Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
Analyzing structural and functional changes of traditional
landscapes—two examples from Southern France
Veerle Van Eetvelde∗ , Marc Antrop
Geography Department, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S8, B9000 Ghent, Belgium
Abstract
Traditional landscapes are changing with increasing speed and an important cultural heritage is becoming lost. New landscapes replace the traditional ones gradually or sometimes abruptly. This article analyzes the characteristics and mechanisms
of landscape changes at a settlement level, by using case studies in the countryside of southern France where landscapes are
in transition between new residential urbanization and land abandonment. Structural changes in land use, building and field
patterns between two time periods are studied using aerial photographs covering a period from 1960 to 1999. The photographs
were scanned to allow on screen digitalization and interpretation of selected features and details, which were consecutively
mapped and analyzed in a GIS. Changes observed on the aerial photographs were compared with the population statistic
and the accessibility of the place. All cases show very different and unique trajectories of change with complex interactions
between different driving forces. Agricultural intensification and land abandonment act simultaneously with different forms
of urbanization in the countryside. Although easily recognizable on the aerial photographs, a quantitative assessment of the
changes in the different structural components remains difficult and the results can hardly be related to changes in population
characteristics and accessibility. Consequently, structural and morphological changes observed on the aerial photographs lead
to other interpretations of the underlying functional processes than the statistical data do.
© 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cultural landscape; Landscape change; Aerial photo series; Southern France
1. Introduction
Traditional cultural landscapes in Europe are in profound transition (Holdaway and Smart, 2001; Wascher,
2000; Green, 2000; Pedroli, 2000; Prihmdahl, 2000;
Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995; Meeus et al., 1990).
Many new types of landscape emerge (Klijn and Vos,
2000; Kolen and Lemaire, 1999). Coherent relations
between the physical environment and the local cultural adaptation, resulting in typical patterns of settlement, roads, land use and field structures, characterize
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +32-9-264-47-07;
fax: +32-9-264-85.
E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Van Eetvelde).
0169-2046/$20.00 © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00030-6
traditional landscapes, which can be recognized easily on aerial photographs. Many of these relations last
for generations of people living there and are ecologically consistent. Thus, traditional cultural landscapes
are diverse and have a distinct identity linked to the
character of the place or region (Antrop, 1997). In general, new landscapes are considered being less diverse
and less coherent than the traditional ones. The pace
of the changes is increasing (Klijn and Vos, 2000).
These changes are difficult to study as most land use
statistics are not reliable, due to the fact that they seldom reflect real landscape patterns and are often outdated (Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995). Many of the
changes are structural and thus monitoring land cover
may not be sufficient. Land use is only one aspect
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V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
that determines the landscape character. Landscapes
should be considered as holistic entities (Antrop and
Van Eetvelde, 2000; Naveh, 2001; Naveh, 2000) and
many other features beside land use define the landscape character and identity (Fry, 2000). Different
models of changing landscape patterns can be defined
(Forman, 1995; Vos and Stortelder, 1992; Keisteri,
1990). Landscape metrics or indices are frequently
used to assess structural characteristics of landscapes
and to monitor changes (Antrop, 1998; Dramstad et al.,
1998; Fry, 1998; Hunsaker et al., 1994).
Generally, traditional landscapes are considered
as more diverse, small scaled, clearly structured and
ordered, while new landscapes are considered to be
more homogeneous or more chaotic, and more structured in a large-scale way (Vos, 2000; Antrop, 1997).
Holism defines the identity of a landscape and thus its
unique character (Naveh, 2000; Pinto-Correia, 2000).
The concept of holism also describes how our perception works. It forms a basis in photo interpretation,
which is one of the fundamental tools in landscape
ecology (Turner et al., 2001; Troll, 1939). The holistic
dimension of the landscape as well as the dynamics
of the landscape can be studied easily using time series of aerial photographs, which offer more reliable
results than census statistics (Dramstad et al., 1998;
Ihse, 1995; Lipsky, 1995).
Can structural changes between traditional and new
landscapes be recognized and are these significant?
How much structural change is needed for a traditional landscape to lose its character and to become a
new landscape? Monitoring changes in land cover is
widely practiced (Antrop, 2000; Wrbka, 1998; Ihse,
1996) and studying structural changes can offer new
applications in planning (Fry, 1998). However, the relation between these changes and the actual processes
are not obvious, as is the way they cause a profound
change of the landscape character and identity. What
makes the character of a landscape change? It might
be a general change of land cover and land use, without fundamental changes of field size and patterns, or
it might be a fundamental change in the field structure,
road pattern and small biotopes without a significant
change in land cover. What are the small mechanisms
of change that together change the identity of a landscape or make it an other landscape type at the end?
How many new housing is needed before the rural
character is lost and an urbanized landscape emerges?
How can these mechanisms be studied, measured and
monitored?.
