Sustain Sci (2016) 11:661–677
DOI 10.1007/s11625-016-0359-3
SPECIAL FEATURE: ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Sustainable Deltas: Livelihoods, Ecosystem Services, and
Policy Implications
Opportunities and challenges for mangrove carbon sequestration
in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam
Robin Warner1 • Mary Kaidonis2 • Olivia Dun3 • Kerrylee Rogers4
Yubing Shi1,5 • Thang T. X. Nguyen4,6 • Colin D. Woodroffe4
•
Received: 19 July 2015 / Accepted: 3 March 2016 / Published online: 6 April 2016
Ó Springer Japan 2016
Abstract Increasing value is attributed to mangroves due
to their considerable capacity to sequester carbon, known
as ‘blue carbon’. Assessments of opportunities and challenges associated with estimating the significance of carbon sequestered by mangroves need to consider a range of
disciplinary perspectives, including the bio-physical science mangroves, social and economic issues of land use,
local and international law, and the role of public and
private finance. We undertook an interdisciplinary review
based on available literature and fieldwork focused on parts
of the Mekong River Delta (MRD). Preliminary estimates
indicate mangrove biomass may be 70–150 t ha-1, but
considerably larger storage of carbon occurs in sediments
beneath mangroves. These natural stores of carbon are
compromised when mangroves are removed to
Handled by Fabrice Renaud, United Nations, University Institute for
Environment and Human Security Bonn, Germany.
& Robin Warner
[email protected]
1
Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security
(ANCORS), University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia
2
School of Accounting, Economics and Finance, Faculty of
Business, University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia
3
School of Geography and Sustainable Communities, Faculty
of Social Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia
4
School of Earth and Environmental Science, University of
Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
5
Centre for Oceans Law and the China Seas, South China Sea
Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
6
Ministry of Industry and Trade, Hanoi, Vietnam
accommodate anthropogenic activities. Mangroves are an
important resource in the MRD that supplies multiple
goods and services, and conservation or re-establishment of
mangroves provides many benefits. International law and
within-country environmental frameworks offer increasing
scope to recognize the role that mangrove forests play
through carbon sequestration, in order that these might lead
to funding opportunities, both in public and private sectors.
Such schemes need to have positive rather than negative
impacts on the livelihoods of the many people living within
and adjacent to these wetlands. Nevertheless, many challenges remain and it will require further targeted and
coordinated scientific research, development of economic
and social incentives to protect and restore mangroves,
supportive law and policy mechanisms at global and
national levels, and establishment of long-term financing
for such endeavours.
Keywords Mangroves Blue carbon Sequestration Mekong River delta Vietnam
Introduction
The capacity of mangroves to sequester carbon represents a
natural mechanism for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, and therefore conserving and regenerating mangroves is important. Furthermore, mangroves,
along with other coastal ecosystems, provide a range of
ecosystem goods and services, such as coastal protection
and buffering from storm effects, breeding grounds for
aquatic organisms and fisheries habitat, and nutrient
cycling which also can be economically important (Alongi
2008; Barbier et al. 2011; Vo et al. 2012; Duarte et al.
2013). Mangroves appear to offer a range of
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environmentally, socially and economically valuable
opportunities that deserve consideration, but which are also
subject to a series of complex social, environmental and
economic challenges.
The Mekong River Delta (MRD) in Vietnam is the focus
of this paper because it supports large and dynamic mangrove forests in a location ranked amongst the most vulnerable regions of the world to sea level rise in terms of
both area of low-lying land inundated and percentage of
population affected (Dasgupta et al. 2007, 2009). Therefore
mangrove conservation and restoration in the MRD is
important for contributing towards both mitigation of and
adaptation to climate-change. The MRD has a number of
natural and anthropogenic characteristics which have been
studied from specific disciplinary perspectives. In this
paper we draw on research from a range of broad disciplines, namely; science, social science, law and finance.
The subsequent consideration of the intersections of each
discipline shifts our multidisciplinary approach to an
interdisciplinary approach; where the implications of, and
on, each discipline reveal both opportunities and challenges. These will be identified in terms of further research
as well as implications at national and international levels
of governance.
This paper is structured as follows. We begin with a
brief discussion of interdisciplinary research as the theoretical underpinning of this paper. This is followed by the
method we used to develop this paper. The disciplinary
sections are provided beginning with carbon sequestration
by mangroves, followed by livelihoods associated with
mangrove ecosystems, law and policy frameworks, and
finally finance issues of mangrove management. Overlapping and/or interdependent issues from each discipline are
identified within each section. The interdependent issues
can be considered in terms of opportunities and challenges
in the context of implications for the government of Vietnam, multilateral organisations such as the United Nations,
and international corporations.
Interdisciplinary framework
This paper presents broad multidisciplinary perspectives in
order to better understand the linkages and relationships
between ecosystem services and livelihoods in delta
regions. We recognize that there are differences between
multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
perspectives (see discussion by Chettiparamb 2007, Stock
and Burton 2011). Briefly and perhaps simplistically, the
multidisciplinary approach presents perspectives in ‘‘parallel’’ and relies on the reader to make connections. Whilst
this is important, this is not sufficient to providing new
understanding. There needs to be engagement of issues
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across disciplines and this may require a researcher within
one discipline to be immersed in the perspectives of
another discipline as well as the discourse of the discipline.
However, such transdisciplinarity does not occur easily
even when scientists and practitioners of the same discipline are working together (Binder et al. 2015). It is argued
then, that multidisciplinary research can become interdisciplinary if the holders of the disciplinary knowledge can
accommodate and engage with other disciplinary knowledge. Such engagement within and across epistemological
boundaries is where interlinkages can be forged and/or
identified, thus potentially offering new or broader understanding within and between disciplines.
The four disciplines discussed in this paper are broadly
from science, social science, law and finance. The data/
empirics in this paper are based on findings from the literature. Importantly, each disciplinary section identified
how factors outside of the discipline did or could have an
impact. These factors were often viewed as both opportunities and challenges, particularly if they were derived
from anthropocentric activity since there was potential for
human agency in the form of action or policy to be
undertaken.
The interdisciplinary research for this paper also included a 1-week field trip to Vietnam including parts of the
MRD, to directly engage with relevant government and
research institutions, visit mangrove restoration project
sites and meet with local communities living amongst and
alongside mangrove forests to consolidate earlier understanding of the issues surrounding mangrove forest use and
management in the MRD. This trip provided a grounded
context for understanding the connections between mangrove ecosystem services and livelihoods. In addition,
discussions and reflections between interdisciplinary
researchers throughout the trip helped in understanding
interdependent factors which could also be considered as
opportunities and/or challenges for mangrove carbon
sequestration.
Each section below provides discipline-specific information as well as factors which impact on this specific
information. The identification of interdependent issues
from another section/discipline served to alert us to
opportunities and/or challenges for further consideration,
either at a policy level or to be addressed by further
research.
Section I: carbon sequestration by mangroves
Mangroves are intertidal trees that typically occupy narrow
elevations within the upper intertidal zone between mean
sea level and highest astronomical tide (Alongi 2009; Giri
et al. 2011). The horizontal area that they occupy varies
Sustain Sci (2016) 11:661–677
depending on factors influencing the relationship between
the land and sea (such as sea-level rise, sedimentation,
subsidence or shoreline erosion), and factors influencing
the extent of tidal inundation (such as land use conversion
and dyking).
