International Journal of
RELIGIOUS THOUGHTS
Volume 1, Number 4
Winter 2012
Al-Mustafa International University Iran
(New Delhi)
Contents
1. Editorial …………………………………………………………..
003
2. Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions …………………………….
Prof. K.T.S. Sarao
005
3. A Mystical Search for Identity:
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai
to India‘s Cultural History ……………...……………………......
Dr. Sanjeev Kumar H.M., Dr. Preeti Sharma
017
4. The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices ………………………....
Dr. Ch. Prema Kumar
035
5. Mysticism and Medical Ethics ……. ……………………………..
Dr. Mahdi Ibrahimi
057
6. Islam and Tolerance ……….………………………………………
Dr. Ghorban Elmi, Masoumeh Fathi
063
7. Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture …………………..
Dr.Hasan Zolfagharzadeh
077
8. Mail Box ………………………………………………….………
103
9. Summary of the Articles in Hindi ………………………………...
10. Summary of the Articles in Urdu …………………………………
11. Summary of the Articles in Persian ……………………….………
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Editorial
Nearly a year has passed since we published the first issue of this journal
on religious thoughts. This is a sufficient time to retrospect and judge as to
the extent all those associated with this journal have succeeded or got
close to achieving their goals and objectives.
We believe that the journal “Religious Thoughts” is a sincere attempt by AlMustafa International University to show that lot many many different paths
and thought processes exist in the world. It is a modest step towards coexistence, to initiate a process of dialogue and to present these differing
views and thoughts with empathy for the aspirants of truth and virtue.
In a world where these differences contribute to escalation of conflict, we
wish to use the tools of dialogue and interaction. We intend to and have
tried to have a deeper look at various existing religions and to develop a
spirit of togetherness and mutual coexistence.
Though one year is not enough time for the results to arrive or a visible
impact to be seen, or to play a positive role in cultural and scientific areas
of India and Iran, what we do wish to emphasize upon is that our endeavour
is a sincere and truth-seeking attempt to study others’ religious beliefs, to
make a sincere attempt attempt sans fanaticism and militancy, and to
recognize and reconstruct our own religious knowledge. The success of
this venture can be gauged from the emails and phone calls that we receive
and from the growing number of scholars and writers who have begun to
contribute.
This popularity that “Religious Thoughts” journal has achieved among
people interested in study of culture and religion shows that in the current
times, peace-oriented, convergent and scholarly approaches are welcomed
by the right thinking people.
We thank the scholars and experts on the subject who are assisting and
encouraging us through sending of articles, letters and emails. We hope
they will continue to patronize us in this momentous task through their
constructive criticism and suggestions.
Dr. Abdullah Shayan Rad
Editor
3
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
Prof. K.T.S. Sarao*
The spread of Islam in India took place as an indirect consequence of the
peaceful activities of the Sufis as well as acculturation and assimilation spread
over several generations. Sufi mysticism and Buddhism have several
commonalities in terms of metaphysical doctrines as well as practical training.
Thomas Cleary has identified some of them. According to him, both Buddhism
and Sufi mysticism lay emphasis on the usefulness of meditation for spiritual
growth and meditation themes common to both include the powerlessness and
nothingness of the self, the inevitability of death, the impermanence of all
phenomena, and the inconceivability of truth. In addition to silent meditation,
recitation and incantation of sacred writ, invocations and litanies, and mnemonic
formulae also form common grounds between the two.1 The role of the Sufis in
proselytization was rather indirect, in the sense that such commonalities and the
work as well as life-style of the Sufis went a long way in gaining Indian people‘s
sympathy towards Islam. Otherwise, the Sufis were much happier when they
helped one who was already a Muslim to become a better Muslim than when they
saw a non- Muslim become a Muslim.2 The most important contribution made by
the Sufis was that they furnished Islam‘s philosophical point of contact with
religions of Indic origin.3 It was through such contacts, fostered by the simplicity
and broad humanism of the Sufis that Islam obtained its largest number of free
converts and it is in this sense that they may be considered missionaries. 4 In
India, as pointed out by Trimingham, Islam seems to have been ―a holy-man
Islam‖ where the Sufis acquired an aura of holiness. It was this aura of holiness
which attracted Indians to the Sufis, rather than formal Islam. 5 Well-documented
research has suggested that a great majority of the Indian Muslims are
descendants of converts in whose conversion coercion played no role.6
Conversion to Islam in India can be put into three different categories:
individual conversion, group conversion, and assimilation and acculturation. The
first category consisted of those individuals - including pious Buddhist and
___________________________
*
PhD (Delhi); PhD (Cantab); D.Litt (h.c.) Head, Department of Buddhist Studies
University of Delhi, DELHI-110007. Email: [email protected]
[email protected] , Website: www.ktssarao.com, Mobile: 9811262124
5
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
Brahmanical ascetics - who embraced Islam voluntarily as a matter of conviction,
for personal benefits, or under the influence and moral persuasions of the Sufis. It
has been correctly pointed out that Islam was no champion of egalitarianism, or
for that matter, of the cause of so-called suppressed people of India. It is
manifestly incorrect to say that the people belonging to lower ranks of the castehierarchy in Brahmanical-Hinduism embraced Islam for the sake of social
justice. It is also patently wrong to say that Buddhists were attracted towards
Islam because they saw Islamic egalitarianism as being compatible with the
Buddha‘s views on caste system and other forms of inequality. There is neither
any evidence of a direct assault either from the state or the Muslims upon the
caste system nor is there any evidence of a revolt from within.7As pointed out by
Irfan Habib, there is no sign of commitment to any such equality in the writings
of Islamic theologians and scholars of the period. While Brahmanical-Hindus
were often denounced as ‗infidels,‘ polytheists, and image-worshippers, there is
in the entire range of medieval Islamic literature, no word of criticism of the
caste system, the theory of pollution, and the oppression of untouchables that
characterized medieval Brahmanical-Hinduism. ―Indeed, the sanction for fullfledged slavery in Islamic law should strongly modify any attribution of equality
to historical Islam.‖8R.M. Eaton has also rejected the ‗religion of social
liberation‘ theory on the ground that not only the Muslim intellectuals had not
stressed the Islamic ideal of social equality as opposed to Brahmanical-Hindu
caste but also because the converted Brahmanical-Hindu communities had failed
to improve their status in the social hierarchy and that, on the contrary, ―they
singly carried over into Muslim society the same practice of birth-ascribed rank
that they had in Hindu society.‖9 But nevertheless the lower castes did not have
much to lose by switching over to Islam, if nothing else than simply for various
opportunities that this label of being a Muslim may have offered to them,
especially the opportunities that were particularly getting diminished within the
Brahmanical-Hindu environment. The pursuit of patronage is one of the most
cited incentives to religio-cultural conversion. A person directly dependent on the
state for a living might see it beneficial to join the cultural group. Thus,
converting to Islam enhanced one‘s chances of advancement in the job. Muslim
control of commercial activity also created favourable conditions for
Islamization. A businessman could feel that being a Muslim would not only lead
to better contacts and cooperation with other Muslim businessmen both within
the country and overseas, but he would also enjoy the benefits of Islamic laws
that regulated commerce and also the amiable conditions extended by Muslim
officials to their co-religionists.
In the second category may be included those people or groups of people
who embraced Islam nominally in the light of their leaders‘ conversion. Such a
commitment to Islam may also have been made possible by economic and
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
political considerations. The third category consisted of a large majority of
commoners who experienced the gradual impact of Islamic acculturation on their
social life through their contact with Muslim settlers or the Sufis. Syncretism
appears as a crucial stage rather than as the culmination of the process vis-à-vis
Islam.10 Islamization took place most profoundly (and irrevocably) in the
succeeding generation, since the convert‘s children in principle were raised
within the father‘s new community, instead of his original one.11
The most crucial hurdle in conversion from Indic religions to religions
based in Judeo-Christian tradition appears to be social rather than spiritual - the
opposition of the prospective converts‘ brethren and the hesitation in giving up
kinship ties and caste-based affiliations.12 Moreover, most of the converts were
initially at least, ill-grounded in Islamic religious precepts, practices, and
traditions, and remained attached to and rooted in their pre-existing non-Muslim
traditions. The change from one religious tradition to the other was a slow and
prolonged one taking many bypaths and extending over several generations.13
Such a gradual process of acculturation and gravitation began as a loosening of
old religious and social ties rather than forsaking these ties right away by
adopting the new religious tradition.14 Thus, as far as Islam was concerned, the
process of Islamization at the social level was a process of Islamic acculturation
in which individuals and groups gradually broke ties with their traditional beliefs
following a road that eventually ended with their adherence to the Shari‗ahbound structure of Islam. Such a hypothesis is supported by R.M. Eaton15, who
has argued that the singing of Sufi folk songs by women at their household tasks
suffused non-Muslim family life with Sufi values. By taking human psychology
into account, the Sufis established their khankhas (hospices) and dargahs
(shrines) at places which had acquired a reputation for sanctity prior to the arrival
of Islam in India.16
Another interesting feature about the spread of Islam was that those
regions of eastern India where Islam gained heavily were considerably free of
Brahmanical influence. In fact, the case of early medieval Bengal appears to be
exceptional within the Indian subcontinent. This region presented itself as a
world of shifting beliefs and social allegiances, religious questing, and social and
geographical mobility, making it a domain of bona fide syncretism of belief
and conduct which was more multifaceted than any other part of the Indian
subcontinent.17In a material milieu such as this, the reverence towards pirs
extended far beyond the reach of saints and holy men and, as a matter of fact,
there existed a complete pantheon consisting of apotheosized warriors,
pioneering settlers on reclaimed wastelands, metamorphosed BrahmanicalHindu and Buddhist deities, and anthropomorphized animistic spirits and
beliefs.18
7
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
East Bengal (roughly the territory represented by the present day
Muslim country of Bangladesh) located far from centres of Islamic power, came
to have the highest concentration of Muslim population in the Indian
subcontinent. The credit for this goes to the success of Sufi missions. 19After
the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis moved
into eastern India where their previous familiarity with converting
Buddhists had far reaching consequences. The activities of these Sufis,
Brahmanical-Hinduism‘s revival movements such as Advaita, and the rise of the
syncretic Sakti movement, contributed significantly to the realignment of beliefs.
In such an environment Brahmanical-Hinduism to a smaller extent and Turkish
tribes to a greater extent drew not only the indigenous masses to swell their
ranks20 but also prospered at the cost of Buddhism which had totally fallen to
pieces by this time. Islam essentially had an urban character till it reached Bengal
where it moved into the countryside. This may also explain its spread among the
tribal people and rural communities in Bengal. But at the same time, one must
not ignore ―the temper of Hinduism, which finds it easier than Islam to bring new
sects and doctrines within its spiritual hegemony.‖21 Upper caste Hindus due to
conceited pride in the purity and hence superiority of their religion were more
likely to resist conversion to a religion based in the Judeo-Christian tradition in
sharp contrast to low caste Brahmanical-Hindus, Buddhists, and tribal people
who were less likely to put any mechanism in place against the winds of Islamic
acculturation. In fact, it has been suggested that some elements among these
segments of the Bengali society looked rather agreeably towards the successes of
the Turks in Bengal. For instance, giving an account of conversion to Islam in
Bengal, I.H. Qureshi has pointed out that the Sunya Purana, a sacred book of the
Dharma cult of Mahayana Buddhism, has interpolations, inserted after the
conquests by Turkish tribes in Bengal, suggesting that Buddhists in Bengal
regarded Muslims as their well-wishers vis-à-vis Brahmanical-Hindus.
According to him, the Dharma gajan rituals include ―sentiments of respect and
admiration for Islam and a faith in its ultimate destiny.... Such sentiments
themselves constitute almost a halfway house towards the acceptance of Islam.‖22
The pantheistic mysticism of the Upanisads and the devotional
mysticism of the Bhakti and Sahajiya movements based in Vaisnavism presented
Sufism with a golden opportunity for rapid growth and dissemination in India. 23
Moreover, after its transformation in India, ―Sufism took on the role of a bridgebuilder between Arabic and Turkic notions of polity, culture, and religion on the
one side and their Indic counterparts on the other. Such an attitude must have
further helped Sufi ideas to gain wide popularity by capturing the attention of
both the masses and elites. Such ideas, thus introduced, got soon assimilated with
the prevalent Sahajiya ideas and the result of this amalgamation was the Bauls of
Bengal. Murshida-songs of the Bauls are a good example of the commingling of
