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‘ScratchandMix:SamplingtheHumanVoiceinthe
MetaphoricalPhonograph’
DrMiriamaYoung,TheUniversityofMelbourne
ThisisanAcceptedManuscriptofanarticlepublishedbyTaylor&Francisin
ContemporaryMusicReviewon16December2010,availableonline:
http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/07494467.2010.535369
[Abstract]
ThispaperelucidatesthepracticebywhichcomposersandDJsusetheturntable
to‘scratchandmix’samplesofrecordedfemalevoices,therebyreframingthem
intonewcontextualforms.Thepaperfocusesontwopieces:‘Got‘TilIt’sGone’,a
popsongbyJanetJacksonandQ-Tipwhichsamplesandmanipulatesafragment
ofJoniMitchell’s‘BigYellowTaxi’;andChristianMarclay’sturntablescratching
on the voice of the late Maria Callas. The discussion is interpolated with a
readingofJean-PaulSartre’snovelLaNausèe,forhisliteraryembodimentofthe
recordedvoice.
[Keywords]
voice;technology;electronic;Callas;Marclay;Sartre
Introduction
Onenightwhilereading,halflisteningtothetelevisioninthebackground,my
earwasdrawntothesoundofamaleoperaticvoicethathadbecome‘stuck’,
mid-aria.Thevoicewassuspendedforalengthoftimethatfarexceededhuman
capacity.Ilookeduptothetelevisionscreentoseeananimatedpieceofchewing
gumdeliveringanariaupontheoperaticstage.Buthischewinggumbody,and
thevocalizationitself,werefrozen,mid-stream.Hestooduponthestage,hands
dramaticallyoutstretched,andjawhangingwideopen,whilefromhischewing
gummouthahighnoteloopedcontinuously.Thesoundcaughtmyattention
becauseIhadexpectedthesingingvoicetostopforabreak,andwhenitdidn’t,I
wasarrestedbythesoundofthisimpossiblehumanvoice.
Adorno’sFearsforRecordingPerfection,&EarlyTurntableExperimentation
Inhisessayof1928,‘CurvesoftheNeedle’TheodorAdornooutlinedhis
observationsandfearsfortherecordedvoice,andwhatheregardedasthe
growingproblemofattainableperfectionwithintherecordingindustry.
Astherecordingsbecomemoreperfectintermsofplasticityandvolume,thesubtletyof
colorandtheauthenticityofvocalsounddeclinesasifthesingerwerebeingdistanced
moreandmorefromtheapparatus.i
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ToAdorno,itseemedthatrecordedperfectionwasfurtherabstractingan
alreadydisembodiedvoice.Adornocomparedtheprocessof‘cleaningup’
recordingstophotographictechnique,whichhesaid‘borrowedfromlifeless
psychologicalpainting’.ii
ShortlyafterthepublicationofAdorno’sessay,composersErnstTochandPaul
Hindemithexperimentedincreativelysabotagingthegramophonicplatefor
originalcompositionalpurposes.TheirOriginalwerkefürSchallplatten(Original
WorksforDisc)whichfeaturedattheNeueMusikBerlinfestivalin1930,
celebratedthepossibilitiesandconstraintsofthenewgramophonemedium,and
marksomeofthefirstknownexperimentsinmanipulatingvocalutteranceusing
thenewtechnology.Theirearlyexploratorytreatmentsoftherecordedvoice
revealedpossibilitiesthatcomposerswouldcontinuetoexplorethroughoutthe
centuryofrecordedsound.TheexperimentsofTochandHindemithmarkedthe
beginningofanelaborateinterplaybetweenthehumanvoiceandtherecording
mechanism,inwhichthemachinerevealeditselfintheaudiblevoice,justasthe
voicewasbothre-enlivenedandre-inventedinnewandimaginaryforms,
throughthemachine.