Landscape metrics or indices have been used widely
to describe landscape structures, spatial patterns and
landscape change (Turner et al., 2001; Klopatek and
Gardner, 1999; Turner and Gardner, 1990). However,
the significance of landscape metrics for practical
applications remains questionable (Dramstad et al.,
1998) and their dependence upon data quality is important in particular in highly dynamic landscapes,
such as suburban ones (Turner et al., 2001; Antrop
and Van Eetvelde, 2000). The question remains if
the transition from traditional patterns to modern rural landscape patterns can be described using spatial
structural indices that rely upon only very partial
landscape components, such as land cover and which
do not necessarily reflect the historical trajectory of
the landscape. The use of time series of historical
maps and aerial photographs is a common practice
in historical geography and has proven to be very
useful (Vuorela, 2000; Skånes and Bunce, 1997; Ihse,
1996). Their application was particularly successful
in well-documented regions that were studied in detail
with an interdisciplinary approach. However, most
analyses are very detailed and specific and therefore
difficult to generalize for monitoring a wide variety
of actual landscape changes. Detailed studies at field
or farm level indicate numerous different causes that
can result in similar landscape changes.
Understanding the changing landscape implies
knowledge of the processes and mechanisms that
cause them. Three main driving forces can be recognized: (1) accessibility related to transportation mode
and infrastructure; (2) urbanization and (3) globalisation. The major trends of change of cultural landscapes
in Europe can be summarized as follows according to
Klijn and Vos (2001) and Wood and Handley (2001).
First, the intensification and increase of scale of
the agricultural production has a role. Wetlands and
natural areas are likely to be transformed into agricultural land in particular in densely inhabited areas.
The new reclaimed land is characterized by large-scale
fields and mono-functional specialization. Small landscape elements with particular ecological value, such
as ponds and hedges are lost. Fine-grained rural landscape structures are replaced by large scale ones which
enhance landscape homogenisation and lead to loss of
regional identities and diversity of cultural landscapes.
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
Over-intensive land use can lead to rapid land degradation with processes of desertification and salinization.
A second major trend is the urban sprawl, the
growth of infrastructures and functional urbanization.
These are other forms of intensive land use that have
high environmental impacts. These forms of land use
spread like a fungus over the existing agricultural or
natural landscapes and create new and complex forms
of multifunctional land use, increasing landscape
heterogeneity and fragmentation. Multifunctionality
demands reflection about the compatibility between
different functions and land use and new planning
solutions much be searched to combine these geographically (Brandt, 2000; Brandt et al., 2001).
A third trend consists of specific tourist and recreational forms of land use that are still developing at
an accelerating speed in coastal and mountainous regions. Natural, cultural and scenic values of the landscape are important factors in this development. The
contrast between the urban-recreational development
and the natural and often traditional rural surroundings is extreme. Sharp gradients in land use intensity
develop at close range. Aspects of over-exploitation,
spoiling and exceeding carrying capacity are important issues. As most of these are situated in less developed regions, new tourist infrastructure gives an extreme contrast with traditional forms of land use and
settlement stressing social differences. Other variants
in this trend, which are typical for developed regions,
are the colonization of declining rural areas by secondary homes, the emergence of summer houses near
natural areas, in particular coast (Tress, 1999). Typical
for developed regions with an aging population is also
the retirement migration mainly towards the coastal
zone.
The fourth trend consists of the extensification of
land use and land abandonment that is likely to continue to affect remote rural areas with poor accessibility and less favourable or declining social and economical conditions. In these regions, the population will
continue to decrease and agriculture will become less
productive. Alternative forms, such as hobby-farming
and part-time farming with specific land use, might
emerge. In areas with less favourable physical land
qualities, marginalization of land use and land abandonment will increase. Unplanned, patch work style,
reforestation is characteristic in such areas and loss of
cultural heritage elements is inherent.
81
Different processes are involved in these trends and
they act simultaneously. Traditional land use is characterized by involution where land use changes are
introduced smoothly taking into consideration land capabilities and existing structures. This occurs in areas
where limited technical means exist but high labour
input could be applied. Polyculture of crops and multifunctional land use are prevalent and management is
often sustainable. Otherwise, replacement is characterized by an increase of technical means and low labour
input and causes land use change that wipe away the
existing structures rapidly and transform the physical environment. Land use becomes more specialized
and monofunctional zoning is typical. Ecological disturbances and stress upon the environment are important factors. Mismatch of dysfunction occurs when the
chosen land use forms are not adapted to the physical
land capabilities or to the geographical location and
context. Obsolescence or loss of function might occur after a while and the land use gradually becomes
disaffected (Wood and Handley, 2001).