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
the Indian spirit with the spirit of Sufism. The heterodox spirit of the Bauls,
Sahajiyana, and Sufism was another meeting point between them. The religious
contents of Sufism were in no way foreign to the mass-mind of India; it is for this
reason that Sufism became easily acceptable to the masses. Indian ascetics
travelling in pairs and staying not more than three days at one place were
directly known to the Muslim adepts, who took from them their fourfold vows of
cleanliness, purity, truth, and poverty and Sufi features such as the monastic
strain, use of rosaries, the attainment of karamat or m‗ujjza (miraculous powers),
su‗luk or - tariqah (spiritual path), muraqabah/maraqabah (meditation), the
doctrine of fana (Nirvana), and the system of maqamat (stages) on road to being
an al-insanul-kamil (perfect man) indicate influence of Buddhism.24
In the long run, the dargahs and khanaqahs played an important role in
proselytization as their appeal went far beyond the divisive walls of caste and
creed. They acted as an effective syncretic force integrating the non-Muslims
into the Islamic community in a land that was characterized by
multifariousness in terms of religion, belief, and custom.25 Besides, as pointed
out by E.A. Mann, the dargahs owned, and their administration controlled,
considerable economic resources in the forms of property, land, and cash income.
They became a symbol of power both spiritual and secular - spiritual in the sense
of association with God and fulfillment of earthly desires through acceptance of
prayer (du‗a), secular in the sense that economic wealth and social status could
be transmitted to the individuals concerned with their administration.26
Khanaqah was the humble rest house where wandering Sufis could lead
a devotional life under the tutelage of some master. The village khanaqahs,
howsoever humble they might have been, offered lodgings and refreshments to
travellers and helped the more religious villagers to sharpen their spiritual
awareness through zikr (invocation of God through recitation, singing,
instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance).
The khanaqahs also provided both Muslim and non-Muslim villagers with
amulets, talismans, and charms designed to prevent sickness, disease, misfortune,
damage to crops by natural calamities, and other catastrophes. The mutual
interpenetration of Sufi ethics and the non-Muslim way of life took place more
intensely in the khanaqahs of villages and small towns than in large urban
centres, where Muslim and non-Muslim communal groups led a more selfcentred and exclusive life, coming into contact with each other mainly because of
their mutual economic and political needs.
Sufis, who within the framework of Islam attempted to achieve direct
communion with God, were the natural religious guides of the people whom men
and women from cross-sections of the society solicited for spiritual guidance and
9
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
worldly advice. Their miraculous powers and social values attracted nonMuslims towards them. Interestingly, social interaction between the Sufis and the
local population worked towards slow and steady conversion to Islam in the
framework of different Sufi orders as this kind of interaction intended to break
down social and communal barriers. Many of the Sufi saints and poets for their
poetical compositions derived and acquired images and similes from daily life.
Their ample and appropriate use made it further convenient even for the
unlettered people to understand their content and grasp their meanings easily.
Emphasizing equality of the Muslims and non-Muslims and refuting the concepts
of kufar so far as it applied to dealing with people of other faiths became a
common theme for many Sufi poets. The Sufi mystics played an extremely
important role in reaching past the inhibitions and prejudices and building
bridges of communication and understanding between conflicting faiths. The
anti-particularist, anti-clerical, and anti-ritualistic thrust of the teachings of the
Sufi poets laid the foundations of bringing non-Muslims into the Islamic fold.
The rate of conversion was indeed very low in those places of northern
India which were the strongholds of Muslim power. In the south too it was
minimal. But in Bengal, especially in its inaccessible eastern parts, it was very
high. Some forced conversions did happen, but census data prove that most of
these converts must have lapsed. The most famous examples of reconversion
were the brothers Harihara and Bukka, founders of the great Hindu empire
Vijayanagara (1336-1565), who were forced to convert to Islam by Muhammad
Tughlaq in 1327. The most striking example of mass reconversion happened in
Karnataka where Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) required that all his citizens convert to
Islam. The ineffectiveness of royal proselytism may be measured by the fact that
today only five percent of the population in the region ruled by Tipu is Muslim,
while the adjoining Malabar Coast has thirty percent Muslims,27primarily
because they settled in this area as peaceful traders in the eighth century. With
regard to voluntary conversion, one would expect a direct correlation between
areas controlled by the Delhi Sultans and the Mughal emperors and highest
Muslim population. But census data does not support this. Thus, voluntary
conversions and conversions as a result of royal proselytism seem to have been
only insignificant contributory factors. Moreover, the Muslims, who settled on
the western borders or on the Malabar Coast from the eighth century onwards,
came in small communities and did not produce any large disturbance in the
settled populations. The fluid mass of thought and religion had therefore time to
settle.
When Xuanzang visited Kashmir in the seventh century, Buddhism had
passed its prime and Vaisnava and Saiva sects had been gaining ground at its
cost. However, there is evidence of its survival in Kashmir till at least the twelfth
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
century during which period it continued to enjoy the patronage of some nobles
and rulers. But, by the time of Marco Polo‘s travels in the thirteenth century, the
valley of Kashmir appears to have become almost entirely Brahmanical-Hindu.
At this time Buddhism survived only in small pockets and there was a small
number of Muslim converts.28
Thereafter, Kashmir‘s transition to Islam took place gradually over a
period of nearly five centuries. During this period, Brahmanical-Hindu
population and the last vestiges of Buddhism adopted Islam through a gradual
process of acculturation, at the centre of which were the Sufis and Rsis. Thus, as
far as Buddhism was concerned, it may be said with certainty that the decline of
Buddhism had begun long before king Rinchana, the son of a Buddhist Ladakhi
chief, laid the foundations of first Muslim dynasty in Kashmir in 1320 CE. After
having moved into the valley, Rinchana, a soldier of fortune, captured the throne
of Kashmir and embraced Islam. His establishment of a khanqah, the first of its
kind in Srinagar, may be seen as an indicator of his keen interest in the diffusion
of Islamic culture in Kashmir. The Buddhist followers of Rinchana who had
accompanied him from Ladakh to Kashmir also appear to have adopted Islam
after Rinchana‘s assumption of political power and subsequent conversion.29 It
has been suggested that Rinchana‘s conversion to Islam was neither an isolated
case nor was it merely a matter of political expediency.30 In fact, this event is
seen as an indicator of the fact that though Buddhism may have still remained in
monasteries, it was no longer available as a power-base, possibly not even as the
religion of any significant number of households, whereas a sizeable converted
Muslim nucleus had already appeared in the urban centres of Kashmir.31
Moreover, Rinchana may have taken into consideration the possible political and
economic benefits of being a Muslim king at a time when kings with Islamic
affiliations were ruling in the plains of northern India.
Though Kashmir had been the abode of Rsis long before the advent of
Islam, Nuruddin, the son of a Hindu convert, gave a special direction to the role
of Rsis in the Kashmiri society. He was able to accomplish this through his social
behaviour which was more in consonance with local practices than those of
scholars, jurists or Sufi missionaries. Nuruddin, who is known as the founding
father of an indigenous order of Muslim mystics (Rsi Silsilah), is credited with
making the Rsi movement socially significant in Kashmir. It may be pointed out
that some scholars consider the Rsi movement as only ―marginally Muslim‖ and
equate it with the Bhakti Movement32 said to have been founded in Kashmir by
Lal Ded, the Saivite mystic of the fourteenth century.33 The thinking of these Rsis
was nurtured in their Hindu and Buddhist environment which appears to have
played an important role in helping the main configuration of pre-existing
Kashmiri popular religion to adapt itself to the wider Islamic framework. Even
11
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
during Nuruddin‘s time and long after his death when the Rsi movement was
strong, Brahmanical ascetics had a large following among the illiterate masses of
Kashmir. Such people were drawn into the fold of Nuruddin and other Muslim
Rsis since they did not see much difference between the goals espoused by the
Muslim Rsis and their own. Thus the Rsi movement, apart from being largely
characterized by elements of social protest, became a haven for the surviving
vestiges of Brahmanical ascetic tradition to exist in Islam. It is interesting to note
that asceticism of the Brahmanical saints converted to Islam was particularly
suited to provide a framework for the survival of such residues and the
assimilation and reinterpretation of elements as were not totally incompatible
with the esoteric dimension of Islam.34 Nuruddin and his followers shared with
the Hindu-Buddhist ascetics such traits as wandering in the forests, not taking
meat, avoidance of onions and green vegetables, fasting, sexual abstinence,
austerities, celibacy, self-deprecation, relative seclusion, altruism, deep
meditative exercises, supererogatory prayers and above all, non-injury even to
plants, birds, animals, insects etc. Such practices of the Rsis ―must have
weakened the contrast in the common mind between Islam and Hinduism or
Buddhism thereby paving the way for the acceptance of the values of an alien
system.‖35 The Rsi concept of ‗peace with all‘ was borrowed from Mahayana
Buddhism which flourished in the Kashmir valley.36
While the role of the Rsis and immigrant Sufis from Central Asia and
Persia cannot be denied in conversions, it would be wrong to attribute the socalled ‗dramatic mass conversions‘ of Kashmir to their miraculous exploits.
Their activities leading to certain individual conversions might have been
followed by group conversions in a social milieu characterized by the powerful
belief in the spirituality of saints. As elsewhere in India, many people appear to
have accepted Islam in Kashmir nominally in the wake of their leader‘s
conversion or due to political and economic motives. Initially, this process
generally consisted of the converts‘ passive adherence to Islam, but in the end
progressed into harmony with the Shari‗ah. Such a process is also visible in the
religious career of Nuruddin, whose efforts to bring about reconciliation between
Muslim and Brahmanical-Hindu/Buddhist practices opened the doors to the
gradual acculturation of the Kashmiri masses into Islamic identity. The survival
of pre-Islamic names among the Rsis and continued existence of the pre-Islamic
customs and beliefs is also a clear indication of Kashmiri‘s experiencing a
gradual cultural and religious shift. Like in East Bengal, as a result of this
prolonged and gradual acculturation, extending over a period of at least five
centuries, a considerable part of the Kashmiri population either became Muslim
or was understood to be so.
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
On the whole, the role of the Sufis in the conversion of BrahmanicalHindus and tribal communities to Islam in India was, though quite important,
largely an indirect one. Prolonged and slow acculturation and assimilation spread
over a long period of time must be seen as the force behind these conversions.
The Sufis basically contributed towards doing away with the distances between
the Muslims and the non-Muslims. As far as Buddhism was concerned, except
for parts of eastern India, the Sufis did not play any significant role. The simple
reason for this was that Buddhism had become a spent force in India by the time
the Sufis began their work. Thus, only remnants of Buddhism were assimilated
into Islam as an indirect result of their activities. In eastern India, Islam was able
to get a large number of converts through Sufi-assisted assimilation and
acculturation from a population which followed different kinds of strange cults
and practices emanating out of Buddhism, Saivism, and Tantrism.
References:
Thomas Cleary, ―Buddhism and Islam,‖ Transactions of the International Conference of
Orientalists in Japan. No. 27, 1982: 37.
2. S.M. Ikram, Ab-i-Kausar, Lahore, 1946: 189-190. Quoted at Peter Hardy ―Modern European
and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the
Literature,‖ JRAS,1977: 195.
3. Particularly interesting is the comment of al-Shahrastani (c. 1076-1153) that the Buddha‘s
teachings ―can be very near to the teachings of the Sufis.‖ (See D. Gimaret,―Bouddha et les
Bouddhistes dans la tradition Musulmane,‖ Journal Asiatique, 267, 1969: 277-278).
4. A.B.M. Habibullah, The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India, Lahore: Sh. M. Ashraf, 1945:
282; Peter Hardy, Op. Cit., 90.
5. J.S. Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971: 22.
6. Thomas W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim
Faith, London: Constable, 1896: 154-93.
7. Irfan Habib, ―Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate- An Essay in Interpretation,‖ The
Indian Historical Review, January 1978, vol. 4, no. 2: 297.
8. Irfan Habib, ―Medieval Popular Monotheism and Its Humanism: The Historical Setting,›
Social Scientist, Vol. 21, Nos. 3-4, March-April 1996: 80.
9. R.M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1706, Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1993: 117-118. See also Imtiaz Ahmad, Caste and Social Stratification
among the Muslims, Delhi: Manohar Book Service, 1973.
10. Mohammad Ishaq Khan, ―Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir: A Revaluation of
Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani‘s Historical Role,‖ in Aparna Rao (ed.), The Valley of Kashmir:
The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture, Delhi: Manohar, 2008: 154 fn 15.
1.
13
Sufi Mysticism and Indian Religions
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