Carbon in mangrove ecosystems is particularly important, as multiple mechanisms enhance carbon cycling and
sequestration, and there is capacity to exploit these mechanisms to improve carbon sequestration by coastal
ecosystems (McLeod et al. 2011). First, the proportion of
carbon within living biomass is high; mangroves have a
carbon to mass ratio of approximately 0.46–0.5 (Kauffman
et al. 2011). In addition, mangroves are highly productive,
with above-ground biomass of tropical mangroves comparable to that of other terrestrial forests and net primary
productivity estimated to average 64 t (dry weight) ha-1
year-1 (Alongi 2009). Although mangroves have extensive
root systems, such that 10–15 % or more of living biomass
is below ground (Alongi et al. 2003; Gong and Ong 1990),
a still more substantial component is the dead organic
matter that remains stored in the sediments below mangrove forests. There is also significant detritus exported to
nearby ecosystems, or consumed by trophic levels that
sustain commercial fisheries.
There are multiple pathways for carbon to be cycled
back to the atmosphere; however soil conditions within
coastal ecosystems slow these pathways, leading to a net
long-term storage of carbon over decades to millennial
timescales (McLeod et al. 2011). Daily inundation by tidal
waters and the ensuing anoxic soil conditions limit aerobic
pathways of decomposition to a small aerobic zone of a
few millimetres near the surface of mangrove sediments
(Alongi 2009). As oxygen availability becomes limited,
denitrification, manganese reduction, iron reduction and
sulphate reduction become increasingly important, but are
limited by the availability of appropriate bacteria. The
anoxic zone can also release methane, although this
accounts for \10 % of mangrove carbon cycling to the
atmosphere (Alongi 2009).
Finally, unlike terrestrial ecosystems, mangrove
ecosystems do not become saturated with carbon as
atmospheric carbon increases. This is primarily because
carbon sequestration is tightly coupled with sea level and
hydrodynamics, with coastal ecosystems developing where
hydrodynamic conditions allow development of an intertidal surface at an elevation with respect to sea level that is
suitable for vegetation establishment and growth. As sea
level rises, coastal ecosystems have the capacity to adjust
by increasing elevation in situ through deposition of mineral and organic sediment or expansion of soil volume with
below-ground biomass (Krauss et al. 2014). Increased
atmospheric carbon can have a positive feedback on the
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capacity of coastal ecosystems to sequester carbon by
creating more accommodation space for carbon storage.
Large deltas, such as the MRD, provide a substantial
opportunity to minimize carbon emissions and improve
carbon sequestration, due primarily to their size. Formed
where large rivers deliver abundant sediment loads to the
sea, they are characterized by deposition of muds and
formation of intertidal surfaces ideal for coastal ecosystems
to establish and thrive. The substantial delta plains that
have been built over the past 6000 years (mid to late
Holocene), during which the sea has been close to its
present level, are underlain by organic-rich sediments,
much derived from former mangroves, that represent a
considerable store of carbon.
Mangroves and formation of the Mekong River
Delta
The modern MRD is a particularly extensive and low-lying
delta (Fig. 1), classified as the third largest delta in the
world by Anthony (2014). The area of the delta plains
cover between 37 900 km2 (Woodroffe et al. 2006) and 49
100 km2 (Ericson et al. 2006), depending on delimitation
of the landward extent of the plains. 45 % appears to be
less than 2 m above sea level and 81 % less than 4 m
above sea level based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data (Woodroffe et al. 2006).
The MRD has built out progressively since sea level
reached its present level around 7000–8000 years ago. At
that stage the mouth of the river was in the Cambodian
lowlands (Tamura et al. 2009, 2012). A transition from
Sonneratia dominated forests to Rhizophora forests is seen
in the pollen record from cores through the plains (Chiem
1993; Li et al. 2012). The history of build out of the delta is
relatively well known, based on coring and radiocarbon
dating (Nguyen et al. 2000). Coring and pollen analysis at
several sites through the central delta plain record that
mangrove forests were established along the shorelines that
build seaward into the South China Sea (Fig. 1, also known
as East Sea in Vietnam). More recent examination of cores
across the delta has further substantiated the widespread
nature of mangrove sediments in the upper few metres of
the delta stratigraphy (Proske et al. 2010). As the delta built
southwards, tidal flats with mangroves transitioned into
local swamp-like vegetation (Proske et al. 2011). This
natural wetland vegetation has been disrupted by settlements on the MRD. The significance of this disruption
cannot be underestimated since this anthropocentric
activity releases carbon stored over thousands of years.
The nature of the mangroves varies around the margin of
the modern delta due to the prevailing hydrodynamic
conditions. Along the southern margin, the open coast is
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Fig. 1 The Mekong River
Delta, showing schematically
the present distribution of
mangroves, and the cores from
within the Holocene delta (in
yellow) in which fossil
mangrove remains have been
identified. The approximate
position of the shoreline
4500 years before present (BP)
is shown after (Nguyen et al.
2000)
exposed to higher wave energy (Bao 2011). A series of
beach ridges have formed periodically over the past
3000–4000 years (Tamura et al. 2009, 2012), and mangrove environments are associated with these shore-parallel sandy ridge sequences. The tide regime in the West Sea
is diurnal with amplitude of only 0.5–1 m, whereas in the
East Sea mean tidal range is 2.5–3.8 m, reaching up to 4 m
in Can Gio (Nguyen et al. 2000; Ta et al. 2001a, 2001b).
Mangroves along this coast form a littoral fringe; the coast
is muddier, and the landward side of the mangrove belt has
been extensively modified for shrimp farms. This geographical variation is likely to affect the vertical range over
which mangroves can establish and the thickness of the
zone in which carbon can be sequestered.
Blue carbon stocks in the Mekong River Delta
The area that is covered by mangrove forests has changed
in recent decades and there have been different estimates of
these extents. There is considered to have been 4,00,000 ha
in the 1940s (Phan and Hoang 1993), 2,69,000 ha in 1980,
with only 1,58,000 ha remaining in 2000 (Gebhardt et al.
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2012; Vo et al. 2013). Major clearing of mangroves
occurred in the 1960s when defoliants were used during the
Vietnam war (Orians and Pfeiffer 1970).