This study analyses the nature and magnitude of
the changes in landscapes and the underlying mechanisms at the settlement level based on two case studies
in southern France where landscapes are in transition
between new residential urbanization and land abandonment. Aerial photographs, topographical maps and
census statistics are used as data sources to assess
the change of basic landscape components that define
the landscape structure and identity. The focus will
be upon the changes of the agrarian zone around the
settlement and its more extensive fringe. These zones
correspond to infields (or the ager of classic Roman
land division), which is intensively cultivated land.
The fringe zone corresponds partially to the more extensively used saltus grounds or outfields. Less attention will be given to the vast forests or wastelands, the
silva.
2. Study areas
Two case studies were selected in the rural countryside of France to assess the structural changes of
the landscape in approximately 20 years. The cases
were selected from a series of study areas that have
been used for many years in training exercises for
students in landscape science (Antrop, 1993). Over
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V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
a long period, large datasets of topographical maps,
aerial photographs, terrain observations and monographic studies were collected, offering a good basis
to assess the processes of landscape change.
The case studies were selected to represent different types of change as described by Klijn and Vos
(2001) and Wood and Handley (2001). Tavernes and le
Fleix–Montfaucon are both situated in southern France
where land abandonment and urbanization of the countryside act simultaneously. Le Fleix and Monfaucon
are adjacent municipalities: one in well accessible valley of the Dordogne River and one on a less accessible plateau. The cases will be discussed separately
because of these different site characteristics. Table 1
summarizes the main characteristics of the traditional
landscape for each of the case study areas. Fig. 1
gives their localization in France on a map of the estimated population density in 2015 based on demographical dynamics (Lebras, 1994). All are situated
in rural zones with a rather low population density,
but with a slight trend of population increase due to
immigration in the region (Lacoste, 1990). The landscape character is described systematically for different components, such as landform, settlement, road
and field patterns, land use, type of spatial zoning
and the occurrence of landmarks as visual focal points
in the area. The results are summarized in Table 1.
Fig. 1. Localization of the case studies in the estimated population density map for 2015 of France (1) Tavernes, (2) Le
Fleix–Monfaucon (after Lebras, 1994).
Table 2 summarizes the population change and some
administrative and additional location characteristics
related to accessibility.
Tavernes is a small village of less than a thousand
inhabitants situated in the middle of Var Department
in the Provence region in the Mediterranean southeast
Table 1
Characteristics of traditional landscapes
Structural characteristics
Tavernes
Le Fleix
Monfaucon
Land form
Tectonic basin
Flood plain of Dordogne
Landscape spatial zoning
Circular concentric
Sections parallel to river corridor
Settlement type
Circular, nucleated
Planned nucleated
Building density
Roads
Dominant land use
Field shape
Field size: average
coefficient of variation
Field structure/slope
Edges, corridors, barriers
Forest
Low
Three main roads connect
village
Olive groves
Small blocks
1.25 ha (96.5%)
High
One main road, radiating minor
roads, bridge
Polyculture
Strips grouped in blocks
0.71 ha (74.0%)
Dissected plateau; cliff along
Dordogne valley
Mosaic of patches of forest,
pastures and arable land
Elongated or clustered on ridges;
scattered hamlets
Low
Only minor roads
Flat and terraced
Surrounding limestone hills
Hardwood shrub (maquis)
Flat
River, cliff
Only on steep slopes mixed forest
Landmarks
Village
Bridge
Forest, cropland, grazing land
Blocks, sometimes irregular shaped
0.68 ha (51.8%)
Undulating to steep
Steep slopes
Only mixed forest on steep
slopes and in minor valleys
None
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
83
Table 2
Socio-geographic characteristics of the studied municipalities (source statistics: Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economique,
France, 2001)
Indicator
Tavernes
1982 1990
Le Fleix
1999
1982 1990
1999
Population
483
628
739
Population change (%)
+30.0
+17.7
Older than 60 years (%)
–
38.3
34.4
Foreigners (%)
–
–
2.8
Second residences (%)
–
–
20.8
Employed (%)
–
85.4
77.9
Level of government
Local authority, canton
–
–
–
–
Local
Distance (km) to the nearest
Cities
Barjols: 5; Manosque: 33
Highway access
19
19 + 28a
19 + 28a
Railway station
21
St-Foy-la-Grande: 4; Bergerac: 20
64
57
14
5
a
1241
Montfaucon
1278
1345
+3.0
+5.2
30.1
32.3
–
1.3
–
9.7
88.3
88.4
authority, municipality
1982 1990
1999
209
233
232
+11.0
−0.4
–
25.3
28.9
–
–
2.6
–
–
16.8
–
93.4
82.3
Local authority, municipality
St-Foy-la-Grande: 4; Bergerac: 19
68
61
10
9
To the E80 and the new A51-E172.