See Richard Bulliet, ―Conversion to Islam and the Emergence of a Muslim Society in Iran,‖ in
Nehemia Levtzion (ed.), Conversion to Islam, New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979: 30-51.
See Peter Hardy, ―Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in
South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the Literature,‖ JRAS, 1977: 195-196.
A quintessential example of such a phenomenon is the present day case of the Mehrat, Kathat,
and Cheeta communities of central Rajasthan. These ‗in-betweeners‘ adopted the three Islamic
practices of dafan, khatna, and zabihah (burial, circumcision and eating halal) towards the end
of the fourteenth century. However, the rest of the lifestyle of many members of these
communities - names, marriage rituals, dressing styles- still continues to be that of the Hindus
(Namita Kohli, ―Muslims, and Hindus as Well‖, The Hindustan Times, Delhi edition, 28 June
2009: 13; Jyotsna Singh, ―Islam and Hunduism‘s Blurred Lines,‖ BBC website
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7473019.stm (accessed 30 June 2009).
See I.H. Qureshi, The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (6101947), ‘S- Gravenhage: Mouton & Co, 1962: 75-78.
R.M. Eaton, ―Sufi folk literature and the expansion of Indian Islam,‖ History of Religions,
XIV, 2, November 1974: 117-127.
I.H. Qureshi, Op. Cit.74.
M.R. Tarafdar, Hussain Shahi Bengal, 1494-1538 AD: A Socio-Political Study, Dacca: Asiatic
Society of Pakistan, 1965: 18-19.
See A. Roy, ―The Pir Tradition: A Case Study in Islamic Syncretism in Traditional Bengal,‖ in
Fred W. Clothey (ed.), Images of Man: Religious and Historical Process in South Asia,
Madras: New Era Publications, 1982: 112-141.
Nicholas F. Gier, ―From Mongols to Mughals: Religious Violence in India (9th-18th
Centuries),‖ paper presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting of the American
Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 2006: 2.
N.N. Bhattacharyya, History of the Sakta Religion, 2nd rev. ed., New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal, 1996: 137.
S.M. Ikram, Muslim Civilization in India, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964: 127.
I.H. Qureshi, Op. Cit.74.
See Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Sects, second rev. ed., Calcutta: Firma K.L.
Mukhopadhyay, 1962: 163.
See H.C. Ray, The Dynastic History of Northern India (Early Medieval Period), Calcutta:
Calcutta University Press, 1931: 24; Tara Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture,
Allahabad: The Indian Press, 1976: 53.
Davis Gilmartin, ―Shrines, Succession, and Sources of Authority,‖ in Barbara D. Metcalf
(ed.), Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam, California:
University of California Press, 1984: 221-240; R.M. Eaton, ―The Political and Religious
Authority of the Shrine of Baba Farid in Pakpattan, Punjab‖ in Barbara D. Metcalf, Op.
Cit.333-356; R.M. Eaton, The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval
India, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978; Peter Hardy, Muslims of British India,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
25. E.A. Mann, ―Religion, Money, and Status: Competition for Resources at the Shrine of Shah
Jamal, Aligarh,‖ in Christian W. Troll (ed.), Muslim Shrines in India, Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1989: 169-170.
26. S. M. Ikram, Muslim Civilization in India, Op. Cit., 1964: 123-124.
27. Marco Polo.175-177.
28. M.I. Khan, Kashmir‘s Transition to Islam: The Role of Muslim Rishis, Fifteenth to Eighteenth
Century, Manohar Publishers and Distributors: Delhi, 1994: 63. RÈvanacandra, RinchÈna‘s
brother-in-law, for instance, accepted Islam immediately after the king‘s conversion (Ibid).
29. Ibid.63; A.Q. Rafiqi, Sufism in Kashmir: From the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century,
Varanasi: Bharatiya Publishing House, 1972: 9-10; S.A.A. Rizvi, A History of Sufism in
India, vol. I., New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978: 290.
30. Aziz Ahmad, ―Conversions to Islam in the Valley of Kashmir,‖ Central Asiatic Journal, vol.
XXIII, 1-2, 1979: 6.
31. Bruce Lawrence, ―Lectures on Sufism,‖ Studies in Islam, vol. XVIII, nos. 3-4, July-October
1981:139; A.Q. Rafiqi, Sufism in Kashmir: From the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century,
Varanasi: Bharatiya Publishing House, 1972: XVII-XVIII.
32. For a detailed analysis of Lal Ded‘s historical role, see M.I. Khan, ―The Impact of Islam on
Kashmir in the Sultanate Period, 1320-1586,‖ The Indian Economic and Social History
Review, vol. XXIII, no. 2, April- June 1986: 187-205.
33. M.I. Khan, Kashmir‘s Transition to Islam... Op. Cit.38.
34. Ibid.179.
35. M.I. Khan, ―The Mystical Career and Poetry of Nuruddin Rishi Kashmiri: Socio-Historical
Dimensions,‖ Studies in Islam, vol. XIC, nos. 1-2, January-April, 1982: 113-117.
15
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
A Mystical Search for Identity:
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala
Sharif and Mira Bai to India’s Cultural
History
Dr. Sanjeev Kumar H.M.*
Dr. Preeti Sharma**
Abstract
This paper attempts at mapping the epistemological foundations of two
mystical saints, Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai, who transmitted their
philosophy through oral articulation which forms a crucial source to explore the
nature of the cultural history of their respective epochs. Both mystiques have
neither penned down their songs and poems, nor have they been composed in
mainstream classical languages. Rather, they exist in colloquial language forms,
whose inter-generational oral transmission has occurred in the form of religiofolk convention. The mystical ideas in the form of songs and poems (tatva pada)
of Shishunala Sharif from Karnataka in South India have been composed in the
colloquial form called Dharwad Kannada and in the form called Mira Bai from
Rajasthan in North India, whose songs (pad) are composed in Braj. By virtue of
simple dialectical forms that manifest the religio-folk idioms in their preaching,
the two mystiques commend wide appeal among the common gentry. Their
contributions stand on the edge of folkloric methods and classical semiotic styles
and hence cannot be confined to any defined rubric.
___________________________
*
Asstt. Prof.,Department of International Relations, Faculty of Social Sciences, South
Asian University, Akbar Bhawan, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi-110021;
Mobile: [08800140289]; Email: [email protected]
**
Asso. Prof & Head, Department of History & Indian Culture, Banasthali
University, P.O. Banasthali Vidyapith, Distt: Tonk-304022, Rajasthan;
M: [09887550864]; Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
17
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
Besides, their ideas emanated out of their experiences derived out of
marginality and sub-alternation and hence, also reflect the agency structure
contest that permeates all through their philosophy. Their songs and poems
represent the genre of revolutionary poetry indicating a form of subaltern
resistance movement and portray the urge for establishing their respective
agencies. Shishunala Sharif, a low class Muslim, represents the subaltern protest
as he challenged the dogmatic orthodoxy of the Brahmanical hegemony in early
modern India, and spread the message of harmony and religious integrity through
Sufi style compositions. Similarly, Mira Bai, who belonged to the conservative
Rajput lineage, represents a radical feminist challenge to the powerful patriarchal
order of medieval India that contested the female marginality. Thus, the paper
seeks to contextualize the two distinct sources of identity, gender and religion,
which form the basis of the subaltern descent that contests the marginality
imposed by the hierarchal social strata. The roots of this rebel is embedded
deeply and pervades through the diverse spectrum of their philosophy that
questioned the established structure of their times. By doing this, this paper
endevours at deconstructing multiple strands of the cultural histories of the age
they belonged to.
Introduction
This paper attempts at mapping the epistemological foundations of two
mystical saints representing distinct traditions. Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai,
who represent the Sufi and the Bhakti traditions respectively, transmitted their
philosophy through oral articulation and their philosophy represents the agency
structure contest in the process of identity construction. Their songs and poems
represent the genre of revolutionary poetry indicating a form of subaltern
resistance movement and portray the urge for establishing their respective
agencies. Subaltern protest against the dogmatic orthodoxy of religion and
descent against female marginality affected by a feudal patriarchal order is a
hallmark of their contributions. It thus forms a crucial source to explore the
nature of the cultural history of their respective epochs.
The paper situates its arguments in the current domain of the nature of
popular religiosity and attempts at locating the significance of the preaching of
these two mystiques for the study of cultural history. It not merely aims at
presenting a hagiographic account of the mystiques, in order to determine the
contours of cultural history, rather, it attempts at exploring the socio-cultural
meanings of their spiritual ideas which were transmitted through oral articulation.
This forms a crucial source to explore the nature of the cultural history of their
respective epochs. To meticulously scrutinize the growth of a poet‘s tradition
through various phases is not to undermine the religious or poetic contribution of
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
that figure. The key objective must be to recognize as to how the vibrancy of
responses that their portrait and songs have inspired as cultural capital. (Hawley
2005: 31) More significantly, in understanding the Sufi and the Bhakti traditions,
the issue to be seriously reckoned with is what Chatterjee (1993:41) states as the
phenomenon of religion in middle class culture: that vital zone of belief and
practice straddling the domains of the individual and the collective.
Mysticism in Sufi and Bhakti traditions
Mysticism has been the most significant aspect of almost all the
religions. In India, mystiques belonging to the Sufi and the Bhakti cult have
rendered vital contribution in shaping the ravines of cultural history. Although a
differential style in approach is apparent in both streams of mystical tradition, but
symmetry in the spiritual goals to be achieved is clearly visible. Thus, it becomes
necessary to put these two mystical traditions in comparative perspective.
Most crucially, this necessity is driven by the fact that the Sufi and the
Bhakti mystical traditions in India present themselves as idiosyncratic spiritual
practices because for the first time, both deviated from the mainstream classical
and institutionalized character of Hindu and Islamic religiosity and redefined the
whole notion of devotion and worship for the subalterns and the marginalized. In
the Hindi region, Kabir, Mira, Tulsidas, Surdas, and many Muslim mystiques
such as Daud, Kutuban, Jayasi, Manjhan produced an enormous literature in the
vernaculars for the benefit of the masses. They did not write in Sanskrit, Urdu or
Persian because they probably felt that the compositions in the literary would
neither reach nor help the common man in search of god. (Pandey and Zide
1965:54) Kabir expressed this idea clearly when he held: ―Sanskrit hai kup jal,
bhasa hai bahata nir‖, meaning that Sanskrit is the water of the well and
vernacular is the flowing water of the river. (Dvivedi 1959:106) Even Tulsidas
gave a long explanation of his poetry and declared that true poetry is that which
like the water of the river Ganga is useful to all. (Hill 1952:11)
Similarly, various strands of Sufism in India also embodied in it
innovative methods in pursuit of the mystical search that transcended the
classical Persian and Urdu realm of interpreting Koran and the Hadith. They
presented simplified versions of the spiritual paths prescribed by Islamic texts,
with the emphasis shifting from pedantic ways of religious practices to focusing
on a path of inner self search to reach the highest soul. In Sufism, knowledge is
gained through practice rather than intellectual learning, through experience
rather than rationality alone. (Lapidus 1984:45) In addition to this, while in
Persian, and also Arabic, the metaphor of mystical poetry is predominantly male,
19
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
the imagery is altered in Indian Sufi tradition into love in the form of a woman
devotee. Drawing upon the Hindu tradition, the soul is described as that of a
loving woman seeking union with god, the ultimate beloved. (Bose and Jalal
2004:24) Thus, Sufism represent an aspect of mystical Islam in South Asia
which we may, on the basis of its appeal and popularity among the rural illiterate
masses, characterize variously as the folk, low or little tradition.
Contrasting or perhaps some would say complementing this rustic
tradition is the more sophisticated, intellectual facet of Islamic civilization that
developed in urban areas. (Asani 1988:81) Thus, to portray the Sufi and Bhakti
mystical traditions into a metaphoric analogy, it may be said to resemble the
culture of the pantheon. Coming back to mysticism, it may be stated that it refers
to the process of isolating the eternal from the originated. It is characterized by
intense love towards God that excludes the love for all other worldly creatures
and, an urge mixed with passion for the spiritual union with that transcendental
power. Reaching the eternality means dying from the self and living with the
God.
Both Sufi and Bhakti mystical traditions present themselves as an
embodiment of this core principle. The two movements in India not only
endeavoured at purging religious practices from pompous exhibitions of
devotion, but also demonstrated that the individual is the sole propriety of his
devotional leanings that is bereft of any institutional control. Whereas, Sufism
waged a battle against what is today called as the ‗petro-dollar Islam‘, that is the
spread of Islam through constructing mosques which involved wealthy devotees;
the Bhakti movement endeavoured at reforming Hinduism, so as to make it more
meaningful for the common masses. The idea here was not to reach the eternal
through one‘s wealthy contributions for constructing beautiful temples, mosques
or pretentious religious rituals, but to explore the true love for God within oneself
and achieve the ultimate goal; that is the spiritual union with that transcendental
self, by way of passionate devotion which rises above the love for any other
living and non-living entity on this earth. Thus, in both forms of mystical paths
towards reaching the transcendental union, the individual is in direct
communication with the spiritual world.