Sincethen,numerouscomposersincludingEdgardVarèse,JohnCage,Pierre
Schaeffer,andhip-hopartistsfromGrandmasterFlashtoDJSpookyhavelooped,
transposed,andtransformedtherecordplateforcompositionalends,ina
techniquenowcommonlyknownasTurntablism.JohnOswalddescribestheart
ofturntablismorscratchingthus:‘Aphonographinthehandsofa
“HipHop/scratch'’artistwhoplaysarecordlikeanelectronicwashboardwitha
phonographicneedleasaplectrum,producessoundswhichareuniqueandnot
reproduced–therecordplayerbecomesamusicalinstrument’.iii
Thisarticlelooksattwosuchinstancesofturntablismusedfortherefashioning
ofapre-existingrecordingintoanewwork.Bothpiecesstemfromthelatter
partofthetwentiethcentury–ChristianMarclay’sturntableremixMariaCallas
of1988,andJanetJacksonandQ-Tip’spopsingle,‘Got‘TilIt’sGone’(1997).
Thesepiecessample,recycle,andtransformthevoiceupontherecordplateuntil
itsurpasseswhatishumanlyattainable.Theoriginalvocalrecordingis
refashioned–scratchedandlooped,cutandspliced,andthenreassembled,into
anentirelynewform.Thisarticleexamines,throughtherecordedobjectas
locus,there-contextualizationofvocalmaterialintonewmusicalforms.
LaNausèeandPhonographicListening
LetusbeginbyvisitingJean-PaulSartre’s1938novelLaNausèe(Nausea).Bythe
timeofpublication,phonographicorgramophoniclisteninghadbecomeapartof
theeverydaydomesticexperienceforthemiddleclass,andSartredescribesso
eloquentlyourexperienceoflisteningtothehumanvoiceinarecording.
Sartre’snovelisparticularlyelucidatingindefiningtheverytraitsthatmakethe
recordedobjectsodistinctive.Onesuchcharacteristicisthephonographic
record’sveryinevitability.Atonepoint,whilelisteningtorecordedmusicinhis
livingroom,theprotagonistRoquentincomments,‘thevocalchoruswillbealong
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shortly’,andalittlelaterheanticipates,‘afewsecondsmoreandtheNegresswill
sing’.ivUnlessheintervenes,predictableeventsatparticulartimesbecome
intrinsictohisexperienceoflisteningtothesongonthephonograph.
Itisthisveryinevitablywhichindicatesthatthisisarecordeddocument.Unlike
liveperformance,whichisbyitsverynatureunpredictableandorganic,thesong
Roquentinlistenstoonthephonographiscontainedinastatic,re-playable,
reproducibleform,andwithitthehumanvoiceishousedinperpetuitywithin
therecordedmedium.Roquentindescribessuchaninstanceoflisteningtothe
phonographicimagethus,
Madelineturnsthecrankonthephonograph…Irecognizethemelodyfromtheveryfirst
bars.Itisanoldrag-timewithavocalrefrain.v
Throughthenovel,theauthorcontinuallyreturnstosuchdescriptionsof
phonographiclistening,andintheserepetitions,Sartreenactsthroughthetext
theexperienceofrepeatedlisteningtothesameperformanceonthe
phonographicplate.
Thevoicesings:
Someofthesedays
You’llmissme,honey.vi
This ‘recorded’ couplet winds its way through the text as a looped trope. And
when it does so, Roquentin, and the reader, hear the song and imagine ‘the
Negress’,hervoiceemanatingfromthephonographicplateandintotheroom.vii
The author’s very reference to ‘the Negress’ hints to an objectification of the
voice and the persona behind it, for although she remains nameless (and her
identityhasbecomethesourceofdebate),thischoiceofterminologyfoldsvoice,
skincolorandbodilypresenceintoonecompositeterm.viii
Theprotagonisthereimaginesthebodybehindthesong:
The voice, deep and hoarse, suddenly appears and the world vanishes, the world of
existence. A woman in the flesh had this voice, she sang in front of the record, in her
finestgetup,andtheyrecordedhervoice.ix
Roquentinconflatesthephysicalbodyofthesingerwiththe‘objecthood’ofthe
turning record plate, and ironically it is this which enables him, through the
listening,tobecomefullyconsciousofhisownexistence:
Thewoman:bah!sheexistedlikeme,likeRolleban,Idon’twanttoknowher.Butthereit
is. You can’t say it exists. The turning record exists, the air struck by the voice which
vibrates,exists,thevoicewhichmadeanimpression[on]therecordexisted.Iwholisten,
Iexist.Allisfull,existenceeverywhere,dense,heavyandsweet.x
But,critically,theinevitabilityofthesongissabotagedbyaglitchintheplayback
mechanismofthephonographicneedle.