of France. The region is highly forested and belongs
to the Pre-Alps. The landscape is characterized by a
succession of mainly forested ridges and plateaus of
Mesozoic limestone, where smaller basins and valleys
are situated filled with Tertiary sediments providing
arable soils (Antrop, 1988). Most of the settlements
in the region are on defensive hilltop sites and are situated in the center of their territories, which includes
the arable basin soils as well as parts of the limestone
plateaus that were formerly used as extensive grazing land. The site of Tavernes is situated in the center of such a basin, which is almost perfectly circular
and surrounded by steep slopes of limestone, which
rise 40–280 m above the basin. The basis is drained
through a small gorge in the south. The village is specialized in olive oil and some wine production. Most
of the basis and the terraces lower foot slopes are olive
groves and vineyards. The basin is assessable by three
main roads: one to the east towards the gorge du Verdon, one to the west leading to the access of the E171
motorway and one to the south to the closest town
Barjols and further to the E80 motorway.
The village of Le Fleix and the hamlet of Monfaucon are situated at the border of the department Dordogne about 20 km west of the main town of Bergerac
and near the old town Sainte-Foy-la-Grande and its
twin settlement Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt on the opposite river bank. Both places are ancient strategic,
commercial and harbor sites on the Dordogne River.
Le Fleix is located near one of the major meanders
of the Dordogne River and possesses one of the few
bridges over the river, thus connecting the historical
region of the Périgord with Guyenne. It was founded
as a small English medieval ‘new town’ or bastide
(Ranoux, 1996). The river is only navigable by small
barges and formed a natural border between the historical provinces. An important road passes through
Le Fleix which, however, did not develop its strategic
advantage as the nearby Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt and
Sainte-Foy-la-Grande on the other side of the River.
The River valley is approximately 5 km wide and the
soils are formed of alluvial gravel and clayish deposits. The area is traditionally cultivated with a mixture of vineyards, orchards, cereals and tobacco as
crops (Ranoux, 1996). This typical Aquitanian polycultural landscape (Lebeau, 1972; Pinchemel, 1969)
disappeared largely during the second-half of the 20th
century. The landscape became more homogeneous
with a specialization in corn and fruit orchards and
by grouping the fields into larger blocks. As the Dordogne forms the border between the planning regions
Dordogne and Aquitaine, which since the 1970s follow each their own planning policy, interesting landscape changes on both sides of the river emerge. The
municipality of Le Fleix has a little more than thousand inhabitants today (Table 3) and population density between 50 and 99 inhabitants/km2 (1990).
Contrary to the easily accessible Le Fleix, the municipality of Monfaucon is situated 88 m above the
valley on the dissected plateau with rugged relief,
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Table 3
Aerial photographs and topographical maps used
Datasets
Case study
Date
Original scale
Topographical maps
Tavernes, IGN France, number 3343
Ste-Foy-la-Grande, IGN France, number 1736
Tavernes
Le Fleix–Monfaucon
1984
1988
1/50000
1/50000
Aerial photographs—Scanning 1000 dpi
IGN France 9064-145 numbers 2937–2939
IGN France 83-200 numbers 2038–2040
IGN France 1636–1936 numbers 102–104
IGN France 1736/300 numbers 24–26
Tavernes
Tavernes
Le Fleix–Monfaucon
Le Fleix–Monfaucon
1979
1993
1960
1999
1/14500
1/20000
1/25000
1/30000
approximately 5 km from the river. It is connected
with the main transportation infrastructure by small
winding roads. This relative isolation is well expressed by its population of about 200 inhabitants
(Table 3) and very low population density consisting
of <10 inhabitants/km2 (Ranoux, 1996). The steep
slopes are formed in Tertiary of molasses, sands,
clays and gravels and are forested. Woodlands occupy
also large parts of the plateau. Cropland and meadows are prevalent. The increase of the forested area is
characteristic for the landscape change here.
3. Methods and materials
Analogue stereoscopic black and white aerial photographs were available for two time periods (Table 3).
Their original scale varied from 1/14500 to 1/30000.
The photographs were scanned at a resolution of
1000 dpi to allow comparison and overlaying. The
resolution 1000 dpi was chosen to allow the detection of the smallest landscape elements also during
the onscreen interpretation, since changes of these
were considered highly significant in the assessment
of changes of small details in the landscape. Georeferencing of the raster images was done in PCI
Geomatica. Comparative photo-interpretation and on
screen digitizing was performed in AutoCAD Map
2000, while for map overlaying and spatial analysis
Arcview GIS 3.1 was used.
First, the geographical context and site characteristics for the different cases were studied using
topographical maps and literature. This allowed to define the main structural components of the traditional
landscapes and to collect information of processes
that were significant for the landscape changes, such
as population dynamics and construction projects.
These characteristics were summarized in Table 1.