Currently mangroves in the MRD account for 60 % of
all mangrove area in Vietnam. About 70 % of mangroves
in the MRD occur in Ca Mau and Kien Giang (Gebhardt
et al. 2012). Mangroves are expanding seaward in Ca Mau,
as a result of the advection and longshore transport of mud
(Walsh and Nittrouer 2009). By contrast, the mangrove
shorelines of Kien Giang have not undergone much change
to their seaward extent (Nguyen et al. 2014), with only
30 % of the outer mangrove fringe showing evidence of
erosion (Duke et al. 2010). A field survey outlined the
current condition of mangrove forests along the coast of
Kien Giang (Duke et al. 2010), and those mangroves have
been described in detail (Wilson et al. 2012). 30 of the 39
documented mangrove species found in Vietnam occur in
this province. Mangroves occupy 3500 ha, 74 % of the
180 km of shoreline in the province. Scaled up plot
observations, comprising about 50 % Avicennia, 19 %
Sonneratia and 9 % Rhizophora, enabled an estimate of
mangrove biomass and carbon storage. Biomass was
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calculated, including an estimate of root dry weight, using
the allometric equations. Average values were reported
based on 40 plots along the coast of Kien Giang, although
this did not include evaluation of carbon sequestered in the
substrate. Total mangrove biomass averaged 156.9 t ha-1,
and carbon content averaged 76.9 t ha-1, which is equivalent to 282.4 t ha-1 of CO2 (Duke et al. 2010). This is
comparable to the above-ground carbon stocks estimated
for Ceriops zippeliana in Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere
Reserve, which is in the order of 70 t ha-1 (Binh and Nam
2014).
Living mangrove biomass may contain up to approximately an equivalence of 500 t CO2 ha-1, as measured at
some sites in Kien Giang (Wilson et al. 2012), but it is
clear that below ground carbon storage in just the uppermost metre may be 2–4 times that amount (Donato et al.
2011). A recent study from Ca Mau quantified mangrove
above ground carbon stocks from estimates of aboveground biomass of trees and downed woody debris, and the
below-ground carbon stocks from estimates of root biomass and sediment carbon stocks (Tue et al. 2014) and
confirmed that the below-ground carbon stock in the upper
250 cm of sediments was indeed 5–6 times greater than the
above-ground stock (above and below-ground carbon
stocks to range between approximately 90–115, and
630–690 t ha-1, respectively). This study also found that
ecosystem carbon storage increased from the fringe to the
interior of the forest and ranged between 720 and 800 t
ha-1 and totalled 10.3 9 106 t C for the mangrove forest of
Ca Mau Cape National Park; accounting for significant
carbon sequestration from the atmosphere.
Particularly high emissions are inferred from the conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems,
with the MRD considered to be amongst the greatest
emitters (Pendleton et al. 2012). This has also been confirmed for converted mangrove forests elsewhere (Lovelock et al. 2011). Land-use change in the MRD is estimated
to have caused 4.7 billion tonnes (Pg) of CO2 to be emitted
to the atmosphere (World Bank et al. 2010). Based on
SRTM data and the soil loss estimated, Crooks et al. (2011)
suggest that the MRD may have lost the equivalent of 3.3
Pg CO2 as a consequence of wetland drainage. Clearing
and thinning may also forego the annual carbon sequestration by the mangrove forest when it remains in situ (Quy
and Nam 2014). Therefore, anthropogenic activities disrupt
or destroy mangroves, reducing the carbon stored and
emitting carbon.
Opportunities and challenges
Mangroves are no longer as extensive as they have been in
the past. Due in part to their low-lying position and
organic-rich soils, deltas have undergone significant land-
665
use change; primarily conversion to rice cropping and
shrimp farming (Binh et al. 2005; de Graaf and Xuan
1998). Carbon emissions associated with these conversions
are likely to have been substantial (Pendleton et al. 2012);
and it remains an ongoing challenge to halt land-use conversion and limit carbon emissions. However, there may
also be opportunities to restore or improve carbon
sequestration on large deltas. This can be achieved by
restoring hydrodynamic conditions that facilitate mangrove
growth and productivity. This is discussed further in
‘‘Livelihoods and mangrove ecosystems in the mekong
river delta’’.
The challenge then is to convey the impact of anthropogenic activity on mangroves and its carbon sequestration
to those whose livelihoods depend on the mangroves. Even
if the enormity of the impact could be conveyed, it raises
important questions as to alternative livelihoods for people
in the MRD. This is discussed in ‘‘Livelihoods and mangrove ecosystems in the mekong river delta’’. Furthermore,
the extent to which the MRD is protected by environmental
law needs to be considered. This is discussed in ‘‘Law and
policy frameworks’’. However, the impacts on the MRD
are not all as a direct consequence of human activity, but
can be a combination.
The area suitable for mangrove colonisation will depend
on a number of factors including future change in sea level,
and subsidence of the MRD, and the effect of future
developments on sedimentation. Sea level has been
observed to be rising along the coast of Vietnam (Thanh
and Huan 2009). The effect of a higher sea level will be
complex, with the need to take into account interactions
with other factors, such as reduced river flow following
damming (Wassmann et al. 2004; Hoa et al. 2007) and
associated alterations to sedimentation patterns (Manh
et al. 2015; Rubin et al. 2014). Groundwater exploitation is
increasingly associated with land subsidence, estimated to
average 1.6 cm year-1 in the lower MRD (Erban et al.
2014), and the release of arsenic to deep groundwater
(Erban et al. 2013). The combined effect with sea-level rise
is a shift in the vertical space that mangrove can occupy
and amplification of flood hazards for the MRD (Erban
et al. 2014).
However, mangroves have been reduced on their landward side through conversion to shrimp ponds. Rapid
conversion of mangroves to shrimp farming has occurred in
Ca Mau (Binh et al. 2005), and appears to be resulting in
increased soil salinity (Tho et al. 2008; Hens et al. 2009).
Although detailed studies of the extent of mangroves have
been, and are being, undertaken, particularly by the German Corporation for International Cooperation, the diversity of mapping techniques, ranging from onscreen
digitization from Google Earth QuickBird imagery, processing of SPOT images and using ground survey
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techniques, means that maps are neither comparable nor
comprehensive (Kuenzer et al. 2011).
This section discussing carbon sequestration by mangroves serves to centre the topic from a scientific perspective. The evidence is compelling and therefore
protecting mangroves offers an opportunity to mitigate
climate change. Notwithstanding this opportunity, the
impacts of climate change, particularly through rising sea
levels can compromise mangroves. However, the biggest
contemporary threat to mangroves is anthropogenic activities that lead to land use conversion, such as shrimp
aquaculture. Therefore people’s efforts to forge a livelihood on the MRD, intersect with the bio-physical science
of mangroves. The next section discusses livelihoods in
MRD.
Section II: livelihoods and mangrove ecosystems
in the mekong river delta
At the end of 2011, 79 % of the land area in Vietnam was
dedicated to agricultural use including cropping, forestry
and fish farming (GSO Vietnam 2012a, b). This land cover
pattern emphasises that Vietnam is heavily dependent on
agriculture and aquaculture, and this is particularly true of
the MRD presenting a primary challenge for mangrove
conservation along the coastline. The enriched MRD plain
constitutes close to 50 % of the cultivated land in Vietnam
and produces over half of the staple food (rice) and almost
three quarters of fish and shrimp production of the country
(Be et al. 2007; GSO Vietnam 2010; MRC 2001). With its
high potential for agriculture and aquaculture, the MRD, is
densely populated, averaging 431 people per square kilometre. Roughly 17.5 million people (20 % of the Vietnamese population) live in the MRD (GSO Vietnam 2013)
with three quarters in rural areas. A quarter of the people in
the MRD do not have land and work as labourers for
others, mainly in the agricultural sector.