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Thevoicesings:
Someofthesedays
You’llmissme,honey
Someonemusthavescratchedtherecordatthatspotbecauseitmakesanoddnoise….
thistinycoughingoftheneedle….xi
Intheneedle’s‘coughing’,thepresenceoftheperformer–ourimaginingof‘the
Negress’asshesings–isdisrupted.Inmalfunctioning,thephonographicplate
insteadhighlightstheverypresenceofthemachine.Throughthismechanical
disruption,thevoiceontheturntablebecomesaccidentallylooped,astheneedle
settlesintoaspecificgrooveupontherecordplate.
RemixingthePast:YouDon’tKnowWhatYou’veGot‘TilIt’sGone
Asimilar‘coughing’oftheneedletakesplaceinthecontemporarymoment,but
insteadofanaccidentalscratch,theaberrationisaudiblebecauseofadeliberate
‘scratching’ technique on the part of disc jokey Q-Tip. The sampling occurs in
JanetJackson’spopsong‘Got‘TilIt’sGone’(1997),inwhichQ-TipsamplesJoni
Mitchell’s archival voice. Mitchell’s refrain, extracted from her song ‘Big Yellow
Taxi’fromLadiesoftheCanyon(1970)isrecastinthenewsongasarepeating
backgroundloopthatlaments,‘Don’titalwaysseemtogo,thatyoudon’tknow
whatyou’vegot‘tilit’sgone’.
In the remix, a fictional ‘past’ and ‘present’ are evoked through careful postproduction treatment of the voices themselves. Contemporaries Janet Jackson
andQ-Tiparenudgedtothefrontofthemix,whilstJoniMitchell’svoicesonically
comes to speak for a former time. Under Q-Tip’s direction, Mitchell’s vocal
presenceissubordinatedthroughfragmentationandloopingofhervoiceinits
‘turntable’ re-contextualization.xii Post-production techniques applied to the
voice render it ghostly, insubstantial, waif-like. Reverb has been added to push
her voice into the back of the listening field, and equalization – especially high
bandpassfilters–areappliedtothinthesoundofhervoice.Theseproduction
techniquesreinforceMitchell’sphysicaldistance–bothaudiblyandhistorically-
hintingtoa‘pastnowgone’.Thesepost-productiontechniquesalsocallattention
to Mitchell’s voice as a recording, and highlight the dichotomy between the
mediatedvoiceandthe‘pure’one.
To confirm a sense of ‘the archive’, Mitchell’s voice is treated with a
superimposed post-production ‘phonograph effect’ – a digital plug-in of LP
cracklewhichsonicallyreferencesasenseofsome‘former’time,whatMarkKatz
deems ‘the unspecified past of the vinyl age’.xiii Katz states, ‘In the age of
noiseless digital recordings, this sonic patina prompts nostalgia, transporting
listenerstodaysgoneby’.xiv
SoJackson’ssongcreatesamusicalanalogueofthepast,throughsound,which
alsohappenstofitappropriatelywith asenseofnostalgiaforapastloveaffair
whichseemstolieattheheartofthesong’ssubjectmatter.Inthisway,Mitchell’s
phrase,‘youdon’tknowwhatyou’vegot‘tilit’sgone’takesonmultiplelevelsof
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meaning – from thematic references to a past relationship, to the sonic level
whichfeaturesMitchell’sdistantechofromanotherera,coupledwiththewarm
crackleoftheanalogLP.Alltheseelementsofthepastarere-inscribedbackinto
thenewhip-hopremix.