Thus, the Bhakti movement liberalized Hindu religion and the Sufis
liberalized Islam. Many of the orthodox in Islam considered the Sufis as heretical
because of what they regarded as the pantheistic tendencies. They taught with the
Vaisnavites that the enlightened soul found itself in union with the Supreme
Being and the two religions used similar figures of speech to describe this union,
especially the metaphors of human love. (Stahl 1954:142)
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
An uncanny liaison?
Sufism in Islam aims at knowing God directly through ecstatic mystical
union and its underlying principles are purification and remembrance. It is one of
the most dynamic and interesting dimensions of Islamic religious and cultural
expression. It is an umbrella term for a variety of philosophical, social, and
literary phenomena occurring within the Islamic world. In its narrowest sense,
the term ‗Sufism‘ refers to a number of schools of Islamic mystical philosophy
and theology, to the phenomenon of religious orders and guilds (tariqat) that
have exerted considerable influence over the development of Islamic politics and
society, and to the varied expressions of popular piety and devotion to shrines
found throughout the Islamic world. In a wider sense, Sufism is often seen as the
spiritual muse behind much of pre-modern verse in the Islamic world, the idiom
of much of popular Islamic piety. (Elias 1998: 595)
In India, the dawning of Sufism has not only enriched the mystical
tradition, but it has also emerged as one of the greatest contributions of the
confluence of Indo-Persian cultures which is adored as the Ganga-Jamuni
Tehzeeb. In this way, it has proved to be one of the most distinct features of
Islamic religiosity that has deeply penetrated and widely pervaded into larger
spheres of popular culture. Sufi compositions tend to crisscross the microcultural structures of both Hindu and Islamic religio-civilizational framework and
produce a unique blend of literary and musical forms that lead us to the high
philosophical path of moral attainment. The most significant aspect of this
phenomenon has been the emergence of Sufi style expressions in not merely
dominant mainstream languages, but, its expressions in colloquial forms have
gained greater popularity due to its wider appeal.
As regards Bhakti, it is characterized by levels describing human-divine
relationship. It is sometimes described as passionate and intoxicating love for a
personal god that is spontaneous yet cultivated through rituals and song. The
Bhakti movement developed in Southern India in the 7th century and represents a
shift from religious practices mediated by priests, who were always paid for their
direct intervention with God on behalf of others, to a personal relationship
between the human and the deity. The movement is also marked by a shift from
the elite language of Sanskrit to local vernacular languages. A primary tenet of
the Bhakti movement is the belief that all people are considered equal in the eyes
of God and hence, the orthodoxy of the caste based Hindu social order is
disregarded. (Carr-Richardson 2002: 22)
A large degree of symmetry as well as asymmetry may be found among
21
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
the Sufi and Bhakti traditions. On the one hand, both primarily aim at the
individual‘s ultimate union with the transcendental self; however, on the other
hand, both reflect theological distinctions in so far as the definition of that
transcendental power itself is concerned. In the case of Sufism, the metaphoric
interpretation of the spiritual force is the beloved (Sayian or mehboob) and the
individual is the lover (aashiq), who follows the path of ishq to reach the ultimate
union that is Fana and Baqa. Here, the metaphor of lover is not represented by
any particular name. This may largely be due to the influence of monotheism in
Islam. As regards the Bhakti cult, the transcendental self is personified into a
human form of a particular deity, for instance in the case of Surdas and Mira Bai,
it is Krishna and in the case of Tulsidas, it is Ram. So, the notion of that
transcendental self is not monolithic because of the subtle multi-sectoral nuances
that the ritualistic practices within Hinduism represent. The path to be followed
by the individual (in this case the das or the dasi, i.e. servant) specified in the
mosaic diversity of the Bhakti movement however is uniform and has been
described as daasatva ras (aesthetics of servitude). Anyhow, when it comes to
the use of the metaphor of human love itself, both represent a kind of confluence.
Thus, it becomes very essential to make a comparative analysis of the spiritual
traditions of the Bhakti and the Sufi cults.
Both mystiques in the purview of this study, Shishunala Sharif and Mira
Bai, have neither penned down their songs and poems, nor have they been
composed in mainstream classical languages. Rather, they exist in colloquial
language forms, whose inter-generational oral transmission has occurred in the
form of religio-folk convention. The mystical ideas in the form of songs and
poems tatva pada (moral poems) of the Sufi saint Shishunala Sharif from
Karnataka in South India have been composed in the colloquial form called
Dharwad Kannada and, Mira Bai, the Bhakti saint from Rajasthan in North
India, whose songs (pad) are composed in Braj. Sharif‘s songs fit in the genre of
Sufi musical compositions wherein he emphasizes the individuals to follow the
moral path to reach the goal of eternal union. The most unique feature of Sharif‘s
songs is that it involves an attempt on his part to not only spread the gospel of
Sufi mystical tradition in simple folkloric forms in the vernacular language, but
he also attempts at imparting a localized fervor to it by references to
Shishunaladhisha (the village deity), as that transcendental power which every
individual must aim for their ultimate union with. Mirabai on her part practiced
Bhakti (devotion or a fervent type of worship) that grew from the Vaishnava
branch of Hinduism. So, by virtue of simple dialectical forms that manifest the
religio-folk idioms in their preaching, the two mystiques commend wide appeal
among the common gentry. Their contributions stand on the edge of folkloric
methods and classical semiotic styles and hence cannot be confined to any
defined rubric.
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
The agency structure contest in Sharif and Mirabai‘s
philosophy
Dissent is not true dissent unless it emerges from outside the universe of
dominance which provides the critique with its object. (Guha 1997:220) The
female voice represents a particular emotional configuration, expresses a
particular social relation, and symbolizes a humble yet powerful sub-alternation.
This voice and the feminization of devotion assists in the personalization, not
merely of worship, but of feudal hierarchy as a whole; it enables a transcendence
which then begins to cut across and go beyond gender. It is only when this
process is underway, when femaleness is inscribed in the idealities and
modalities of bhakti that individual women bhaktas begin to find openings in it.
(Sangari 1990:1537)
The life of Mira Bai and her contributions, exhibits the voice of
marginalized women, who rebelled against the steel frame of the medieval
patriarchic structure. Mira‘s desire for renunciation itself symbolizes the direct
opposition to patriarchal religion. The Hindu Shastric/Puranic patriarchal
injunctions defined women as part of the illusory world, stating that they lack a
soul and their mayavi (deceptive) nature is a hindrance to the achievement of
renunciation by men. Therefore, all women are prohibited from the state of
renunciation. (Bhatnagar et. al. 2004:21) According to this tradition, the only
way for women to gain access to this transcendence is through husband worship
and service. (Haughton 1982:133-135)
Mira Bai expresses her dissent against this patriarchic envisioning of
women‘s spirituality:
Friend from my childhood, I long to be a renunciator; that form which
enchants my sahib that is the form I will keep
At you are asking I will dye my sari the colour of the kusumal flower, or
you are asking I will take on saffron ropes
Friend from my childhood, I long to be a renunciator, or you are asking I
will fill the parting of my hair with pearls, or you are asking I will
unbind my hair,
Friend from my childhood, I long to be a renunciator, my being resides
elsewhere; here is the empty husk like straw in the wind,
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Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
I left mother father family
Friend from my childhood, I long to be a renunciator.‖ (cited in
Bhatnagar, Dube and Dube 2004:20)
Mirabai‘s religio-folk idiom is not a naïve text of medieval-feudal
consciousness. It is a secular critique of the Rajput patriarchal values and Rajput
accumulation. The Mira tradition has thus been an anti-casteist, antiaccumulation, women-centred dissenting idiom. The religio-folk idiom of Mira‘s
poetry should not be patronized as naïve nostalgia for the divine intervention in
the affairs of human beings or the trans-historical understanding of the history
that men and women create. Rather, Mira‘s poetry must be evaluated in terms of
the subaltern protests it gives voice and keeps alive for centuries through oral
transmission. (Bhatnagar et. al. 2004:7-8)
The following poem by Mira embodies the subaltern protest that she
represented as a part of the Bhakti tradition. Mira stated that: ―She rejoices in the
fact that she no longer partakes of the banquet in the elite Rajput household. Mira
says that the rich man‘s feast must be thrown away because it is contaminated
with guilt. She would rather share the simple meal of the people, which is
sufficient for subsistence.‖ (cited in Mukta 1994:109)
This poem thus indicates the subaltern resistance by a princess to her
clan culture. By emphasizing that the ―rich man‘s feast is contaminated‖, Mira is
protesting the exploitative structure of the Rajput order in medieval India. While
doing this, she is also giving voice to the miseries of millions of peasant
populous, who were part of the sufferings and alienation that was meted out by
the domineering tendencies of the feudal order that characterized the agrarian
economy.
Mira Bai‘s voice also epitomized a versatile challenge to the multiple
sources of the hierarchal social domination and represented multi-pronged
assertions of the female agency. Firstly, she recognized herself with the subaltern
dissent and a challenge to the stratified Hindu social order. Mira left the palace to
worship and meet with holy men in the temples and perhaps to mingle with low
caste people, offering them food and clothing. (Carr-Richardson 2002:22) Mira
also broke the social norms of purdah, a practice in which a woman of a royal
household is expected to remain veiled and is restricted in her movements outside
the household. (Ibid:22) For Mira, there is an integral connection between the
power the married women accrues as the mother of sons and the power that the
male renunciator accrues by treating his listeners as disciples. Here, Mira clearly
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
disavows son-preference to institutionalize her mode of dissent. (Bhatnagar et. al.
2004:10)
Mira emerged as the shocking aberrant flouting the meticulously
prescribed stringent behavioural code for royal women. By refusing sexual
relations with her husband, she deprived herself the most honoured and lofty
status in Indian cultural milieu, i.e., of the mother. This constituted the rejection
of the primary status roles that have been cherished as the most appropriate roles
for the women, such as a devoted wife and a loving mother. She also discarded
the symbols that signified marital status. In her poetry, there are repeated
references to her aversion for symbols of suhag (marital status), i.e., sindoor
(vermillion), head ornament, bangles and kajal (collyrium). In feudal society,
such deviance were surely condemned, yet Mira is honoured and revered and till
date survives in the collective consciousness of the people. (Jain and Sharma
2002:4646-4647)
In this following poem, Mira echoes these sentiments. By declaring in
this poem that Krishna is my husband, Mira presented a staunch challenge to the
stringent patriarchy of the Rajput order. By opposing all the established sociocultural norms, she represented heresy of her own type:
It‘s true, I went to the market.
My friend, I went to the market and brought the Dark One.
You claim by night, I claim by day.
Actually I was beating a drum all the time I was buying him.
You say I gave too much; I say too little.
Actually I put him on a scale before I bought him.
What I paid was my social body, my town body, my family body, and all
my inherited jewels.
Mirabai says: the Dark One is my husband now.
Be with me when I lie down‘ you promised me this in an earlier life.
(Carr-Richardson 2002:23)
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Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
Similarly, in another poem, Mira refuses to identify herself with the
status of the widow of the Sisodia family. She expresses thus:
I sing for the mountain bearer, I will not be a Sati. My mind is charmed
by the one name for the clouds. Ranaji, our relationship is no longer
brother-in-law and sister-in-law, You are servant and I master. Give me
only bangles, tilak and rosary to wear. The vow of chastity is my
ornament. Other ornaments do not please me, Ranaji; this Guru‘s
knowledge is mine. Some condemn me, some praise me-I will sing of the
attributes of Govind. The path which the saints travel, that road I will
take. I neither steal nor hurt any creature, what can anyone do to me?
One who has mounted an elephant, will not climb up on an ass! Such a
thing cannot be. Those who rule are hell dwellers; pleasure seekers are
taken by the god of death; those who engage in devotion, win release;
those who do yoga live. The mountain bearer is my husband and my
family; the mountain bearer my mother, father, son, brother. Rana, you
are without depth and I am weary of this place, says Mirabai. (cited in
Carr-Richardson 2002:34-35)
As regards Shishunala Sharif, the issue of agency is linked to his search
for space in the closed and fused cultural structure of the Brahmanical social
order. Being a Muslim, the contours of his identity construction within the
stratified Hindu social order of early modern India was tantamount to the
problemetique of the Dalit‘s position in that realm. Thus, for Sharif, the key
concern was not only to spread the message of pluralism and tolerance, but, he
also sought to liberalize the Hindu social order to make it more accommodative
to co-opt not only the Dalits who were of course its integral part, but also the
Muslims who shared the same social space with them.
The notion of sub-alternation and marginality in Sharif‘s ideas spreads