Second, a global visual stereoscopic interpretation
of photographs was conducted to define different
landscape units (blocks) in each case. These blocks
were used as strata for sampling and aggregating elements of change within these areas. The blocks were
defined as polygons bordered by roads and enclosing
similar patterns of fields, buildings or linear features,
such as terraces, natural edges and rivers. These irregular polygons were preferred to a raster grid for
aggregating the observed changes because the areas
correspond to old field systems and to the traditional
agrarian land organization systems (Lebeau, 1972;
Uhlig and Lienau, 1972). Town centers were left out of
the analysis because of the different scale and nature
of structural changes within the built up environment.
Different landscape elements were selected as significant indicators of structural change. These were land
cover, defined field-by-field or patch-by-patch when
no clear field borders could be separated, buildings
and infrastructural constructions with their associated
properties and fields patterns with different size and
shape.
Third, aerial photographs and topographical maps
were scanned and georeferenced using PCI Geomatica
to allow map overlay and easy comparison. Elements
of change were digitized on screen as a vector map in
AutoCAD Map 2000. An example to illustrate this is
given in Fig. 2. Different types of changes were described, counted and measured for each time period
and consecutively aggregated by landscape block. The
results are summarized in Table 4 and represented cartographically in diagrams (Figs. 4 and 8).
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
85
Fig. 2. Example of a block stratified sampling and indication of objects selected for comparison (case study Le Fleix).
Finally, these results were compared to changes in
population spreading. Therefore population potential
surfaces were constructed for the different periods.
Population potential maps indicate the relative isolation of places relative to the population size of the settlements in the region and are based upon the gravity
model of interaction (Smith, 1975; Haggett, 1975). In
this case the population census data for the municipalities was used. The density mapping procedure of
the Spatial Analyst in Arcview GIS was applied, using a search distance of 5 km, which corresponds to
the average action radius of movement by pedestrians
Table 4
Indicators of change the case study areas Tavernes, Le Fleix and Monfaucon
Indicator
Time period
Tavernes
Le Fleix
Monfaucon
1979–1993
1960–1999
1960–1999
For surveyed area
Surveyed area (km2 )
Change of forested area (ha)
Overall building density (km2 ) past/present (% change)
Annual rate of change of building density (%)
Number of fields past/present (% change)
Annual rate of change of number of fields (%)
4.825
–
26.9/42.9 (+59.2%)
+4.2
608/509 (−16.3%)
−1.2
8.395
–
34.3/58.7 (+71.2%)
+1.8
1548/700 (−54.8%)
−1.4
8.857
+60.38 (+6.8%)
6.7/15.6 (+133.9%)
+3.4
537/231 (−57.0%)
−1.5
At block level
Number of blocks
Difference in average building density by block (km2 )
Difference in average number of fields by block
Difference in average field size by block (ha)
Annual change of number of building density (km2 )
Annual change of number of fields (km2 )
Average field size (ha): past/present
Coefficient of variation of field size (%): past/present
Annual change of average field size (m2 )
11
+31.37
−40.71
+0.9856
+1.14
−1.47
1.25/2.24
97/94
+110.23
23
+34.37∗∗
−36.87∗∗
+0.8983∗∗
+20
−72.66
0.71/1.61
74/52
+230.34
10
+13.01∗
−30.60∗∗
+0.4884∗
+3
−8.86
0.68/1.08
52/48
+102.70
∗
P < 0.05.
P < 0.01.
∗∗
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V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
during the shaping of the traditional landscape
(Antrop, 1999). The population potential map of
the oldest situation is represented by gray shaded
contours. The difference map between the potential
surfaces for the two periods gives an indication of
the spatial change of potential population density and
is represented as a contour map. The theoretical territories were mapped using Thiessen polygons and
population size of the settlements according to Antrop
(1988). These were overlaid with the actual municipal
borders.
4. Results
For approximately the same time period, all study
areas show important, but completely different patterns of change in the land use and landscape structure, which are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated
by Figs. 3 and 7.
Tavernes is situated in a transition zone of high population potential associated with the town of Barjols
in the south and an almost abandoned densely forested
limestone plateaus in the north and east (Fig. 5). A
rapid connection to the main motorway E80 of the
Côte d’Azur in the south exists. Since 1990, the minor
road to the west offers also access to the E172 motorway. The population increase of Tavernes is spectacular between 1982 and 1999 (>53%) with an annual
growth rate of 3.1%, which seems to be slowing down
now. An increase of 30.0% was noted between 1982
and 1990, which almost halved (>17.7%) between
1990 and 1999. Although the percentage foreigner is
low (2.8%), the proportion of secondary housing occupies now one-fifth (20.8%). The proportion of the
elderly people is slightly decreasing; unemployment
remains high and has increased in the last decade. The
shift of the population density surface indicates a relatively faster growth to the north and northwest of
Barjols. The Thiessen polygons still correspond fairly
well with the old municipal border.
