
MEASUREMENTS
Between 1974 and 2002 (in connection with various Storm Tide Hazard and Hurricane
Evacuation Studies for the Georgia Coast), data searches and interviews were conducted by the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), Savannah District’s Planning Unit, and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Hurricane Center located in
Miami, Florida, to obtain descriptions of storm surge heights that could be related to a common
datum by differential leveling from precise elevation reference marks. Figure 1 shows the
locations where storm height measurements were conducted. Where elevations are listed in this
report they are referenced to NAVD88. In some cases peak storm surge elevations were
obtained directly from the tide gage records. No field surveys were conducted to determine
storm tide elevations on Tybee Island since:
1. Descriptions did not include exact locations where observations were made.
2. Water levels described appeared to include not only the wind tide generated by the
hurricane and the local wind setup component, but also the breaking wave setup which is
only present at the shoreline.
3. Observer’s accounts provided only a range of possible values for storm tide height, rather
than a reasonably reliable value.
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FIGURE
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2.0
PHOTOGRAPHS PORTRAYING PLACES OF INTEREST WITH OBSERVED
OR TIDE GAGE DATA
Included in this report, in Appendix A are photographs of the surveyed elevations of storm
surges observed at Fort Pulaski (September 1854, August 1881 and August 1893), at the Isle of
Hope (August 1881) and at Burnside Island (October 1947). Photographs are also included
illustrating storm surge heights based on tide gage data at Cockspur Island and Fort Jackson for
the October 1947 storm and at the Corps of Engineers’ Yard at Hutchinson Island for Hurricane
David (September 1979). Photographs depicting storm tide elevations obtained from observer’s
descriptions and tide gage measurements are contained in Appendix A of this report. Figure 1
shows the location of these places of interest.
A. Chatham County Hurricanes 1854, 1881, 1893, And 1898
The following measurements of storm tide levels at Fort Pulaski are based on observer’s
accounts of the 1854, 1881 and 1893 hurricanes. This information is contained in a June 25,
1935 Memorandum “Hurricanes and High Water at Fort Pulaski”, prepared by Ralston
Lattimore, Historical Assistant, National Park Service.
a. September 8, 1854 Hurricane: In the 1854 hurricane, according to a report by Capt. J. F.
Gilmer, the water rose about 1.5 feet above the highest level of the glacis. Based on June 1872
construction drawings (Figure 2) and June 4, 2008 elevation surveys, the elevation of the glacis
was determined to be 9.0 feet above NAVD88 and the storm tide elevation 10.50 feet above
NAVD88.
b. August 27, 1881 Hurricane: During the 1881 hurricane before the refugees took to the
stairwells “the water rose a foot above the floor of the Officer’s Quarters”. Based on June 1872
construction drawings and June 4, 2008 elevation surveys, the elevation of the floor of the Fort
Pulaski Officers Quarters was determined to be 10.57 feet above NAVD88 and the storm tide
level 11.57 feet above NAVD88.
c. August 27, 1893 Hurricane: In the 1893 hurricane the water level at Fort Pulaski was
reported to be 4 or 5 feet above the Parade Ground at the Soldiers Quarters. Based on June 1872
construction drawings and June 4, 2008 elevation surveys the elevation of the parade ground was
determined to be 8.38 feet above NAVD88 and the storm tide elevation between 12.38 feet and
13.38 feet above NAVD88.
A special effort was made in connection with this study to obtain information that could be used
with reasonable certainty to establish maximum storm tide elevations on Tybee Island during the
1881 and 1893 hurricanes. No descriptions were found that met this requirement either in
newspaper articles published immediately following the storms or in journals or private
correspondence of individuals who were present on Tybee Island during the storms. Two recent
books, Tybee Island by R.C. Ciucevich published in 2005 and Low Country Hurricanes by W.J.
Fraser published in 2006 provide good accounts of events on Tybee Island during the 1881 and
1893 hurricanes, but these works contain no new descriptions that can be used to establish high
tide levels at specific locations.