As noted earlier, Mitchell’s subordinate, far-away vocal role co-exists in a postproduction dialogue with Q-Tip’s rap and Janet Jackson’s apparently front-offield and digitally ‘pure’ vocal presence. But use of the term ‘pure’ should be
qualified here, for the voice appears to be ‘pure’ because of its subjection to
elaborate methods of post-production. As Jonathan Sterne observes, in our
contemporarylistening,thesevoicesmaysignify‘naturalness’,whentheirvoices
are, in actuality, highly processed according to the conventions of pop song
technology.xv Techniques such as close-proximity recording on high-quality
microphones,andpost-productiontechnologiessuchasheavycompressionand
areappliedtothevoicetoconveya‘clean’,digitaltransparency.Theseallensure
thatJacksonandQ-Tip’svoicesappearfull,rich,crisp,andpresent,anddelivera
cultivated, highly produced, carefully engineered ‘naturalness’. The inclusion of
anout-takeofcasualdialoguebetweenJacksonandQ-Tipatthesong’sopening
helpstoaffirmthistheatreofnaturalism,andalsoservestoconfirmthefiction
thatthemakingoftheirsongoccurssomewhatspontaneously.
The treatment of Mitchell’s voice evokes a former time, but also demonstrates
that, through recording technology, such a moment can be referenced, canned,
and infinitely reproduced. That is, Mitchell’s voice is subjected to DJ ‘rubbing’
and‘spinning’techniquesthatrenderthevoiceinfinitelyreproducible,loop-able,
andsubjecttothewhimofQ-Tip’sthumbandforefinger.Forexample,towards
the end of the song, Mitchell’s lyrics become indiscernible, reduced to
meaningless babble, her voice is transformed into an abstracted, disembodied
voiceobject.
Intheturntableremix,Mitchell’svoicebecomesanunwittingsubjectthatspins
on the record plate, her song broken into fragments of, at times, indiscernible
non-logosutterance,‘chu-chu-chu-chu-chu-chudon’tknowwhatyougot‘tilit’s
gone’,wehearherstammer.Attheend,afterscratchingawayonJoniMitchell’s
voice through the song, Q-Tip allows himself the last word: ‘Dust’, he blows, at
the song’s close, pointing perhaps to the fragility of the archival material
rendered upon the metaphorical phonographic plate, as well as alluding to the
song’sthemeofarelationshipnowpast.
Inasimilarnodtofinality,theendoftheaffairbetweenRoquentinand
MadeleineinLaNausèeissignifiedwithanostalgicplayingoftherecord‘forthe
lasttime’.
Madeleinegoesandsetsitonthegramophone,itisgoingtospin;inthegrooves,the
steelneedleisgoingtostartjumpingandgrindingandwhenthegrooveswillhave
spiraleditintothecentreofthediscitwillbefinishedandthehoarsevoicesinging,
‘Someofthesedays’willbesilentforever.xvi
MariaCallas–‘Freeing’theVoiceThroughtheTurntable
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WeturnnowtoChristianMarclay’sturntableremixofthegreatoperaticstar,
MariaCallas.ThisCallasre-contextualizationoccursonhis1988piece,Maria
Callas,originallyreleasedon10”vinyl,andwhichfeaturesonthecollection
PlunderphoniaandVox.Thispieceaddressesmanyissuesthatlieatthecentreof
reinventingandblendingtheoldinthenew.
InMariaCallas,Marclayascomposer/DJusestheturntablemediumasasource
ofplayandcreativeexpression,exploringtechniquesnotdissimilartothose
usedbyhip-hopartistssuchasQ-Tip.TheprocessofrecontextualizingCallas’
voiceforthispieceinvolvedtheplaybackofarchivalrecordsthataremixedand
manipulatedsimultaneouslyonmultipleturntables,andtheresultrecorded.
Furtherlayeringwasachievedthroughtheuseofsubsequentoverdubbing.For
Marclay,theturntableseemstoprovideboththemeansandthelimitationsby
whichthevoicecanbemanipulated,andheworkscompositionallyinthespace
betweentheconstraintsofthemedium,andthepossibilitiesitaffords.