At a first look, the Tavernes Basin shows little
change between 1979 and 1993 (Fig. 3). In particular the circular and nucleated old village looks
Fig. 3. Aerial photographs of the Tavernes village and the eastern foot slope in 1979 (top) and 1993 (bottom) (extract from IGN France
9064–145 numbers 2937–2939, 83–200 numbers 2038–2040).
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
87
Fig. 4. Change maps for dominant land use, buildings (a) and number of fields (b) by landscape block for the Tavernes case study. Type
of change for dominant land use: (1) maquis to maquis (2) maquis and olive yards to maquis and olive yards (3) vineyards to vineyards
(4) vineyards to vineyards and arable land (5) vineyards and olive yards to arable land.
unchanged and small changes in land use can be
noticed in the cultivated basin, in particular the transition from vineyards to olive groves. Most important
changes are located at the terraced foot slopes of
the Basin, in particular in the northern and eastern
edge of the Basin. The number of buildings increased
from 130 in 1979 to 207 in 1993, which means an
overall increase of the building density from 26.9
to 42.9 buildings/km2 (>59.2%). A pronounced con-
centration in the north and east of the Basin can be
traced. Clearly, the well-protected, long steep slopes
facing south and west are preferred. However, the
slopes are well absorbed in the already existing landscape. Smaller buildings, such as the cabanons, field
cabins with stonewalls and brick roofing tiles and
typical for the region, have been transformed and
enlarged into second homes (Fig. 6). The surrounding narrow cultivation terraces have been abandoned
88
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
Fig. 5. Population potential and village territories in (a) the Tavernes study area and (b) the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area. Grey shades
zones represent the population potential surface of 1982; contour lines indicate differences between the 1999 and 1982 surface with the
mean value of change for the Tavernes study area = 6 inhabitants/km2 and for the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area = 3 inhabitants/km2 ;
dotted lines represent the municipal borders and dashed lines the theoretical territories defined by Thiessen polygons.
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
89
Fig. 6. Detailed extracts from aerial photographs illustrating the interpretation of the change of individual elements: transformation of field
cabins and terraces (left) into residential villas with swimming pool and gardens (right) (Tavernes).
and transformed into gardens. New houses have also
been built in a scattered pattern on the abandoned
terrace slopes. Existing dirt roads formed the skeleton
to access new housing sites. The number of fields
decreased by 16.3%, but the change in average field
size by block did not change significantly. Variation
in field size remains very high as indicated by the
coefficient of variation. Spatial variation is clearly
shown by the diagrams in Fig. 4. The average field
size by block increases almost by one hectare, which
is not significant (P = 0.1430).
The Dordogne Valley appears clearly in the population potential map (Fig. 5). Le Fleix is situated
at the transition of the core area of the main towns
Sainte-Foy-la-Grande and Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt
and the plateau area with very low population density
where Monfaucon is situated. The population of the
Le Fleix municipality has been stagnating between
1982 and 1990, with an average annual growth of only
0.5%. This stagnation is also reflected by its age structure: 30–32% of the inhabitants is older than 60 years
(Ranoux, 1996). The overall population increase was
8.4% and seems to be slightly accelerating (>3.0%
between 1982 and 1990, >5.2% between 1990 and
1999) (Table 3). Unemployment is low and has been
stable in the last decade. The percentage of foreigners is extremely low as is the proportion of second
homes.
The core of population potential shows a clear shift
towards the northeast with the highest change rate
between Le Fleix and St-Avit-St-Nazaire and in the
viewing of Gardonne. Although the population statistics suggest low dynamics in the area, this shift of
population potential corresponds to changes in building density. The number of buildings doubled from
288 in 1960 to 493 in 1997, which gives an overall
increase of the building density in the studied area
from 34.3 to 58.7 buildings/km2 (>71.2%). The average building density by block increases significantly
by 34.37 buildings/km2 . The scattered extension of
new residential housing is situated in particular along
the secondary roads to northeast of the old village center. Another striking structural change visible on the
aerial photographs is an important reorganization of
the field pattern. The regular strips organized in blocks
have been up scaled and replaced by large fields. Less
than half of the number of fields in the area studied remained: 1548 fields in 1960, only 700 in 1999
(−54.8%). The average number of fields by block had
decreased significantly. Most of the small strip fields
were merged into larger blocks. The average field size
by landscape block increased significantly by 0.8983
ha from 0.7066 ha in 1960 to 1.6049 ha in 1999. Simultaneously, the variation coefficient dropped from
74 to 52%, indicating homogenization of the field size.
The spatial variation of these changes by block is given
90
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
Fig. 7. Aerial photographs of the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area in 1960 (top) and 1999 (bottom) (extract from IGN France
1636–1936 numbers 102–104, 1736/300 numbers 24–26).
in Fig. 8. Land use becomes more homogeneous, as
fruit orchards have replaced the vineyards on the flat
valley area.