into two folds. First is concerning the agency of the Dalits and other backward
sections within the Hindu social order and secondly the agency of a Muslim in
this stratified order, with both groups contesting against their imaging by the
same structure; that is the dogmatic orthodoxy of the Brahmanical intelligentsia.
Thus, the issue of identity must be situated within Sharif‘s philosophical
discourse emanating out of his poems narrating his quest to break this orthodoxy
and universalize the notion of being a Brahmin not by birth but by virtue. Hence
for him, being a Brahmin in the material world is the ascribed status and in the
spiritual world this status may be attained by spiritual pursuits.
Sharif succinctly explains this through his experience of assimilation in
the Brahmanical order facilitated by his guru. Shishunala Sharif met Govinda
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Bhatta, a smartha Brahmin who professed Adi Shankara‘s philosophy of
monism. Bhatta could at once gauge this Muslim devotee‘s deep insight and
hunger for spiritual knowledge. Sharif became his disciple. This, hence, proved
to be a tectonic transition in his life. Their pedagogic inter-relation and scholastic
interaction produced an excellent cultural combine that has created a separate
space in the history of Kannada literature. Though, a Muslim by birth, Shishunala
Sharif, imbibed in himself, the Brahminical values under Govinda Bhatta‘s
guidance. As his teacher, Bhatta did not hesitate to make him a Brahmin and
made him wear the janiv, the symbol of purification in the Brahminical cult.
Narrating his experience of the spiritual bliss that he gained by this act of his
guru, Shishunala Sharif thus sang:
Sadhgurunatha (addressing his guru) has put the ‗janivara‘ (the holy
string worn by the Brahmins). By putting the janivara, liberated me from
the earthly shackles and advanced me towards attaining the divine
knowledge.
By teaching the ‗sandhya vandane‘ (the evening prayer), he made me to
bathe in the joy of the spiritual bliss. Purified my heart with the bliss of
the soul. (to put it in the context of Sufism, diminished the control of the
Nafs over the heart and deepened the presence of the ruh).
He has put the janivara, He has put the janivara.
He has, with a smile, handed over to me the sutra of uniting guru
Shishunaladhisha into my soul. (In the context of Sufism, this may be
compared to the purification of elementary passionate nature of the self,
(Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it
may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and
become the receptacle of God‘s love (Ishq).
He has put the janivara, he has put the janivara.
It should be noted here that before the Sanskritisation of the lower strata
of the Hindu social order, the ‗sandhya vandana‘, was taught and recited only by
Brahmins by birth and Sharif‘s learning of the sandhya vandana was a sort of
heresy.
Here, Sharif is stating that by putting the janivara and training to recite
the sandhyavandane, Guru Govinda has allowed him to get assimilated into both
the material and transcendental world of the Brahminical cultural structure. This
27
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
narration reflects upon the notion that spiritual or material advancement of
human beings is not by a meticulous following of the ritualistic practices and
pedantic perfection, rather, by pulling up the downtrodden from the dark well of
marginality and subalternation to the mainstream. So, the most significant thing
about Sharif is that despite being spiritually trained in Brahminical values, he
tends to break the shackles of the dogmatic orthodoxy of the Hindu social order
and uphold the moral goodness of a casteless egalitarian society.
In another poem (Smoke Hookah), Sharif seeks to resolve the agencystructure contest by emphasizing upon strengthening a plural society and
respecting the shared heritage between distinct cultures. This he does by
attacking the dogmatic orthodoxy and ritualistic over-determinism that plagued
classical religious traditions. He thus called the individual to explore the inner
light within him which was the only path for not only individual self-realization
but also to achieve social harmony. Sharif states thus:
Smoke the hookah smoke the hookah smoke out the disease inside you
Open your mind and throw out the daily feelings,
Burn the chillum called faith with help of burning coal called
intelligence.
[feel good, open the small cloth bag called mind take out the hash called
lust and crush it put it in a chillum called faith, light it up with burning
coal called intelligence]
think brain as the body, shape as of chillum.
fill with water of lord Shiva [varashishunala]
close this with cloth with regret/feelings... magician..
Smoke the hookah smoke the hookah smoke out the disease inside you
Only good thoughts (feelings) will raise up, bad things will get burnt
your fumes will only bring intelligent people near you, as your thoughts
are good.
You will near to lord Shiva [varashishunala]
Smoke the hookah smoke the hookah smoke out the disease inside you
Here, Sharif was not only attempting at weeding out the scourge of blind
belief in religious practices that had marred the emergence of a liberal society,
but he was also attempting at bringing the confluence of cultures between
28
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Hinduism and Islam. His reflections on the shared heritage known presently as
the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb and the Ram/Rahim approach to establish communal
harmony has been apparent in his approach of looking at the divine authority as a
monolithic entity, bereft of textual religious interpretations. Through the
invocation to god in the name of Shiva in the above cited poem, or, to Narayana
in other poems, Sharif is attempting to embody in him the spirit of this great
confluence. In this way, Sharif presented a stiff challenge to the dominant social
structures and represents subaltern protest and the voice of the marginalized.
Further, Sharif considers the guru or the teacher as the ultimate guiding
light for an individual to reach the eternal truth. By accenting upon the critical
role of the guru in an individual‘s life, Sharif attempts at de-establishing the
archaic rigid institutionalization of religions into temples and mosques and
indicates that the place to gain the ultimate bliss is the feet of the guru. The
following poem (When the Chicken Swallowed the Monkey) epitomizes this
notion. Sharif sings:
Look sister!
The chicken has swallowed the ape!
and amazing things are happening
The goat has swallowed the elephant
The wall has drunk up the whitewash
The amazing thing has eaten up the tabor of the actress who came out to
play!
The sesame seeds have eaten up the pounding stick
The rock has swallowed the peg
The amazing thing has swallowed the old lady who came to relish the
seeds!
The thread has eaten the loom
The loom has swallowed the reel
29
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
The amazing thing has swallowed the owner of the loom!
What amazing thing has happened sister!
The mountain has engulfed the cave
Like the cave has engulfed an ant!
My teacher Govinda's feet have completely engulfed my ego, sister
Amazing thing has happened
Thus, for Sharif, his guru, who accepted him as a disciple and liberated
him from the manacles of societal boundaries of stratified marginality is the core
theme of this poem. The song is a tribute to the magnanimity of the teacher, who
the poet says cured his ego –Sharif thus, stated at the end of the poem that ―his
grace swallowed me‖.
Religion, spirituality and the erotic
The Rajput period in Indian history represents that interlude which
evolved beliefs and practices that endowed a distinctive character to female
honour which linked the purity and honour of the clan itself with women‘s
sexuality. The story of Mira presents in a way the most flagrant violation of this
Rajput notion of dishonour. Mirabai‘s personality was a rebellion against
conventional restrictive norms that sought to regulate and control women‘s life.
(Jain and Sharma 2002:4646) In the Bhakti cult, the highest form of worship is
considered to be a mixture of the spiritual and the sensual and the joy of ultimate
union with the transcendental self is comparable to the ecstasy derived out of
sexual union. In both counts, the act is called as ‗sangam‘. Similarly, the pain of
separation from the transcendental self is also comparable with the sensual
longing, emanating out of separation from the lover which is called viraha. Thus,
the notions of sangam and viraha are the common denominator in both spiritual
union and sexual intercourse. So here, the border line between the joy of spiritual
union and erotic ecstasy becomes faint.
Mira Bai symbolizes such a notion embodied in the Bhakti cult. In
Mirabai‘s poetry, the ambiguity between the sacred and the erotic is crucial.
(Carr-Richardson 2002:21) A combination of eroticism and spirituality
characterizes Mira‘s spiritual narratives. By bringing together two contraries,
marriage and renunciation, Mira signifies heretic interpretation of marriage and
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
feminine sexuality. Sexuality and spirituality both are characterized by the
resultant ecstasy and Mira‘s metaphoric marriage with Krishna and her
renunciation of her earthly marriage symbolizes this unique confluence. It not
only symbolizes dissent towards the patriarchal Rajput marriage, but also the
radical assertions of female sexuality. The religio-folk signifier of marriage to
Krishna is thus related to the release of women‘s imagination, sexuality,
creativity and working for the self. Thus in this way, in the use of the metaphors
of love, the Bhaktas were in direct opposition to much of traditional Hinduism
which as late as the time of Bhagavad-gita was teaching that the realization of
God could be achieved only through the abolition of all sense desires. (Stahl
1954:17)
This is reflected in the following song:
The colours of the Dark One have penetrated Mira‘s body; all the other
colours have washed out. Making love with the Dark One and eating
little, those are my pearls and my carnelians. Meditation beads and
forehead streak, those are my scarves and my rings. That‘s enough
feminine wiles for me. My teacher taught me this. Approve me or
disapprove me: I praise the mountain energy night and day. I take the
path that ecstatic human beings have taken for centuries. I don‘t steal
money. I don‘t hit any one. What will you charge me with? I have felt the
swaying of the elephant‘s shoulders; and now you want me to climb on a
jackass? Try to be serious. Mira is dyed in Hari‘s colour, blocking out
every other. (quoted in Carr-Richardson 2002:34)
This poem renders explicit interpretations of Mira‘s femininity and
sexuality that is tightly knit into the fold of devotion to Lord Krishna. She makes
apparent indications that her earthly body and her spiritual self have been merged
together and only yearns for love of Krishna. So, here, both carnal love and
spiritual love gets convoluted together and form a fervent type of devotion,
wherein, the boundaries between physical love and spiritual love gets obliterated.
Hence, whereas, Mira Bai‘s songs reflect a combination of the spiritual
and erotic, contrastingly, for Sharif, erotic feelings and sensual desires are
hindrances to spiritual pursuits. This spiritual aversion to sensuality is
dexterously highlighted by using his folkloric wisdom in depicting the maladies
of sensual desires in poems like:
I cannot withstand the trouble given by bug, only Shiva Hara knows,
31
Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History
I cannot withstand the trouble given by bug, I cannot express its
robustness, it has ruined my life.
Here, the pestering of the bug is the sensual longing. In the same way,
Sharif in other poems also compares these worldly deviations to that of
bandicoots or goats which are regarded as destructive creatures. Like these
creatures, sensual longings penetrate the human mind and deviate it from the path
of spiritual pursuit.
Relating to this, Sharif in another poem compares capitulation to sexual
provocations to stamping the snake in the dark; the consequences of which may
turnout to be venomous. Sharif states:
I stamped the snake O girl, I stamped the snake.
Stamped the snake, jumped and stood, my heart was terrorized O friend.
Briefly, there is a subtle message in his songs. Almost all his songs are
metaphorical, except some Urdu ones where he explicitly mentions about the
God/Scriptures of Muslims.
Conclusion
Subaltern protest and the dissent against marginality run all through the
spectrum of the Sufi and Bhakti mystical philosophy. The ideas of Shishunala
Sharif and Mira emanated out of their experiences derived out of marginality and
subalternation and hence, also reflect the agency-structure contest that permeates
all through their philosophy. Their songs and poems represent the genre of
revolutionary poetry indicating a form of subaltern resistance movement and
portray the urge for establishing their respective agencies. Shishunala Sharif, a
low class Muslim, represents the subaltern protest as he challenged the dogmatic
orthodoxy of the Brahminical hegemony in early modern India, and spread the
message of harmony and religious integrity through Sufi style compositions. He
was a philosopher and social reformer, whose contributions not only symbolized
the dawn of the Sufi cult in Karnataka but also, he is recognized as the first ever
Muslim poet in Kannada. However, Sharif has not received the deserved
academic attention and remains provincialized due to the greater emphasis
provided to the mainstream discourses in classical Sanskritized Kannada
literature in the literary and academic circles of Karnataka. A part of the problem
also lies in the fact that most studies of Indian Islam, while focusing on the elitist
facet, have treated the folk tradition marginally - a treatment that is rather
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
surprising considering the tradition‘s impact on a substantial proportion of the
Muslim population, not to mention, its seminal role in propagating Islamic ideas
within this population. (Ahmad 1981:44)
Similarly, Mira Bai who belonged to the conservative Rajput lineage of
Rajasthan represents a radical feminist challenge to the powerful patriarchal
order of medieval India that contested the female marginality. Hence, the paper
seeks to contextualize the two distinct sources of identity, gender and religion
that form the basis of the subaltern descent that contests the marginality imposed
by the hierarchal social strata. The roots of this rebel is embedded deeply and
pervades through the diverse spectrum of their philosophy that questioned the
established structure of their times. By doing this, the paper endeavours at
deconstructing multiple strands of the cultural histories of the age these two
saints belonged to.
References