Along the coastal fringes of the MRD, salinity intrusion
limits options for agricultural production; in particular, rice
productivity decreases when salinity levels increase
beyond a threshold of 3 deciSiemens per metre (dS/m) with
close to 50 % reduction in yields occurring when salinity
levels reach 6 dS/m (Linh et al. 2012). In recent decades,
farmers in saline-affected areas of the MRD have
increasingly taken up shrimp aquaculture which has
enabled them to generate a source of income with the
growing global market demand for shrimp (Preston and
Clayton 2003; Ha et al. 2012). However, this increase in
shrimp aquaculture has resulted in reduction of mangrove
forests as farmers remove mangroves to make way for their
shrimp ponds (Binh et al. 2005; Ha et al. 2012). This occurs
despite mangroves being covered by ‘‘state legislation that
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is designed to prevent or reduce harm created by aquaculture’’ (Ha et al. 2012 p 186) and illustrates the intersection of another aspect of human agency. The role of law
and policy is discussed further in ‘‘Law and policy
frameworks’’.
The economic incentive to earn from aquaculture competes with efforts to maintain and protect mangroves.
Vulnerable and poorer residents who do not have farming
land or who cannot afford the conversion to aquaculture,
rely on valuable resources and food (such as snails, crabs,
fish, clams, worms, octopus, shrimp and jellyfish) found
amongst mangrove ecosystems (Orchard et al. 2014).
Therefore, protecting mangroves also protects livelihoods.
However, the issues are complex, since the structure of
property rights, lack of clear tenure and declining recognition of traditional land rights and common property
resource management systems are reasons for conversion
of wetland areas which include mangroves (Adger and
Luttrel 2000). Drawing on a case study from Quang Ninh
province in northern Vietnam, Adger and Luttrel (2000)
showed that 11 % of household consumption relied on
products obtained from commonly managed mangrove
areas. However as the area managed by the community
declined due to privatisation of land for purposes such as
aquaculture, it represented ‘‘a less important source of
livelihood to a smaller proportion of the population’’ and
placed further strain on the remaining mangrove leading to
its over-exploitation. The process of conversion itself
reduced incentive to maintain commonly managed areas of
mangrove and minimized its value as a component of local
livelihoods to a smaller portion of the population, thus
providing less motivation to maintain mangrove forests
(Adger and Luttrel 2000).
My (2014) indicated that lack of engagement with local
residents in mangrove restoration projects has led to
livelihoods of local residents being negatively affected, and
as a result local people become disinterested in forest
restoration. Effective engagement of local people, including acknowledging their cultural, economic and livelihood
dependence and relationship with mangrove forests, will be
a crucial component for the success of any future blue
carbon initiatives in Vietnam. Achieving effective
engagement is both an opportunity and a challenge that has
been recognized in United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) projects (Baldwin and Twyford 2006).
Recent work exploring economic incentives as well as
other motivations for local residents to maintain, rehabilitate and restore mangrove ecosystems indicates that there
are new opportunities for mangrove protection and
restoration in Vietnam. For example, in Da Loc commune,
Thanh Hoa province in north central Vietnam, the Community Based Mangrove Reforestation and Management
Project, led by the Australian non-government
Sustain Sci (2016) 11:661–677
organisation, CARE Australia, had some success with
replanting of 200 hectares of mangroves with a 70–90 %
mangrove survival rate over a 3 year period (CARE 2009).
The success of mangrove replanting under this project was
largely attributed to establishment of farmer groups within
a clear institutional structure. Community Management
Boards were established that included local people and
local authorities to collaboratively manage mangrove
planting, maintenance and protection. Additionally, the
project provided livelihood support and interventions for
some residents of the commune to establish non-mangrove
income generation opportunities such as raising pigs or
oysters (CARE 2009).
A study by Ha et al. (2012 p 185) about mangrove
conservation and shrimp farmer livelihoods in Ngoc Hien
and Nam Can districts of Ca Mau province ‘‘supports the
claim that shrimp farmers may well be able to plant, protect
and manage mangroves if they have more rights and
responsibilities over forests and are able to benefit more
from the production of mangroves’’. They found that
shrimp farmers in an integrated system of mangroveshrimp farming did not have higher yields of shrimp
compared to farmers operating a shrimp monoculture farm
without mangroves. However, those shrimp farmers under
an integrated mangrove-shrimp system benefited from
more diverse sources of income (from the ability to also
sell wood) and higher income (from fish and crab sales)
compared to non-forest shrimp farmers. Farmers considered the ability to sell mangrove wood and habitat creation
for shrimp as the two main values of having mangroves
(Ha et al. 2012). Again, this study emphasized the importance of engaging local people in mangrove management to
create a sense of ownership or responsibility over resources
as a means of encouraging protection.
The Mangroves for the Future initiative, co-chaired by
the IUCN and UNDP, has recently established a small pilot
project to work with failed shrimp farmers in Tra Vinh
province of the MRD. The project involves continuing to
allow farmers to raise shrimp but incentivising farmers to
ensure that at least 40 % of their farm area contain mangroves by providing seedlings such that they have a mangrove-shrimp poly-culture (Mangroves for the Future
Secretariat 2015). Such initiatives offer first steps toward
working together with farmers to restore former mangrove
environments and will be important examples to assess
effectiveness for both livelihood and mangrove restoration
outcomes.
Payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes,
through market-based approaches for forest conservation,
offer new potential incentives for local communities to
engage in mangrove conservation, restoration and
667
protection (Locatelli et al. 2014). In particular, the poor and
landless people dependent on mangrove resources for
survival could benefit from additional income sources
created through PES schemes targeted at mangrove conservation (Locatelli et al. 2014). However for those with
agricultural land, experience in Vietnam has shown that the
cost involved with reforesting land is so high and compensation offered by PES schemes so low that farmers are
not motivated to opt for payments under PES schemes
(Pham et al. 2013). Pham et al. (2013) discuss expanding
the concept of PES, already trialled in mangroves of the
Xuan Thuy National Park at the mouth of the Red River in
northern Vietnam, and emphasize the need for introducing
additional incentives, such as engaging local communities
in participatory land use planning, to make forest conservation as worthwhile and profitable as growing crops.
To date, most PES schemes relating to forest conservation, especially through the United Nations Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD?) programme, have been focused on terrestrial
forests rather than coastal forests including mangrove
ecosystems. However, Locatelli et al. (2014, p 981)
acknowledge ‘‘mangrove forests should be leading candidates for such schemes’’. To date the REDD? initiative has
not been practically applied to mangrove regeneration in
Vietnam.
The scope of REDD? is debated; in particular whether
it should be a mechanism purely for carbon emission
reduction or whether it should extend beyond this to
improving livelihoods, empowering local people and conserving biodiversity (Visseren-Hamakers et al. 2012).
Comprehensive reviews on the REDD? scheme by
Angelsen et al. (2012) and reflections on experiences from
community forestry in Asia by Fisher (2014) suggest that
engagement and empowerment of local people and
improvement of livelihoods are crucial elements to
achieving any form of potential success from such mechanisms. Other key lessons from REDD? and community
forestry relating to local livelihoods include the need for
benefits and incentives (such as increased access for local
people to forest products for domestic purposes), capacity
building (such as training in forest management, business
and administrative skills), and linking forest user groups in
small areas of forest to other forest user groups to carry out
joint activities such as marketing (Fisher 2014).