Although poorly accessible, the population of the
municipality of Monfaucon showed a spectacular increase of 11.0% between 1982 and 1990, which is far
above the average growth of the Department (>2.4%)
(Ranoux, 1996). This makes its population structure
more favourable than Le Fleix, although 20–29% of
people are older than 60 years (Ranoux, 1996). However, this population increase happened between 1982
and 1990 and has stagnated. This sudden increase in
population is expressed by a relative increase in building density in the area from 6.7 to 15.6 buildings/km2
(>133.9%). Land use changes show an extension of
forest, mainly due to abandonment or replanting of
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
91
Fig. 8. Change maps for dominant land use, buildings (a) and number of fields (b) by landscape block for the Le Fleix–Monfaucon case
study. Circle indicates unbuilt blocks in 1960 with number of buildings in 1999. Type of change for dominant land use: (1) forest to
forest; (2) forest and grassland to forest; (3) grassland to grassland; (4) arable land and grassland to fruit orchards; (5) arable land to
fruit orchards; (6) grassland and arable land to arable land; (7) grassland and arable land to grassland; (8) grassland and arable land to
grassland and arable land; (9) grassland and arable land to grassland and arable land and water surfaces; (10) arable land to arable land;
(11) arable land and vineyards to orchards.
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V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
Fig. 9. Detailed extracts from aerial photographs illustrating the interpretation of the change of individual elements: transformation of a
manor into an institution for special education (Cadillac, Le Fleix).
individual fields. Forest increased by 60 ha (>6.8%) in
the area. The average number of fields by block was
reduced and average field size increased significantly
by almost half a hectare (>0.4884 ha). The variation
of field sizes by blocks has persisted (52% in 1960 to
48% in 1999) and is rather low compared to the other
case studies. Existing farms expanded with new buildings. The aerial photographs easily reveal functional
changes where farms extended activities and manors
have been turned in special education (Fig. 9), recreation or rural tourism (gı̂te rural, table d’hôtes) establishments.
5. Discussion
The holistic view given by the aerial photographs
offers the most comprehensive assessment of the structural changes of the landscapes. Important changes
in spatial patterns can be detected easily and visually
interpretated. Measuring and quantification reduces
the observed and obvious changes to non-significant
differences in indicator values. The stratification of
landscape using blocks allowed some spatial differentiation, but the indicators of change derived from the
strata are not easy interpretable. A difficulty here is
that the delineation of blocks combines both physical
features, such as abrupt changes in the slope and river
valleys, as well as cultural features, such as field systems and roads.
Terms, such as ‘construction’, ‘field’ and ‘field
system’, as applied in classical historical geography
in Europe (Lebeau, 1972; Uhlig and Lienau, 1972),
were preferred instead of the more general concepts,
such as ‘element’ and ‘patch’. They allow a more
direct and thus a less abstract interpretation. Properties, such as ‘field size’ and ‘shape’ are used for the
same reason instead of the more abstract quantitative landscape metrics that are frequently applied in
landscape ecology, and that are more controversial
in use (Dramstad et al., 1998). Although many landscape metrics are related (Turner et al., 2001), their
combined use gives better interpretation (Dramstad
et al., 1998). The use of synthetic indices of landscape change is only meaningful when looking at one
feature of change, such as land use or forestation.
Combining land use changes with structural changes
of settlement and field patterns seldom results in an
index that allows unambiguous interpretation.
The borders of the municipality of Tavernes and
its size and shape still reflect the traditional territorial
zoning. Theoretical territories correspond well with
the original, old municipal borders, confirming earlier
similar findings (Antrop, 1988). The compact shape
and central position of the controlling settlement indicate an organic growth of the land occupancy (Unwin
and Nash, 1992; Baker, 1971). In case of Le Fleix
and Monfaucon, the theoretical mapped territories using Thiessen polygons correspond well with the municipal borders and indicate an organic growth of the
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
land occupancy. The land use change and small reduction of arable land in the basin of Tavernes between
1979 and 1999, could be seen as a continuing phase in
the decline of small-scale traditional polyculture that
started in the second-half of the 20th century as described already in detail for the adjacent municipality
Montmeyan by Larnoe (1988). The structural changes
in the landscape are mainly new residential (second)
housing that is well absorbed in the traditional terraced
foot slopes. Most changes are functional and do not
affect the basic structure of the landscape. The general morphology and physiognomy of the landscape
is hardly affected and changes become only distinct
when looking closer at details.