Ahmad, Imtiaz. 1981. ‗The Islamic Tradition‘, Islam and the Modern Age 12[1]: 44-62.

Asani, Ali S. 1988. ‗Sufi Poetry in the Folk Tradition of Indo-Pakistan‘, Religion & Literature
20[1], Spring: 81-94.

Bhatnagar, Rashmi, Renu Dube and Reena Dube. 2004. ‗Mira‘s Medieval Lyric Poetry in
Postcolonial India: The Rhetorics of Women‘s Writings in Dialect as a Secular Practice of
Subaltern co authorship and Dissent‘, Boundary 2, Fall: 1-46.

Bose, Sugata and Ayesha Jalal. 2004. Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political
Economy. London: Routledge.

Carr-Richardson, Amy. 2002. ‗Feminist and Non-Western Perspectives in the Music Theory
Class Room: A Study of John Harbison‘s Mirabai Songs‘, College Music Symposium 42: 2036.

Chatterjee, Partha S. 1993. ‗The Religion of Urban Domesticity: Shri Ramakrishna in the
Calcutta Middle Class‘, in Partha Chatterjee and Gyanendra Pandey [ed.], Subaltern Studies
VII. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Dvivedi, Hajari Prasad. 1959. [in Hindi], Sahitya Ke Bhumika. Bombay.

Elias, Jamal J. 1998. ‗Sufism‘, Iranian Studies 31[3/4], Summer -Autumn: 595-613.

Green, Nile. 2004. ‗Oral Competition Narratives of Muslim and Hindu Saints in the Deccan‘,
Asian Journal of Folklore Studies 62[2]: 221-242.
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Mapping the Contributions of Shishunala Sharif and Mira Bai to India‘s Cultural History

Guha, Ranajit. 1997. Dominance without Hegemony. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Haughton, G.C. 1982. Manava Dharma Shastra or the Institute of Manu. [ed.] P. Percival,
New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

Hawley, John Stratton. 2005. Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas, and Kabir in their Times
and ours. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Hill, W.D.P. 1952. The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama. London.

Jain, Pratibha and Sangeeta Sharma. 2002. ‗Honour, Gender and the Legend of Meera Bai‘,
Economic and Political Weekly 37[46], November 16-22: 4646-4650.

Lapidus, Ira M. 1984. ‗Knowledge Virtue and Action: The Classical Muslim Conception of
Adab and the Nature of Religious Fulfillment in Islam‘, in Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.), The
Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam. Berkeley: California
University Press.