REDD? is also discussed in ‘‘Law and policy frameworks’’ as part of international legal frameworks aimed at
providing support to countries such Vietnam. In this context, it is important to note that the livelihoods of people in
the MRD are also impacted by international legal systems,
as well as local and national legal systems.
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Opportunities and challenges
Addressing local ownership and user rights over blue carbon has particular implications for future management of
valuable carbon stocks stored below Vietnam’s mangrove
forests. This will be an important opportunity and challenge in Vietnam where forests are primarily public and
administered by the state, and the nation is far from recognizing local customary rights over such land (Larson
et al. 2012).
Although mangroves are valued as a resource in their
own right, the economic gains of conversion to shrimp
farming have been driving much of the reduction of mangrove forests in Ca Mau (Ha et al. 2012) and other provinces in the MRD in recent decades. For conservation and
restoration of mangrove ecosystems to be successful, it is
essential to ensure the livelihoods of people dependent
upon the delta are also maintained, also enabling the
country to progress on a path of effective economic
development alongside any measures taken to conserve and
restore mangroves.
Scientific knowledge will be necessary to inform local
residents and the broader community about just how much
carbon is sequestered on each individual land plot and how
this can be measured on an ongoing basis. Contributions
from law and policy will be essential for developing clear
and effective policies and legal understandings about the
structure of property rights, tenure and traditional land
rights, and common property resource management systems, and how these interrelate with mangrove blue carbon.
In addition, sustainable, sufficient and viable incomegenerating activities that are complementary to mangrove
conservation and restoration will need to be developed with
assistance from the government, non-government and private sector. Above-all measures towards conservation and
restoration of mangrove ecosystems will only be successful
if effective engagement with local land owners and users is
undertaken at every step of planning and programme
implementation. A first step will be to acknowledge cultural and social values of mangroves amongst local residents and draw on this as a strength and motivation to work
towards future mangrove conservation and restoration.
Section III: law and policy frameworks
Vietnam is a developing country and a non-Annex I State
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and as such its legal frameworks can
be considered at two levels. First, there are the international
conventions and treaties which have implications for
Vietnam (summarized in Table 1). Several conventions
and frameworks have been established at an international
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level to coordinate and develop responses to climate
change, or environmental conservation and management
more generally. These frameworks were established before
the significant climate change mitigation function of marine and coastal ecosystems, including mangroves, was
clearly understood; however, some of these have an influence on how mangrove ecosystems may be protected.
Vietnam has enacted relevant law and policies to implement its obligations under these treaties. Vietnamese
national land use and environmental law and policy
frameworks, and other relevant institutional frameworks
are summarized in Table 2.
Key environment and conservation frameworks
and the obligations of Vietnam
The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (see
Table 1) provides an overarching framework and guiding
principles for biodiversity-related policies and related
actions (including those concerning marine coastal
ecosystems) at a national level. Vietnam is a party to the
CBD and in December 1995 developed its first National
Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) which serves as a guide
to support actions for biodiversity conservation in the
country. Research indicates that 56 % of the total area of
mangroves in Vietnam is ‘‘planted mangroves’’ with a very
low diversity of species (MONRE 2014, p 19). To address
this problem, the Vietnamese Prime Minister approved the
National Biodiversity Strategy to 2010, Vision to 2020 in
May 2007, referred to as the National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plans (NBSAP 2007). This aimed to restore
200,000 ha of mangrove forests by 2010 through a package
of measures, such as investigating and evaluating the current status of mangrove forests and adopting and carrying
out plans for restoration and development of coastal mangrove forests of protection significance (Government of
Vietnam 2007).
In 2014 Vietnam released its Fifth National Report to
the CBD (reporting period 2009–2013), containing details
of how the national objectives of the NBSAP 2007 and the
strategic goals of the CBD had been ‘‘basically addressed’’
due to the commitment and efforts made by the Vietnamese
government as well as the adoption of community-based
nature conservation (MONRE 2014, pp 82–83). This report
also recognized that some lessons should be learned from
the implementation of this national strategy. Examples of
less effective implementation cited in the report include the
loose cooperation between ministries and between central
and local agencies for biodiversity conservation, the weak
monitoring, inspection and evaluation in relation to biodiversity-related law enforcement and the lack of specific
relevant policies and operational mechanisms for equal
sharing of benefits from biodiversity resources (MONRE
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Table 1 International conventions/frameworks relevant to blue carbon
Convention/
programme
Objective
Convention on
Biological
Diversity (1992)
(CBD)
Stem the loss of wetlands and
progressive encroachment on such
areas
Signed 28 May
1993
Full party
member 16 Nov
1994
Convention on
wetlands (Ramsar
Treaty) (1971)
Conservation and wise use of wetlands
of international significance
Contracting party
20 Jan 1989
United Nations
Convention on
Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
(1992)
Significant actions
Intention of actions
First national biodiversity action plan,
Dec 1995
Guide to support actions for
biodiversity conservation in Vietnam
National Biodiversity Strategy to
2010, Vision to 2020, May 2007
Restore 200,000 hectares of mangrove
forests in wetlands and marine areas
by 2010
National Biodiversity Strategy to
2020, Vision to 2030, July 2013
Maintain mangrove forests, sea grass
beds, and coral reefs at the current
levels, and restore 15 percent of
degraded critical ecosystems
Designated 6 wetlands of
international significance, Mui Ca
Mau National Park and the Tram
Chim National Park in the MRD
Protection of wetlands from loss of
ecological character
From November 2000 to February
2009 a project entitled ‘‘Reversing
Environmental Degradation Trends
in the South China Sea and the Gulf
of Thailand’’ was funded by the GEF
and implemented by the UNEP
Achieve stabilization of greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system
Scheduled to increase the number of
internationally recognised protected
areas to 10 Ramsar sites by 2020
Increase protection of wetlands in
Vietnam
REDD? (reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation)
initiatives
Offer financial incentives for
developing countries to reduce CO2
emissions from forested lands
Clean development mechanism
(CDM)
Allows a country with an emissionreduction or emission-limitation
commitment to implement an
emission-reduction project in
developing countries
UNEP (2009a) Blue carbon report
Develop methodologies for carbon
accounting and ecosystem service
valuation of marine and coastal
ecosystems
Ratified UNFCC 16
Nov 1994
Ratified Kyoto
Protocol 25 Sept
2002
United Nations
Environment
Programme
(UNEP) Blue
Carbon Initiative
Highlight critical role of oceans and
ocean ecosystems
Global environment
facility (GEF)
Provide finance for national
sustainable development initiatives
Blue carbon initiative complements
GEF
Approved *USD 27.8 million ‘Blue
Forests’ project
Partnership of 183 countries,
international institutions and civil
society organisations
Development of global partnerships to
improve management of coastal
carbon sinks and avoid emissions
from marine and coastal ecosystems
Complemented by UNEP blue carbon
initiative
2014, p 83). Addressing these deficiencies can be seen as
opportunities or challenges for mangrove regeneration in
the MRD and there is an ongoing need for domestic legislative and institutional reforms.