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Construction Drawing Fort Pulaski, Georgia
FIGURE 2
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The following storm tide levels at the Isle of Hope were estimated from information supplied by
Mr. Alex Barbee, Owner of the Isle of Hope Marina:
a. August 27, 1881 Hurricane: On September 11, 1986 Mr. Barbee was interviewed by
Savannah District and National Hurricane Center personnel gathering information for a
Hurricane Evacuation Study. Mr. Barbee stated that the water in the August 1881 storm reached
the front of Our Lady of Good Hope Chapel (Chapel), which was still standing, as of October
2007, just west of the former site of Rosenbrook’s Store. From Savannah District field surveys
on September 16, 1986, the elevation of the 1881 storm tide at the Chapel was determined to be
11.82 feet above NAVD88.
b. August 27-28, 1893 Hurricane: In the September 11, 1986 interview with Savannah District
and National Hurricane Center personnel Mr. Barbee stated that at the Isle of Hope in the
Hurricane of August 27-28, 1893 the water reached to the big live oak trees about 75 yards
behind (west of) the Chapel. From Savannah District surveys on September 6, 1986 the
elevation of the 1893 storm tide at the base of a large oak tree west of the Chapel was determined
to be 11.62 feet above NAVD88.
c. August 30, 1898 Hurricane: In a March 1974 interview with Mr. Clark Carter (Chief,
Savannah District, Floodplain Management Services Branch), Mr. Barbee related that his father
had provided the Savannah Morning News in 1898 with the information that in the August 30,
1898 hurricane “at the Isle of Hope the water was driven across the road and into the Savannah,
Thunderbolt and Isle of Hope Railway Lot and it reached the second step of Rosenbrook’s
Store”. From Savannah District level surveys on March 4, 1974 the elevation of the second step
was determined to be 12.43 feet above MSL or approximately 11.5 feet relative to NAVD88.
The store has since been torn down.
B. Chatham County Hurricane Of October 1947
Tide measurement instruments that can dependably withstand the combined forces of water and
wind in the near shore environment during a hurricane have only recently been developed. For
heights of the maximum storm surges in most great hurricanes, it was necessary to rely on
readings at tide stations located several miles inland. Recording gages installed along the
Savannah River in Chatham County beginning in 1903 provided reliable measurements within
the normal range of tides, but were not built to record high storm tides. The tide heights in the
October 15, 1947 hurricane exceeded the upper limit of all but one of the gages along the river.
The one exception was the Kings Island gage located 1.5 miles downstream from Port
Wentworth which registered a tide elevation of 8.0 feet relative to NAVD88. The floats in the
other gages jammed and the instruments failed to record the morning high water (U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, 1956, pg. 23). At those locations maximum tide values in the 1947
hurricane were derived from measurements of high water marks. Maximum tide levels
determined for the 1947 hurricane were 7.08 feet relative to NAVD88 at the Harbor Pilot’s Dock
gage on Cockspur Island and 6.85 feet relative to NAVD88 at the Fort Jackson gage (U.S.
Department of Commerce, 1957, pgs. 40-41). A later publication (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, 1968, pg. 6) lists the maximum tide heights in the 1947 storm as 6.75 feet relative to
NAVD88 at the Harbor Pilots Dock on Cockspur Island and 6.98 feet relative to NAVD88 at
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Fort Jackson. These values were the highest obtained at the two sites since the gages were
installed in 1903. As of March 2009, they have not been exceeded.
In addition to high water marks obtained for the October 1947 storm at the Savannah River gage
stations, the Corps, Savannah District, obtained a description of the maximum tide height near
the north end of the Shipyard Road causeway leading to Burnside Island near its intersection
with North Drive, north of Vernon View and east of Beaulieu. From field surveys of a high
water mark identified by Mr. Jim Hardee, Sr. along Shipyard Road, the tide height in the October
15, 1947 storm at that location was determined to be 9.12 feet relative to NAVD88 (U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, Survey Notes, February 21, 1975).