Mukta, Parita. 1994. Upholding the Common Life: The Community of Mirabai. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.

Pandey S.M. and Norman Zide. 1965. ‗Mirabai and Her Contribution to the Bhakti
Movement‘, History of Religions 5[1], Summer: 54-73.

Sangari, Kumkum. 1990. ‗Mirabai and the Spiritual Economy of Bhakti‘, Economic and
Political Weekly 25[28], July 14: 1537-1541.

Stahl, Roland. 1954. ‗The Philosophy of Kabir‘, Philosophy East and West. July: 141-155.
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Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
Dr. Ch. Prema Kumar*
The Mystics
According to some critical writers on Islam the majority of Muslims
neither knew nor understood the theological formulations of their faith. For them
life was bounded by the Sharia (Religious Law) and by the round of mosque,
pilgrimage, fasting, alms-giving and ritual prayer. But many outside the
comparatively small circle of scholars found this unsatisfying, particularly if, as
often but not always, they were non-Arab converts with different religious
traditions. They craved for a more emotional, indeed emotive religion, one in
which God appeared as a loving succoring Friend rather than as an abstract
definition of undifferentiated unity incomprehensible in His Essence, inscrutable
and arbitrary in His decrees. Moreover, as Islam grew to become world power
the pious were scandalized at the compromises of political life and at the
readiness of lawyers and theologians to accept service under ―ungodly rulers.‖
Many withdrew into an ascetic seclusion, seeking to avoid the Divine wrath on
the Day of Judgment.
Many Muslims, therefore, found their thirst for God and for piety
quenched in mysticism rather than in theology. The religious history of Islam
after the 12th century, particularly in those lands of Eastern Caliphite which later
came under the political dominance of the Turks and the Mongols, was largely
that of the Sufi Mystic Movements and of the struggle of the Ulama to keep those
movements within the Muslim fold. Although Islamic mysticism may have been
stimulated by Christian, Gnostic1 or Hindu mysticism, it already had a firm basis
in the inspiration of the Qur‘an and in the early experience of the Prophet. His
earlier revelations betray an intense consciousness of God as a living everpresent reality. For example:
―We are nearer to him (man) than his jugular vein‖2.
___________________________
*
Faculty, Dept. of Philosophy, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530 003
35
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
―Whatever ye turn there is the faith of God. Adore and draw though
nigh.‖3
―He Loveth them and they Love Him.‖4
It was this text which was particularly used by later Sufis to justify their
attempts to lose themselves in the Divine Love.
Sufism was at the confluence of two streams of thought in Islam: (i) the
ascetic, and (ii) the devotional. But by 2nd century Hijra, the devotional type of
Sufi mysticism had gained the upper hand. In many, the mystical element of love
and adoration overcame the fear of the Day of Judgment. This victory is summed
up in the sentence from al-Hasan Basri (643–728):
―I have not served God from fear of hell for I should be a wretched
hireling if I served Him from
Fear; nor from love of Heaven for I should be a bad servant if I served
for what is given; I have
served Him only for Love of Him and desire for Him.‖5
Similarly in the famous saying of the Woman Mystic (saint) Rabia alAdawiya (801 AD), we find the proclamation of Love of God, which is not
acceptable to the orthodox Muslim. She says:
―Love of God hath so absorbed me that neither love nor hate of any
other thing remain in my heart.‖6
Before the 2nd century Hijra (722–822) ended, the Sufis had already
worked out methods of attaining gnosis (marifat) or mystic knowledge of God
along a path (tariqua) to ecstatic union with God or one of His attributes, either
by the indwelling of God in the man, or by the man‘s ascent to God. The true
mystic was he who had cast off self and lost himself in God. The language of the
Muslim Sufis during or after the moment of supreme mystical experience was
often borrowed from that of the inebriation or sexual love otherwise called divine
love.
The spiritual life which rises to this kind of divine sexual love was
usually described as a journey passing through a number of stages. ―A typical
mystic road map‖ shows the following as milestones along the journey:
36
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Repentance
Abstinence
Renunciation
Poverty
Patience
Trust in God
Satisfaction
Only when the Sufi has passed all these stages is he realized to the higher
plane of consciousness (gnosis) and realizes that knowledge, knower and known
are one.
Repentance is described as the awakening of the soul from the slumber
of sin and heedlessness; abstinence and renunciation mean not merely the
relinquishing of material pleasures but also the abandonment of all desires – even
the desire to abandon everything itself.7 Poverty means the stripping away of
every wish which could distract men‘s thoughts from God. Patience means both
patience in misfortune and patience to refrain from those things which God has
forbidden to mankind. Trust in God betokened confidence in His grace toward
the sinful pilgrim and satisfaction means for the pilgrim, eager acceptance of
Divine Decree.
All these stages or stations (maqamat) were arrived through the efforts of
the pilgrim. The later part of the journey toward God was only made possible by
the gift of the God Himself. Indeed the light of intuitive certainty by which the
heart sees God was a beam of God‘s Own Light cast therein by Himself. The two
supreme states (hal) were annihilation and subsistence. Annihilation (fana)
means a transformation of the soul though the utter extinction of all passion and
desires, the contemplation of the Divine attributes, and the cessation of all
conscious thought. Most Sufis were insistent that the individual human
personality was not annihilated in this state. Some said that in this state the Sufi
becomes like a drop of water in the ocean.8Upon this follows subsistence (baqa)
or abiding in God. This can mean either, or all, of three things:
1. Union with one of the activities symbolized by the names of God;
2. Union with one of the attributes of God; or
3. Union with the Divine Essence.
Types of Sufism
_________________________|_______________________
|
|
Ascsetic
Devotional
37
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
The Two Supreme States in Sufism
_________________________|_______________________
|
|
Annihilation (Fana)
Subsistence (Baqa)
Seven States of the Path