Inthefirsttensecondsofthepiece,MarclaysoundsCallasassheappearsonthe
‘original’archivalrecordings.Thisopeningpassageinvitesthelistenertohear
thesingerandtoimagineherphysicalpresenceupontheoperaticstage,
accompaniedbyfullandreverberantorchestra,muchasRoquentinevoked‘the
Negress’inlisteningtohervoice.Thisopeningsectionoftheremixcallstomind
iconicblackandwhitephotographicimagesofMariaCallas,nowimprintedon
ourcollectiveculturalmemory.
Toaffirmthehistoricityoftherecording,wemaywellnoticethatCallas’voiceis
coupledwiththerequisitearchivalcracklingoftheLP(thistime,however,the
cracklewehearisanartefactoftheLPdisc’splayback,ratherthanapostproductionadditioninJanetJackson’ssong).Justasthephotographcapturesa
traceofthepersonforperpetuity,theLPrecordservestoimmortalizeand
enshrinethevocalsignatureofthesinger,andtheLPcracklesimplyservesto
affirm‘authenticity’(justasthegrainofanoldblackandwhitephotograph
somehowatteststoitsprovenance).
SoinMarclay’sCallasremix,theopeningpassagephysicallylocatesthesingerin
theexpectedconcerthallcontext.Immediatelyuponestablishingthisillusion,
however,Marclayintegratestheoriginalrecordingwithmultiplelayers,
producingakindof‘CallasSquared’,inwhichamultiplicityof‘MariaCallas’vocal
charactersjointhestage.Nowthenumerousvocalistseachengageintheirown
high-pitched,climatic,melismaticaria–theinternalbodymadeexpressively
vocal,theritualizedololygainthecontemporaryarena.xviiAtthismoment,our
listeningshiftsfromhearingthe‘pure’voiceobjectofthesinger,tohearingthe
recordedobject,asarecording,andasitismanipulatedbyMarclay’sfingerand
thumb.Marclaycallsattentionheretotherecordedvoiceasarecording.Yet
thereisanintrinsicpowertoCallas’voicethatspeaksofthestrongpresence
behindtherecording.
CarolynAbbate(UnsungVoices)distinguishesdifferinglevelsatwhichwe
apprehendthevoiceinopera.Sheobservesthatthevoiceobjectappearsatthe
momentwhenthesoundofthesingingvoicecommandsallofthelistener’s
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attention,andthisoccursparticularlyinmelismaticpassages.(Thatis,where
onesyllableisprolongedoverseveralnotes.)xviiiAbbatepointsoutthat
melismaticpassages‘destroylanguage’bysplittingwordsandseparating
syllablesuntiltheyarenolongerdiscernible.xixBydestroyinglanguage,plotand
characterarecompromised,andtherebyphysicalpresence.Thus,intheQueen
oftheNight’ssecondariaAbbatesaysthattheQueen,‘suddenlybecomesnota
character-presencebutanirrationalnonbeing,terrifyingbecausethelocusof
voiceisnownotacharacter,nothuman,andsomehownotpresent’.xx
MariaCallas’naturalvoiceiscapableofrealisingsuchseductiveandunbridled
melismaticpassages.Marclay’sremixservestofurtherliberatethemelismatic
voice–heoncestatedofhisworkingpractice:‘Idestroy,Iscratch,Iactagainst
thefragilityoftherecordinordertofreethemusicfromitscaptivity’.xxiIn
ChristianMarclay’srecontextualframingofhervoice,atensionsurfacesbetween
thepowerofCallas’naturalmelismaticvoice–bothasterrifyingandseductive
asitmaybe-andMarclay’sowncontrol,liberation,andelectronic
transformationofCallas’voiceasvoiceobject.
Ironically,Callas’melismaticvoiceappearsatitsmostforcefulinMarclay’s
turntablerecontextualizationwhen,likethefrozenhighnoteofthechewinggum
advertisementmentionedearlier,themelismaticvoiceisdeliberatelysuspended
onaparticularlyhighnoteofthearia,andforadurationthatstretchesbeyond
naturalcapabilities.Inoneinstance,at55secondsintothepiece,thehighvocal
noteiscaughtandheldforover45seconds.Atthismoment,thesuspendedvoice
signalsthemomentofbothtechnologicalandthird-partymediation,thepointat
whichCallas’acousticpresenceallbutdisappears,onlytobereplacedbythe
voiceobjectandthesoundofthecomposer/DJ’sinterventionuponit.Further,by
suspendingthevoicefarbeyondhumancapacity,Marclaydisruptsthatvery
senseofinevitabilitythatgoeshandinhandwithlisteningtoarecordedsong,
andindoingso,hedrawsattentiontohismediumofintervention:theturntable.