In July 2013, the Vietnamese Prime Minister signed
Decision No 1250/QD-TTg approving the National Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, Vision to 2030, referred to as
the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans
(NBSAP 2013). This is designed to maintain mangrove
forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs at the current levels,
and restore 15 % of degraded critical ecosystems. The two
plans linked Vietnam’s national targets to the 2011–2020
Aichi biodiversity conservation targets under the CBD and
provided updated implementation requirements to suit the
changing circumstances in Vietnam. The Aichi Biodiversity Targets during the periods 2011–2020 were adopted by
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Table 2 Vietnamese laws relevant to Blue Carbon
Law
Objective
Land Law (1987)
Establishes a land regime under the ownership
of the whole population but represented by the
State, which constitutes the legal basis for
establishing provisions on land use and
management
Environmental
protection became a
land use principle in
2013
State of private owners may change the purpose
of landuse to be more environmental friendly;
however approval from government is required
for mangrove regeneration activities
Provides for the management, protection,
development and use of forests and rights and
obligations of forest owners
Article 9(4)
Proposed mangrove regeneration activities
should deal properly with the relationship
between economic benefits and the interests of
protection
Provides concrete guidance for proposed
mangrove regeneration activities
Article 4.1
Provides a requirement for proposed mangrove
regeneration activities, namely these activities
should not negatively influence Vietnamese
economic development
Article 4.5
Incorporates the polluter-pays principle, and is
consistent with the Vietnamese Law on
Environmental Protection Tax in 2005
Articles 14 to 23
Provide specific requirements on Strategic
Environmental Assessment (SEA) and
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Adopted 1987
Amended
1993, 1998,
2001, 2003 and
2013
Forest Use and
development
Law (2004)
Significant actions
Adopted 14
Dec 2004
Intention of actions
Enforced 1
April 2005
Law on
Environmental
Protection
(2004)
Adopted 29
Nov 2004
CBD States Parties in 2010, and Target 11 includes a goal
to conserve 10 % of coastal and marine areas through areabased measures, including protected areas. In particular,
NBSAP 2013 provides for 11 recommended priority
activities to achieve both national targets and the Aichi
targets. These priority activities include enhancing State
management of biodiversity, increasing investment of
resources for biodiversity conservation, ensuring maintenance of a national system of protected areas and stopping
illegal trade and overexploitation of biodiversity resources.
Vietnam became a contracting party to the International
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Treaty) (see Table 1) on
20 January 1989. Current Vietnamese legislation and policy relating to wetland conservation includes the Criteria
for Wetland Evaluation and Selection, Guidelines for
Typical Wetlands Planning, and the Wetland Classification
System (MONRE 2014, p 51). To date Vietnam has listed
eight wetlands as Ramsar sites on the list of ‘‘Wetland sites
of international importance’’ (The Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands 2014). The Vietnamese government is scheduled
to increase the number of internationally recognized protected areas to 10 Ramsar sites by 2020 (MONRE 2014,
p 44). Of these 10 sites, four (Xuan Thuy, Ba Be, Quang
Yen, and Kim Son) are located in the north of Vietnam,
while the other six lie in the south. Furthermore, four of
these 10 sites, namely Tram Chim, Ca Mau Cape, U Minh
Thuong, and Lang Sen, are located in the MRD. The
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identification of these sites provides explicit recognition of
the important role that mangrove and associated ecosystems have in mitigating climate change and sea-level rise.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) (2002) (see
Table 1) has funded an array of projects around the world
incorporating mangroves, salt marshes or seagrass beds,
including: fisheries and biodiversity conservation in large
marine ecosystems (LMEs); integrated marine ecosystem
governance of LMEs; and integrated coastal zone management. Mangrove rehabilitation has been a prominent
component in several projects. In February 2012, the GEF
approved a *USD 27.8 million ‘‘Blue Forests’’ project
specifically to develop methodologies for carbon accounting and ecosystem service valuation of marine and coastal
ecosystems. This project is complemented by the UNEP
Blue Carbon Initiative, which focuses on the development
of global partnerships to improve management of coastal
carbon sinks and avoid emissions from marine and coastal
ecosystems. This project aimed to increase mangroves in
seven participating countries bordering the East Sea,
including Vietnam, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Thailand and Philippines, to 90 % of 1998 levels (UNEP
2009b).
The Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, as a specialized
executing agency of Vietnam, represented the Vietnamese
government in participating in the GEF Blue Forests.
Implementation of this project has suggested that building
Sustain Sci (2016) 11:661–677
regional and global awareness constitutes a major challenge in effectively conserving mangroves. These projects
require funding and technical assistance from international
sources.
Coordinating the funding and implementation of blue
carbon projects is both an opportunity and a challenge which
requires dedicated national infrastructure, and for Vietnam
such infrastructure resources are limited. This challenge will
be reconsidered later under ‘‘Financial issues for mangrove
management’’. A key driver of the GEF and UNEP initiatives
discussed above is the potential for international climate
change finance to fund blue carbon restoration and maintenance projects, in particular through mechanisms established
in accordance with the 1992 United Nations Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under
Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC, allows a
country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation
commitment under the Protocol (Annex B Party) to partner
with a developing country to provide funding for the
implementation of an emission reduction programme in
that developing country. To date 249 CDM projects have
been registered in Vietnam (NOCCOP 2015). However, of
these registered CDM projects, only one (Cao Phong
Reforestation, 2008–2023) relates to afforestation and
reforestation, and this project is not in the MRD. There is
thus opportunity to develop CDM projects in relation to
mangrove regeneration in Vietnam in the future. However,
the challenge, as has been noted by Dang et al. (2006), is to
ensure that CDM projects are economically viable.
Therefore, the interdependence of environmental initiatives
with economic/financial imperatives cannot be underestimated when seeking to improve mangrove carbon
sequestration in the MRD.
The REDD? initiative (see Table 1) may provide
financial incentives for Vietnam to reduce CO2 emissions
from forested lands, including mangroves. To date the
REDD? initiative has not been practically applied to
mangrove regeneration in Vietnam. The recent Paris
Agreement adopted on 12 December 2015, highlights the
significance of carbon sinks. Articles 4, 5 and 13 of this
agreement require State Parties to conserve and enhance
sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs) so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and
removals by sinks of GHGs. This is an opportunity to
facilitate the regeneration of mangroves in the MRD, and
provides an incentive for the Vietnam government to ratify
the Paris Agreement.
Considered as a whole, the international law, conventions and frameworks applicable to coastal carbon sinks
such as mangroves do not currently provide a coherent
basis for their protection and management. Conservation
and management frameworks, while recognizing the need
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to protect and restore coastal carbon sinks do not provide a
dedicated source of global funding for this purpose and
climate change frameworks have yet to explicitly recognize
the climate change mitigation functions of coastal carbon
sinks. The Paris Agreement does signal change which
could bring focus to blue carbon and mangrove carbon
sequestration. Such international developments provide the
impetus law and policy to be designed at national and
international levels to enhance and mitigate the climate
change mitigation functions of coastal carbon sinks such as
mangroves.