C. Chatham County, Hurricane David, September 1979
At noon on Tuesday, September 4, 1979, Hurricane David was reported moving northward
offshore, opposite the City of Brunswick in Glynn County, Georgia. By noon the storm had
veered westward and by 5 P.M. the center was directly over the City of Savannah in Chatham
County. During passage of the storm the tide gate at the Corps of Engineers’ Yard, across from
the City of Savannah downtown waterfront, recorded a maximum tide level of 6.44 feet relative
to NAVD88. This was 2.6 feet above the normal tide level that was predicted to occur along the
Savannah River at that location at 6:15 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT) that evening.
3.0
NUMERICAL MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR HYPOTHETICAL HURRICANE
SURGE EVENTS IMPACTING CHATHAM COUNTY, GEORGIA
Additional photographs illustrating calculated maximum surge elevations for categories 1
through 5 on the Saffir Simpson Hurricane Scale (Table 1) have been included for the following
Chatham County locations: Tybee Island (City Hall and the Tybee Lighthouse), Isle of Hope
(Our Lady of Good Hope Chapel and the Isle of Hope Fire Station), Skidaway Island (Marine
Science Center, Shellfish Laboratory Building), Wilmington Island (May Howard School and the
intersection of Johnny Mercer Drive and Wilmington Island Road) and Hutchinson Island
(Savannah International Trade and Convention Center). Maximum elevations contained on
photos for the above sites were computed using the National Hurricane Center Sea Lake and
Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH) Model. These photographs are located in Tab B.
The SLOSH Model was developed between 1967 and 1992 by C.P. Jelesnianski, A.D. Taylor, J.
Chin, and W.A. Shaffer of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration to
estimate storm surge depths resulting from historical and predicted hurricanes. The SLOSH
Model takes into account a storm’s pressure, size, forward speed, wind speeds and track, and the
topography of the impacted area.
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TABLE 1
SAFFIR/SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE
Category
Central
Pressure
Millibars
Central
Pressure
Inches
Winds
(mph)
Winds
(kts)
1
>980
>28.9
74-95
64-83
Minimal
2
965-979
28.5-28.9
96-110
84-96
Moderate
3
945-964
27.9-28.5
111-130
97-113
Extensive
4
920-944
27.2-27.9
131-155
114-135
Extreme
5
<920
<27.2
155+
>135
4.0
Damage
Catastrophic
SOME FACTORS EFFECTING HIGH TIDES IN HURRICANES
Due to the counterclockwise circulation of winds in hurricanes in the northern hemisphere the
highest water levels can be expected to occur only along a limited section of coastline. If the
hurricane is moving north when the center reaches the coast, the highest storm surge will occur
at a point to the north and ahead of the center. If the hurricane is moving west at landfall, the
highest storm surge will occur at a location to the north and right of the center. The combination
of a shallow, gradually sloping continental shelf and a slight curvature in the coastline can cause
an increase of as much as 1.5 feet in the height of surges along the Georgia coast. Breaking
waves at the shoreline and local wind setup can cause a significant increase in water levels,
extending perhaps 200 to 300 feet inland; a situation which has no doubt led some observers who
weathered storms in buildings near the shore on coastal barrier islands to overestimate the actual
height of the storm surge over interior portions of the island. (See Figure 3) Water levels in
hurricanes are influenced by the normal range of tides at the coastline, in estuaries, and in the
tidal reaches of rivers inland from the coast. If normal tidal ranges are pronounced, the tidal
surge could be several feet higher if the storm arrives at high tide and significantly lower if the
storm impacts the coastal area at low tide. At the Fort Pulaski Gage on the Savannah River, in
Chatham County, Georgia, the Mean Tide Range between Mean High Water and Mean Low
Water is 6.96 feet and upstream on the Savannah River at the City of Savannah Waterfront it is
7.88 feet. The Spring Tide ranges at the above locations are 8.1 feet at Fort Pulaski and 8.6 feet
near the City of Savannah Waterfront. In connection with Hurricane Evacuation Studies for
Georgia Coastal Counties an initial water height of 3.0 feet was added to Savannah Area Models
to simulate conditions at high tide, plus an additional initial water height of 2.0 feet was added to
account for tidal anomalies that had been observed before the arrival hurricanes.