Inaplayfulreversalofroles,hesoundstheturntablethroughCallas’voice.
Throughouttheremix,Marclayscratchesandscrubsparticularvocal‘moments’
ontherecordplate,whichloopsorfragmentsthevoice,therebysendingitona
rollercoasterrideofvocaltheatrics.Thecomposer/DJcouldbeseenasthecircus
master,thevoicereleasedforamomentfromitscage,sentaboutthecircustent
inexaggeratedtheatricalhighjinks–cartwheels,tightropewalking,and
repeatedrotationsonthehighswing.
MarclayusesthetechnologytoextendCallas’voicebeyonditsnaturalphysical
properties,makingthisvirtuosicperformerevenmoresuperlativethanher
originalformwouldallow.ButinMarclay’sre-framingofhervoicewithinthe
turntablere-contextualization,aninherentstrugglebecomesapparent–
betweenthepowerofCallas’ownnaturalmelisma,andMarclay’sintervention
andtransformationofit.Throughtechnologicalmeans,Marclaycreatesa
seamlessloopingandanalogsuperimpositiontogeneratea‘meta-voice’–avoice
morepowerful,remarkable,andagilethanthesingerherself.Andindoingso,he
fashionsthesingerintoafantasticalhybridmodel.Shebecomesabodyofmany
throats,theLerneanHydra,animpossiblecreatureofmythologyandfantasy.
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MarclayandQ-Tip’sturntablere-contextualisationstransformthearchivedvoice
throughturntabletechniquesofscratching,looping,andmulti-tracking,using
theoriginalvocalsourcematerialandtheturntableasacreativeplatformfor
newcompositionalexpression.Thesenewpieces,whichre-fashionthenewfrom
theold,articulateastrugglebetweenthecomposer/DJ,thevoiceobjectofthe
originalrecording,andthephantompresencethatisinvokedintherecorded
voice.
Notes
iAdorno(1990),‘CurvesoftheNeedle’,48.
iiIbid.
iiiOswald(2004),132.
ivSartre(1964).21,22.
vIbid.,21
viIbid.,175.
viiIbid.,22.
viii‘SomeofTheseDays’wasinfactrecordedbySophieTucker,‘thelastofthewhitered-hot
mamas’.Thisfactaffirmsthat‘theNegress’terminologyisindeednothingbutaterm,foritbears
nobiographicalvaliditybeyondthefictionalimaginationoftheauthor.SeeLaCapra(1983),206207.
ixSartre,Nausea,102.
xIbid.,103.
xiIbid.,244.
xiiTheterm‘turntable’isusedincurrentlexicontodescribeeithertheanalogmechanism,orits
digitalequivalent.
xiiiKatz(2004),146.
xivAsMarkKatzremarksofthephonographeffect,‘Thisnoise,realordigitallysimulated,isnow
firmlypartofourmodernsonicvocabulary,andcanbepowerfullyevocativetolisteners.Itwas
long deemed an unwanted addition to the phonographic experience by both the industry and
listeners, but ironically became a valued a meaningful sound when digital technology finally
eliminated it’. Katz (2004), 146. As Professor Barbara White points out, ‘You don’t know what
you’vegot‘tilitsgone!’
xvSterne(2007).
xviSartre(1964),173–174.
xviiOloygabeing‘aritualshoutpeculiartofemales’,thoseshrieking,high-pitched,unmediated
momentsofvocalecstasyutteredbythefemalebodyduring–traditionally–ritualpractice,
climacticmoments,orwomen’sfestivals.xviiSeeCarson(1995),125.
xviiiAbbate(1991),11-12.
xixIbid.,11.
xxIbid.
xxiSeliger(1992).67.
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