Vietnamese policy and legal context for blue carbon
National land use and environmental protection
frameworks
The law on land use and management in Vietnam consists
of the Land Law (1987) and the Forest Use and Development Law (2004) (see Table 2). A unique feature of Vietnamese land law is its regime of ownership. Article 4 of the
2013 Land Law (Law No. 45/2013/QH13) establishes a
land regime under the ownership of all the people but
represented by the State which constitutes the legal basis
for establishing provisions on land use and management
(Quang 2010). Environmental protection is one of the land
use principles contained in this land law (Article 6.2) and
the land users, either State or private owners, may change
the purpose of land use to make it environmentally
friendly. However, the current land use in the MRD area,
particularly shrimp farming, has caused many environmental problems. These problems have been attributed to
the lack of ownership and responsibilities of shrimp
farmers over wetlands (as mentioned in ‘‘Livelihoods and
mangrove ecosystems in the mekong river delta’’). Therefore, land ownership is an important factor related to
environmental protection in general and mangroves
specifically. Furthermore, an approval from the government for proposed mangrove regeneration activities is
necessary, which adds to the complexity of ownership and
responsibility for land use.
The Law on Forest Protection and Development (2004)
(see Table 2) provides for the management, protection,
development and use of forests and rights and obligations
of forest owners. It is also noteworthy that Article 9(4)
indicates that proposed mangrove regeneration activities
should deal properly with the relationship between economic benefits and the interests of environmental protection. What constitutes a proper relationship between
economic benefits and environmental protection is not
specified, nonetheless, this law signals the importance of
the interdependence of economic, environmental and
legal/social issues.
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Article 4.1 of the Law on Environmental Protection
(2004) (see Table 2) allows for mangrove regeneration
activities, however these activities must not negatively
influence Vietnamese economic development. This provision reflects Vietnam’s status as a developing country and
therefore its national economy competes with environmental protection. Mangrove management cannot rely only
on government support. Therefore, the role of international
programs (such as those mentioned in Table 1) is essential.
There is an opportunity for Vietnam to engage with such
programs and a challenge to coordinate their implementation using national institutional frameworks.
National institutional frameworks
Regulation of mangrove forest in Vietnam is shared between
the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
(MONRE) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD). Generally, MONRE has jurisdiction over
land and water, while MARD has jurisdiction over trees and
fisheries (The Katoomba Group 2010). Within MARD, the
forestry department has primary responsibility for mangrove
management; no division of MARD or MONRE deals
specifically with mangroves. Instead, the commune People’s
Committee—the local division of the executive arm of the
provincial government—is largely responsible for mangrove
management on the ground. According to the Forest Protection and Development Law, MARD and MONRE are to
coordinate mangrove management at the national, provincial,
district and commune levels, and relevant divisions are to
work with the People’s Committees at each level. In practice,
this coordination has been regarded as either weak or nonexistent (The Katoomba Group 2010). Therefore this indicates
both an opportunity and a challenge since coordination at this
level of governance would also enhance coordination with
international levels of funding and implementation.
Protection of coastal carbon sinks is often very difficult
to reconcile with the goals of countries and communities to
pursue economic development. In a developing country
such as Vietnam, the mismatch between immediate costs,
and longer-term benefits, of marine and coastal conservation can be a disincentive to such activity. Overcoming
such a disincentive is both an opportunity and a challenge.
The intersection of disciplinary insights also highlights
their interdependence.
Section IV: financial issues for mangrove
management
The previous section reinforces the need for explicit
financing for blue carbon projects which support mangrove
management and restoration. The finance of blue carbon is
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one form of intervention to support policy or management
activity that results in increased CO2 sequestration and
reduced GHG emissions (UNEP and CIFOR 2014). The
finance of blue carbon intervention is mainly drawn from
two sources, being UNFCCC sources and public–private
partnerships.
As indicated earlier in this paper, REDD? presents
opportunities for financing of blue carbon management and
restoration projects through UNFCCC sources, although it
often competes for funding with other climate-change
mitigation strategies (Gordon et al. 2011). Therefore, blue
carbon projects need to be targeted to the source of funds
being sought. However, before blue carbon projects can be
funded by these sources there needs to be evidence of
planning and institutional capacity building to ensure that
implementation occurs. According to a report on financing
for blue carbon, over 80 % of REDD? funding (US $1 069
million of US $1 303 million) already committed to
REDD? ‘‘has gone to planning for -not actualcapacity
building’’ (Gordon et al. 2011, p 4). Associated with this
category of funding is the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility Readiness Fund, the purpose of which ‘‘is to
partner developing countries with technical advisors in the
development of REDD protocol’’ (Gordon et al. 2011 p 4).
Therefore, at the international level there is recognition that
developing countries need financial support for various
precursor activities. There are national adaptation programs
of action (NAPAs) for which funding is possible from the
Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), which falls
within the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Trust
Fund.
In addition, there is increasing funding allocated to
promote monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) of
the volume of CO2 attributed to blue carbon projects. In
‘‘Carbon sequestration by mangroves’’, it was noted that
determining the quantity of sequestered carbon involves
many variables, such as the species of mangroves, tidal
activity and sedimentation rates, with little data yet available on below-ground carbon storage. However, mapping
of mangroves is an important part of demonstrating the
extent of mangrove habitats and the volume of carbon
sequestered. Therefore, there is an opportunity for the
development of MRV of such carbon stores. Funding from
international sources is not straightforward and requires
that the country and the project fall within the criteria for
that source of funding. Blue carbon funding does not
readily meet existing criteria. However, increasing evidence of the potential contribution of blue carbon to climate-change mitigation is expected to be reflected in
increased funding directed to blue carbon projects (Gordon
et al. 2011; McEwin and McNally 2014). There is an
opportunity for the recent Paris Agreement 2015 to remedy
this. Financing of blue carbon projects, particularly from
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REDD? funding, is expected to help stakeholders ‘‘direct
scarce resources to those activities that will provide the
greatest blue carbon benefits’’ (Gordon et al. 2011).
Therefore, being able to demonstrate and convey the
importance of the vast stores of carbon sequestered by
mangroves, particularly within the present mangrove
extent, but also within former wetland areas of the MRD,
becomes crucial. This reflects an important intersection of
the science and financing of carbon sequestered by
mangroves.
There are various stakeholders who need to be engaged,
usually including governments, communities and corporations. Therefore the project owner, the project developer
and project financier can be from the public and/or the
private sector, often referred to as public–private partnerships. The coordination of a range of sources of finance as
well as accommodating meaningful stakeholder engagement can also be challenging as well as offer opportunities
for better understanding, processes and outcomes.
Public–private partnerships can attract a range of
resources to support development. In addition, public–private partnerships can offer resources and expertise to
developing countries, financial benefits to investing companies, and redistribute financial risk between partners. For
example the Vietnam Household Biogas project was
facilitated by a corporation, Climate Friendly Pty Ltd, and
involved the MARD, the Department of Agriculture and
Rural Development (DARD) and a Dutch Development
Organisation (Climate Friendly Pty Ltd 2014). The coordination task itself requires specialist professional skills,
often provided by independent ‘‘brokers’’.