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FIGURE 3
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5.0
SUMMARY
The primary purpose of this paper was to provide a single reference document for Chatham
County, Georgia hurricane surge elevations derived from reliable eye witness accounts and tide
gage records. Field surveys were conducted to relate the surge heights to NAVD88, which is
currently the vertical datum of choice on many federal, state and local government mapping
projects. This paper contains elevations for historic storm tides at three locations based on eye
witness accounts for the years 1854, 1881, 1893, 1898, and 1947, and also elevations for storm
tides based on tide gage records for the years 1947 and 1979 at three locations. Photographs are
included illustrating the maximum storm tide levels at each of the six locations. To illustrate the
risk of high storm surges in future hurricanes, this report also contains tables and annotated
photographs portraying possible maximum tidal surges for each of five hurricane categories on
the Saffir/Simpson Scale.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Hurricane Center has used
some of the field survey measurements of observed tide heights contained in this paper to
determine the reliability of SLOSH Models developed for the Georgia Coast. Not all sources of
information have been investigated and some useful accounts of tide elevations in powerful 19th
century hurricanes remain to be uncovered through a search of library holdings, newspaper files,
and unpublished journals and letters. Various agencies now routinely measure and publish tide
levels produced by major storms. Although North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida have
experienced several major hurricanes in recent years, since Hurricane David in 1979, the Georgia
Coast has only experienced a few tropical storms, which produced flooding from rainfall, but
only minor tidal flooding. Placement of newly developed temporary recording gages on pilings
or other stable underwater supports prior to the expected arrival of hurricanes will provide a
convenient and accurate means for determining surge elevations during future storms.
5.1
SUMMARY REFERENCE TABLE
For quick reference the following are summary listings of Chatham County, Georgia storm surge
elevations derived from observers' descriptions, tide gage records and SLOSH Model
calculations.
1. Storm Surge Elevations Based on Observers Descriptions (NAVD88)
Cockspur Island, Fort Pulaski
September 8, 1854
August 27, 1881
August 27, 1893
10.50 feet
11.57 feet
13.38 feet
Isle of Hope, Our Lady of Good Hope Chapel
August 27, 1881
11.82 feet
August 27-28, 1893
11.62 feet
August 30, 1898
11.50 feet
Burnside Island, Shipyard Road
October 15, 1947
9.12 feet
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2. Storm Surge Elevations Based on Tide Gage Records (NAVD88)
Cockspur Island, Harbor Pilots Dock
October 15, 1947
Salter’s Island, Fort Jackson
October 15, 1947
Hutchinson Island U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Yard and Dock
September 4, 1979
6.75 feet
6.98 feet
6.44 feet
3. SLOSH Model Calculated Peak Storm Surge Elevations for Saffir/Simpson
Scale Hurricanes Categories 1 through 5 (Feet, NAVD88)
Location
1
2
3
4
5
Tybee Island
Lighthouse
City Hall
9.8
9.8
14.2
14.2
17.9
17.9
21.2
21.2
24.5
24.5
Hutchinson Island
Sav. Int’l Trade &
Convention Cntr.
9.1
13.1
18.1
21.1
24.1
Wilmington Island
Johnny Mercer Dr.
& Wilmington Is. Rd. 10.6
May Howard School 10.6
15.1
14.9
19.9
18.8
24.2
23.9
27.5
27.4
Isle of Hope
Our Lady of Good
Hope Chapel
Fire Station
9.7
9.2
15.9
15.9
21.0
21.0
25.1
25.1
28.4
28.6
Skidaway Island
Marine Science Center
Shellfish Research
Laboratory
9.8
15.7
20.4
24.4
27.8
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6.0
REFERENCES
Barbee, Alex, Owner of Isle of Hope Marina. Savannah, Georgia. Maximum Storm Tide
Heights in August 1881, August 1893 and August 1898 Hurricanes. Interview. March 1974 and
September 11, 1986.