For all case studies the interpretation and linking
of population statistics and dynamics to the observed
physical changes in buildings and field patterns is not
distinct. This confirms the advantage of using aerial
photographs over census statistics in landscape change
studies (Dramstad et al., 1998; Lipsky, 1995). For the
Le Fleix and Monfaucon case, census statistics and
population maps (Ranoux, 1996) suggest different,
even opposite dynamics than what can be observed in
analyzing the time series of aerial photographs. Important physical changes can be observed in the landscape, while census data suggest a stagnating area
with low dynamics. The changing field patterns in Le
Fleix is a typical result of the up-scaling and transition towards industrial specialization in crops. Le Fleix
has remained a rural village with the main activity in
agriculture. The population statistics do not explain
the more than doubling of the number of buildings
in the area (from 34.3 buildings/km2 in 1960 up to
58.7 buildings/km2 in 1999). Many new buildings are
extensions of existing complexes of farms or companies. The residential expansion shows a typical ‘beady
ring’ development emerging along the access roads
of the original village (Saunders, 2001; Hillier and
Hanson, 1984). The population of Monfaucon stagnated after a short period of fast growth by immigration and is getting older while unemployment increases. It is not possible to relate this population
growth to the observed obvious increase in building
density. Most of the new buildings are extensions of
existing sites, in particular of expanding farms or transformation of existing building complexes into institutions or enterprises. Consequently, in this case the
building density as one of the indicators of landscape
93
change does not refer to important visual and structural change of the landscape, but rather to functional
change. Detailed visual interpretation of single elements, such as individual fields and buildings is possibly based on the aerial photographs, offering the
possibility of detecting functional changes that are
important for better understanding the processes of
change in the area. The expansion of the forest in Monfaucon seems to illustrate the principles of “la forêt
chasse l’homme” (‘the forest chases humans’) and “la
forêt en timbre poste” (‘afforestation by small post
stamps’), which have been used to describe the symptoms of land abandonment in central France (Bouet
and Fel, 1983).
6. Conclusions
Structural changes in the selected villages in the
French countryside showed fundamental but also very
specific changes over the recent two to four decades.
Most of the changes were induced by processes of urbanization and a combination of agricultural intensification and land use extensification. Few changes can
be directly related to changes in the accessibility of the
place. Changes in statistical data that indicate human
activity and accessibility do not always coincide with
changes observed in land use and landscape patterns.
Places that look stable in the census data can show significant structural landscape change, as in the le Fleix
and Monfaucon case. Structural changes, as shown by
indices, such as number of buildings and field size, are
not always the result of the same proces. Functional
changes of existing elements can be detected using detailed visual photo interpretation. Although many different types of functional and structural change can be
detected and even measured to some extend, the central question remains unanswered. The transition from
a traditional landscape in a new one happens gradually
with changes in some landscape components while
others remain unchanged. The overall landscape character, its identity is more stable than specific structural
components, such as field systems or land use. It illustrates the binding power of holism in the characterization of landscape. Large values of changes as indicated
by numerical indices do not always find their expression in the landscape itself. Much depends on how
the changes are absorbed by the existing landscape
94
V. Van Eetvelde, M. Antrop / Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95
structure as illustrated in the Tavernes and Monfaucon
cases. The processes and mechanisms of change can
not be understood completely using only census data
or pattern analysis on aerial photographs. Macroscopic
observation and interpretation of the change of individual elements, such as a single field or building complex, reveal both structural and functional changes,
which are often very specific. Advanced and detailed
photo-interpretation is indicated and should be combined with additional field surveying using interviews
and collecting the oral history of the area.
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Veerle Van Eetvelde is geographer and planner. She specialises in
landscape science, GIS and spatial data structures. At present, she
is an assistant at the Department of Geography of the University
of Ghent and supervises students’ exercises in landscape science.
She works on a PhD, analysing structures and dynamical processes
in landscapes. She is co-author of the landscape atlases, active in
studies for environmental impact assessment related to landscape
and did research to set up an integrated monitoring system for the
Flanders region.
Marc Antrop (1946) is geographer specialised in landscapes sciences, remote sensing, GIS and planning. He is professor lecturing
at the University of Ghent (Belgium, Flanders) and at the moment
head of the Department of Geography. His interest in the landscape is broad and holistic, covering and integrating aspects of
landscape genesis (in particular focusing upon the natural and cultural aspects of the European landscapes), landscape perception,
landscape evaluation and land assessment, landscape ecology and
landscape architecture. Practical application of this knowledge is
achieved in planning and environmental impact assessment and
monitoring land degradation. His main work areas are Belgium,
France, the Mediterranean, Egypt and Central Europe. His main
research field are actually the elaboration of the survey of the
relicts of traditional landscapes of Flanders, the elaboration of
methods for strategic environmental impact assessment (SEA) and
the development of new structural spatial planning. He is member of the Royal Committee for Protection of Monuments and
Landscapes in Flanders and vice-president for the division of landscape protection. He is a consultant for the Flemish and Belgian
government on the field of environmental impact assessment and
the implementation of GIS in administration, environmental policy and planning and is member of the Scientific GIS Committee.