REDD ? in developing countries also promotes public–
private partnerships for capacity building. Capacity building funds can be used for increased and improved governance, data collection/monitoring and national stakeholder
participation (Gordon et al. 2011). Indeed evidence of
initiatives for stakeholder engagement is required in order
to attract REDD? and/or Global Environmental Facility
funding (Gordon et al. 2011). There is increasing evidence
that the success of interventions is linked to appropriate
stakeholder engagement (Baldwin and Twyford 2006).
Stakeholder engagement was also cited in ‘‘Livelihoods
and mangrove ecosystems in the mekong river delta’’ as a
key determinant for the success of projects at the local
level. In addition, stakeholder engagement is noted as a
component of the verification processes which have
become integral to assessment and valuation of GHG
mitigation. These verification processes will also be necessary for projects or interventions protecting carbon
stores.
Public–private partnerships which involve the investment of finance also require returns on investments. This
673
second financial aspect of blue carbon can be considered in
terms of the valuation of carbon credits.
Carbon credits
Carbon credits are certificates which indicate the amount of
carbon offset or secured. The value of carbon credits is that
they are negotiable instruments and can be sold in various
carbon markets, therefore, providing a financial value for
carbon. This value in turn can influence whether, or the
extent to which, the private and public sector will participate in climate-change mitigation programs. The opportunity and challenge rests with the recognition of sequestered
carbon being equivalent to reductions in carbon emissions.
In this way, a blue carbon project can generate funds from
the sale of carbon credits. Therefore, the quantification of
sequestered carbon needs to be conceptually equated as
vast carbon credits and hence have financial value as well
as intrinsic natural value.
The value of carbon credits is also influenced by
whether they can be purchased in voluntary markets by
corporations (or individuals) wishing to offset their own
emissions as part of their corporate social responsibility.
The demand for these carbon credits (sometimes referred
to as carbon offsets) can also come from corporations
anticipating regulations which would require them to
reduce their emissions. Carbon credits can be purchased
from a voluntary carbon market with a view to subsequently selling these credits in a regulated emissions
trading scheme (such as the European Union Emissions
Trading Scheme). It has been reported that both governments (the public sector) and corporations (the private
sector) are playing significant roles as carbon credit
buyers and suppliers in the voluntary carbon market. In
2013 carbon credits were purchased ‘‘worth $379 million
to lock 76 million metric tonnes (Mt CO2e) of GHGs out
of the atmosphere’’ (Ecosystem Marketplace 2014).
Although the overall volume of transactions of carbon
credits has decreased, REDD? projects transacted 23 Mt
CO2 equivalence, almost tripling transaction volumes
from 2012 (Ecosystem Marketplace 2014). Given the vast
volumes of sequestered carbon in the MRD, there is an
opportunity to recognize a considerable natural and
financial asset.
The value of carbon credits is also linked to the external
verification of projects. Projects which have achieved
registration with a certified scheme are more ‘‘marketable’’
and the carbon credits associated with the project would
also be more valuable in a market trading carbon credits.
Projects can be independently assessed and the carbon
credits associated with it are also assigned standards such
as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) or The Gold
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Carbon Standard. Carbon credits from a project which has
a VCS can be traded in the voluntary carbon market, while
a project with a Gold Carbon Standard can trade its carbon
credits on a regulated market such as the European Emissions Trading scheme. The value of the carbon credits
traded would generally be dependent on the economic
forces of supply and demand.
Projects granted a Gold Carbon Standard need to meet a
more rigorous set of criteria. At the early stage of a project
there must be a Project Design Document (PDD) which
provides details of anticipated emissions reductions, plans
for quantifying emissions which exceed business-as-usual
reductions, and anticipates emission leakage (Ecosystem
Marketplace 2014). This PDD needs to be validated by an
external auditor. At the later stages of the project, implementation, monitoring and related documentation becomes
necessary in order for an auditor to verify that the GHG
mitigation occurred. A project given a Gold Standard follows additional requirements of monitoring, reporting and
verification, after which it issues compliance-grade carbon
credits (CER), which can be traded in a regulated emissions trading scheme. These CERs can be used to meet a
country’s Kyoto protocol obligations.
There is an opportunity for recognizing sequestered
carbon by mangroves as equivalent to emissions reductions. The recognition of the significance of blue carbon at
international levels would then offer opportunities for its
valuation financially as well as having intrinsic values. The
financial value of blue carbon would link mangrove management to livelihoods and potentially provide further
economic value for Vietnam.
McEwin and McNally (2014) identified a number of
existing carbon methodologies designed to distinguish
between a project’s baseline of carbon and carbon after
the planned activities. In the context of mangroves, the
methodology must take into consideration carbon already
in the soil, the distribution of mangroves, and planned and
unplanned deforestation (McEwin and McNally 2014).
The price of the carbon credits will vary according to the
estimated volume of emissions reductions and the market
price of a carbon credit in a voluntary market. McEwin
and McNally (2014) cautioned that it may not be
straightforward to attract a buyer for the project’s carbon
credits because the voluntary market relies on ‘‘altruistic’’
corporate behavior (Ecosystem Marketplace 2014). There
is an important link between corporate behavior and
financing blue carbon projects, particularly when the blue
carbon is located in a developing country. As discussed in
‘‘Financial issues for mangrove management’’, the legal
issues of ownership of land as well as deltas, would need
to also be considered with respect to the management of
mangroves.
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Conclusions
Mangroves are an important resource in the MRD that
supplies multiple goods and services including the ability
to sequester more carbon per hectare than most other terrestrial forests. Given the capacity of mangroves to form
substantial below-ground stores of blue carbon, they can
play a key role in contributing to mitigating the adverse
effects of climate change. The opportunities for addressing
climate-change mitigation through carbon sequestration
further reinforce the need to protect and restore mangroves
in the MRD. There are many scientific, legal, social, economic and political challenges associated with this objective which can also give rise to opportunities.
For instance, there is a need to quantify sequestered
carbon, particularly below ground, together with associated
valuation of such stores. It will also be necessary to convey
the scientific evidence to a range of both private and public
stakeholders (some of whom could be future providers of
capital or technology), in order to generate the finance
needed to achieve improved mangrove carbon sequestration. Assigning values to sequestered carbon can also play
a critical role in promoting laws and policies that support
mangrove protection and restoration. Mechanisms to
achieve this are still in the course of being recognized at
the global level. It also remains an ongoing challenge to
halt land-use conversion and limit carbon emissions in the
MRD. In attempting to achieve this, it is critical that
conservation and restoration of ecosystems goes hand in
hand with maintaining the livelihoods of people dependent
upon the delta.
This paper has identified that there are significant
interdependencies and complexities between the perspectives of different disciplines on the issue of carbon
sequestration by mangroves in the MRD, all of which need
to be addressed. Further progress on this issue will require
targeted and coordinated intervention involving further
scientific research, the development of economic and social
incentives to protect and restore mangroves, supportive law
and policy mechanisms at global and national levels, and
the establishment of long-term financing mechanisms for
such endeavours.
Acknowledgments This research was made possible by funding
from the University of Wollongong Global Challenges Program and
the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security.
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