Board of Engineers for Fortifications. Drawing of Fort Pulaski. June 1872.
“A Cyclone of Death”. Savannah Morning News. (August 29, 1893).
Carter, Clark L., Brian Jarvinen, Rodger Menzies, and John Shuman. Field Notes for
Differential Level Surveys to Determine Storm Surge Elevations along the Georgia Coast, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, 1974 to 1987.
Ciuevich, Robert A. Tybee Island. Charleston: Acadia Publishing 2005.
Godley, Margaret. Historic Tybee Island. Savannah Beach: The Tybee Museum Association,
1976.
Fraser, Walter J., Jr. Low Country Hurricanes. Athens and London: The University of Georgia
Press, 2006.
Goeller, B.F. et al. Protecting an Estuary from Floods – A Policy Analysis of the Oostershelde.
Vol. 1, Summary Report. Santa Monica, California: The Rand Corporation, 1977.
Hardee, James Sr. Chatham County Resident, Maximum Storm Tide Height in October 1947
Hurricane along Shipyard Road on Burnside Island, Georgia. Interview. 1972.
Harris, D. Lee and C.V. Lindsay. An Index of Tide Gages and Tide Gage Records for the
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States. U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau,
Office of Meteorological Research, Washington, D.C., May 1957.
“I saw the Crest of the Wave, The October 1898 Hurricane.” Ebbtide. Ebbtide Education Fund,
Inc. Brunswick, Georgia, Spring, 1979.
Isle of Hope Bluff Swept. Savannah Morning News. (October 3, 1898).
Jelesnianski, Chester P. SLASH (Special Program to List Amplitudes of Surges from
Hurricanes) Part I – Landfall Storms. Technical Memorandum NWS TDL-46. Silver Spring,
Maryland: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Atmospheric and oceanic Administration,
1972.
Lattimore, Ralston B. Hurricanes and High Water at Fort Pulaski. Unpublished Memorandum:
Fort Pulaski National Monument, 1935.
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Menzies, Rodger K. Hurricane Surge Threat to Single-Family Detached Residences in Coastal
Island Communities in Metropolitan Savannah, Georgia, M.A. Thesis, University of Akron, May
1983.
“More Than a Million”. Savannah Morning News. (August 30, 1893).
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Center for Environmental
Prediction, National Hurricane Center, Storm Surge Group, New Storm Surge Atlases for the
Savannah, Georgia and Hilton Head, South Carolina Area and Brunswick, Georgia Area.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Storm Surge Group, Miami, Florida,
November 1988.
Sandrik, Al. Georgia HAZUS Study, Historical Hurricane Landfalls, 1804, 1813, 1824, 1854,
1893, & 1898. Warning Coordinational Meteorologist, National Weather Service, Jacksonville,
Florida. Undated.
“Terrific Tempest”. Savannah Morning News. (August 29, 1881).
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Georgia Hurricane Evacuation Study. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Savannah District, December 2002.
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Preliminary Appraisal of the Hurricane Problem on the Georgia
Seaboard. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of the District Engineer, Savannah District,
October 1956.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Preliminary Tidal Flood Information for the Coastal Area of
Chatham County, Georgia. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, 1968.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Special Flood Hazard Information for the City of Savannah
Beach, Georgia. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, 1972.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1998.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National
Weather Service-National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, Fourth
Addition 1993.
Workman, M.S. Letter Describing Mrs. Workman’s Escape from the Hurricane of 1893 on
Tybee Island. Gamble Collection, Chatham County Georgia Library. Tybee Island Branch,
1893.
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TAB A
STORM SURGE HEIGHT BASED ON
OBSERVER’S DESCRIPTION AND TIDE GAGE
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TAB B
SLOSH MODEL
PEAK STORM ELEVATION CALCULATIONS
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