Repentance
Abstinence
Renunciation
Poverty
Patience
Trust in God
Satisfaction
When the Sufi has attained annihilation and subsistence, the veils of
flesh, of the will and of the world, have been torn aside. Truth is beheld and man
is United to God. The wisest mystics, for example, al-Ghazali recognized that
this supreme experience could not be expressed in words; others ignored the
limitations of language and expressed the experiences they visualized and this in
the view of the orthodoxy is to scandalize the original faith of Islam.
It is perhaps not surprising that Sufis should soon have come under
suspicion from the orthodox theologians. Although early Sufis of the ascetic sort
lived retired meditative lives, their claim to judge men and themselves by an
inner light and to enjoy a direct personal relation to God could not but antagonize
the Ulama, the doctors of Sharia, which claimed to regulate only outward
conduct and who had no sure means of detecting hypocrisy. Although some early
mystics were scrupulous in the observance of the Sharia, others were not
recognizably within the Muslim fold at all.9There was always the danger that in
the intensity of his personal religious experience, the Sufi would deny the value
of the mandates of the Sharia.
―The Mystics learned from God, the Ulama from Books.‖ As Al-Ghazali
was to ask:
―In what do discussions on divorce and on buying and selling prepare
the believer beyond.‖
Similarly Al-Wasiti (932 AD) said:
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
―Ritual acts are only impurities.‖
These dangerous antinomian tendencies were matched by dangerous
pantheistic tendencies. It was difficult for orthodox scholars to stomach some of
the expressions used by mystics in the moment of supreme insight and
experience. For example:
1. Abu Yazid al-Bistami (875) Cried: ―Praise be to Me.‖
2. Al-Hallaj (922) said: ―I am the Truth. Is it thou or is it I.‖
3. Ibn Sahl Tustari (896) said: ―I am the proof of God, in face of the saints
of my time.‖
4. Ibn Abil Khair said: ―Beneath my robe there is only God.‖
5. Ibn-Sabin (1269) said: ―There is nothing but God.‖
The famous Sufi teacher Muhyi Uddin ibn al Arabi was a thorough
monist. The one reality is God; the Universe is His expression of Himself. The
Universe does not proceed from God by emanations but by manifestations; He
makes himself known to Himself in everything. The mystic does not become one
with God; he becomes conscious of his oneness with God. Clearly, in such a
doctrine, Islam and other faiths are put on equality. Everything (infidels and
infidelity) is for the best in the best of all possible worlds. The execution of alHallaj in 922 in Baghdad was a measure of the antagonism aroused among the
lawyers and the dialecticians by such ideas as the above. Moreover, under the
Abbasid Caliphs, Sufism was not popular with political authority.
In the course of the 3rd century after Hijra, Sufism became popular
among the artisan and minor trading classes of the cities of Iraq and Persia,
uneducated in the traditional religious disciplines and sometimes the victims of
Abbasid tax machine. Although Sufism was never a revolutionary movement
politically, its call for a personal spiritual revival threw into sharp relief
worldliness of the ruling powers.
Several Definitions of Sufism
Scholars debate among themselves about the derivation of the word
―Sufi.‖ But, to a true Muslim or to a true Sufi there is no confusion about its
origin or meaning. Several attempts were made in the past to define ―Sufi‖ and
―Sufism.‖ In what follows, first, I shall attempt to give an account of several
definitions of Sufi and then proceed to show the fundamental doctrines of
Sufism.
39
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
1. Some scholars say: ―The Sufis were only named ―Sufis‖ because of the
purity they observe. Those whose hearts are pure and clean, whose acts
are perfect and sincere and whose hearts are sincere to God – all these
people are fit to be called Sufis. Another great Sufi has said:
―The Sufi is he whose conduct toward God is sincere, and toward whom
God‘s blessing are sincere.‖10
This kind of definition, viz., purity and sincerity of heart, makes one a
Sufi, has its authority in the saying of the Prophet Mohammad. As the
Prophet said:
―Mark in man there is a lump of flesh, if it is kept wholesome the whole
body remains in a healthy condition and if it is corrupted, the whole body
is corrupted, mark, it is the heart‖ (Bukhari).
2. Others are of the opinion that Sufis are so called because, ―they are in the
first rank before God, through the elevation of their desires toward Him.
They turn their hearts to Him; they fill their thoughts with His glory they
travel to reach Him.‖
3. Another definition of Sufi is:
A Sufi is one whose qualities resemble those of the people lived at the
time of the Prophet Mohammad. They had left this world, departed from
their homes and fled from their companions. They took this world‘s
good only with them.
4. Yet, another definition is:
Someone asked: who is a Sufi? The reply is: ―A Sufi is one who neither
possesses nor is possessed.‖ By this it is to be understood that he is not a
slave of passions or desires.
5. Finally, we quote the definition given by Abu Bakar al-Kalabadhi. He
says:
―The word Sufi has all the necessary meanings such as withdrawal from
the world, inclining the soul away from it leaving all settled abodes,
keeping constantly to travel, denying the soul its carnal pleasures,
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
purifying the conduct, cleansing the conscience, dilation of the breast,
and the quality of leadership.‖11
Soon after the death of the Prophet Mohammad, a number of systems
and orders cropped up. Each order was divided into a number of branches.
Seeing this state of affairs those who adored God above all things and were
wholly consumed by the fire of His Love, separated themselves from the rest of
the world and devoted themselves to the recollection and remembrance of God –
the only object of their Love. These Men were later called the ―Sufis.‖ They
were out far aloof from the mundane world for God‘s sake – clean of impurities,
full of meditations, in their eyes gold and mud were of equal value.12
―Sufism, in a word, is Self-discipline‖
In the light of the above definitions, it is now easy to determine the exact
meaning of Sufism. According to Shaykh-al-Islam Zakariah Ansari – the
definition of Sufism is as follows:
―Sufisim teaches how to purify one‘s self, improves one‘s morals, and
builds up one‘s inner
and outer life in order to attain perpetual bliss. Its subject matter is the
purification of the
soul and its end or aim is the attainment of eternal felicity and
blessedness.‖
According to Al-Ghazali, Sufism is:
―When after acquiring proficiency in these sciences, I turned away my
attention to the
methods of the Sufis and I came to know that their method attains
perfection by means of
theory and practice. The gist of their knowledge is to mortify the self and
acquire freedom
from baser passions and evil attributes so that the heart may get rid of
the thought of any
41
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
thing save God and to embellish it with Divine remembrance.‖13
In praise of Sufism and its glorious nature, Abu al-Hassan Nuri says:
―Sufism is the renunciation of all selfish pleasures. In other words, it is
giving up unlawful
carnal pleasures. A Sufi is usually, free from greed, and lust and knows
that so long as he
is a victim of lust he is, as it were, in a prison.‖14
A Sufi is one who makes his will thus subservient to God; and thereby
his lust and greed are nullified. He is aware that to follow the dictates of lust and
desire will ultimately lead him to ruination.
Again according to Ali Qezwani, Sufism is ―Good Manners.‖ It is to
abstain from all kinds of objectionable behavior. It is to build up all good habits
and keep the heart free from all evil desires, manners, customs, and to better it in
every walk of life. It is goodness of disposition of mind, heart and will.
From all that what has been said above, it becomes clear that Sufism is
nothing but the purification of the senses and the will. It is the effacement of
one‘s desires in the will of God. It is the building up of a solid wall between the
pure self and the pull and push of passions, desires and ignoble emotions.
―Sufism, in a word, is self-discipline.‖15
The duties of a Sufi
All the Sufis have agreed upon that all the ordinances imposed by God
on His servants in His Holy Book and all the duties laid down by the Prophet are
a necessary obligation and a binding imposition for adults of mature intelligence;
that they may not be abandoned or forsaken in any way by the man; whether he
be a veracious believer or a saint or agnostic, even though he may have attained
the first rank, the highest degree, the noblest station, or the most exalted stage.
They hold that there is no station in which a man may dispense with the
prescriptions of the religious law, by holding permissible what God has
prohibited, or making illegal what God has declared legal and so on. The more
inwardly pure a man is, the higher his rank, and the nobler his station, so much
the more arduously he labours with sincere performance and a greater fear of
God.
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Sufism as a doctrine of self-discipline is intended to build up character
and inner life and this is to be achieved by imposing certain ordinances and
duties, obligations and impositions which may not be abandoned by any man in
any way. The Sufis will always keep before them the instructions given by the
Prophet.
Sufism as a means to build up purity of inner life
Before we discuss about the purity of inner life, it is necessary for us to
clarify the meaning of inner life. According to Junyad (about whom we discuss in
the next chapter) inner life means to ―die outwardly and at the same live
inwardly.‖ To die outwardly and to live inwardly is the business of a Sufi, says
Junyad. This is to say that one must pass on what belongs to him and persist
through what belongs to God. ―When he is dead in relation to his own self, he
becomes alive in his relation to the self of God. Of course, this is a paradoxical
expression and paradoxical expressions are obvious necessities in any religion,
and all the more in mystic religions.
Husayan B. Mansur al-Hallaj16 thinks that a Sufi is a singular in his being
(Ekanti), he neither accepts anybody nor does anybody accept him. He feels the
immediate presence of God alone within and senses the presence of God without
and his mental faculty gets rid of the thought of anything save God and is totally
captivated by God. Junyad used to say:
―The eye does not see anything except God. Predication of everything is
of Him only.‖
According to Muhammad Ruwaym, Sufism is nothing else save
submitting one‘s own self to the will of God. A Sufi becomes dead to his selfwill and the will of God‘s almighty nature alone will prevail. When his will
becomes subdued and acts according to the will of God, then his face becomes
radiant and enlightened. He will be drawn to the nearness17 of God. The greatness
of God is revealed to a Sufi. It is revealed to him – God as the creator, cherisher
and sustainer. In calamity and in affluence, God alone is considered as the doer
and the rewarding agent. Other than God, there is none to reward or punish.
What is the end and aim of the life of a Sufi?
The end and aim of a Sufi life is God alone: He loves God alone; his
thinking, meditation and prayer are for God alone. He is ever ignorant of
everything save God and when he thinks of God alone, his mind is purified; and
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
in this sense he finds himself attached to God and disconnected with everything
save God. He is totally captivated and engrossed by God alone. It is said:
―Of my soul‘s Union with this fleshy frame, of life and death thou art the
end and aim, I pass away: thou only dost endure when I say ‗me‘, it is
Thee,18 I mean to name.‖
What are the duties of a Sufi? How does he move in society? How is he
good to the active Muslims?‖
The first step of a Sufi is to teach a traveler on the path how to get
release from the clutches of desires and lusts (haws); how to emerge out of his
own individual sphere of knowledge and enter into the knowledge of God. This
part of the duty of a Sufi is same as the teachings imparted by Shariat. Its gist
could be expressed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
God alone is our Deity (Ilah).
God alone is our Master.
God alone is our Lord and Helper.
God alone is to be worshipped.
God alone is to be approached for Help.
This conviction in the supremacy and Lordship of God purifies a man of
all the baser attributes and embellishes him with all the nobler qualities; his heart
is freed from unbelief, false worship, unification, truth and virtues. Sufism
culminates purification of heart and mind. It is to be pure in character. It is to
build up character and good habits.
The following diagram indicates the essence of Sufism:
Fear of God
Devotion to God
Knowledge of God
Love of God
So far we have considered two important questions: (1) Who is a Sufi?
and (2) What is the meaning of Sufism?
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II
The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
(A)
Al–Qushairi‘s Epistle to the Sufis:
In this section we shall try to explain the Sufi theory and the religious
practices that were introduced into Sufism from time to time by various Sufi
mystics. By the end of 10th century AD Sufism had become a fairly rigid and
clearly definable way of life and system of thought. Al-Sarraj and Al-Sulami are
the earliest Sufi mystics who wrote treatises on the life that a Sufi should live.
These works have inspired Al-Quashairi who wrote Risala (Epistle to the Sufis).
The classical formulation of Sufi doctrine on the mystical side has always been
held by the Sufis to have been finally accomplished by Al-Qushairi. The Sunni
theology and religious law was provided by the great theologian-philosopher, AlGhazali.
Sufi doctrine, its theology, its practices and all that goes in the name of
Sufism, says Al-Qushairi, does not come into conflict with orthodox Muslim
theology. All this becomes evident if we look into the biographies of the
prominent Sufi mystics.
Al-Qushairi makes an attempt to clarify the meaning of some technical
terms that are current in Sufi literature. A fundamental distinction is drawn
between, maqam (station) and hal (state); briefly stated, maqam is a stage of
spiritual attainment on the pilgrim‘s progress to God which is the result of the
mystic‘s personal effort and endeavor, whereas the hal is a spiritual mood
depending not upon the mystic but upon God. While the states are the gift of
God, the stations are earnings by the devotees.
Nature of Mystical Stations:
The first station is conversion (tauba). This is viewed from two points of view:
1. Ordinarily speaking conversion means professing the faith of Islam and
practicing all the religious ceremonies of Islam.
2. But religiously speaking, a true Muslim is said to be converted only when he
abandons all the worldly life and devotes himself to the service of God.
It is in this sense that great philosopher-theologian of Islam, al-Ghazali,
after having attained a great deal of religious knowledge, turned away from
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
observing all the simple religious practices declared himself a Sufi or a mystic of
first order.
Meaning of Holy War:
The second station is called Mujahada, a collateral form of Jihad (the so
called holy war).19Holy war can be taken to mean an earnest living after the
mystical life. But in politics it may mean a different thing. The religious meaning
is to wage a war to spread Islam, to practice Islam and defend Islam by both
precept and concept. But in politics, the word Jihad is used in a different
meaning. It is to fight out till last for the sake of Islam. In this context, I shall
quote what the Qur‘an has said on this:
―And they that strive earnestly in our cause them we surely guide upon
our paths.‖
A tradition makes the Prophet rank the greater warfare (al-Jihad alAkbar) above the lesser warfare, that is, the war against infidelity, and it is
explained by the traditionalists that the ―greater warfare‖ as meaning earnest
striving with the carnal soul.
To sum up – Jihad or holy war has two meanings: one in religious and
the other in political sense. In the religious sense it is to wage war against the
carnal desires of the soul; and in the political sense it is to wage war against those
who are opposed to Islam.20
The third station is solitariness and withdrawal. The mystic must train
himself to live in isolation from his fellows, and so to rid himself of his evil
habits.21
The fourth state is that the Sufi mystics should feel the awe of God
(Taqwa). This is to feel the limitations of human beings and realize the greatness
of God. In Vaishnavism, the devotee will realize the utter unworthiness of
himself and the Omniscience of God.
According to the orthodox Muslims, the following are some of the
observances to be followed by a true Muslims. The orthodoxy of Islam does not
allow any deviation or exception from these practices. They are 40 in number.
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Characteristic marks of a Sufi mystic and religious practice
1. An orthodox Muslim should be free from all unnecessary and unseemly
occupations (wars).
2. A Sufi mystic must renounce even permitted pleasures (zuhd).
3. Every Sufi mystic must speak nothing but truth and only truth. In case he
cannot speak the truth, the best course of action is to keep silent.22
4. About silence it is said in Qur‘an:
―Whosoever believes in God and the Last Day let him speak good, or
else let him be silent.‖ Since silence is interpreted both literally and
metaphorically, as referring to a heart that silently accepts whatever God
may decree. Speaking truth is always preferred. If one cannot speak
truth, the best course of action is to be silent. Speaking untruth and
falsehood is condemned by all the great religions of the world. That is
why the Upanishads have said:
Satyam Vada: Speak nothing but truth.
Satyanna Pramaditayya: Do not neglect to uphold the truth.
Even in Mahabharata the greatness of ―Truth‖ is upheld. Dharmaraja
who never uttered any lie, due to political considerations and keeping in view the
victory in the war tells a lie and thereupon his chariot which was flying six inches
above the earth, on the utterance of the falsehood that the son of Drona, that is,
Aswaddhama died (slowly muttered an elephant), immediately touches to the
ground. That is the greatness of Truth and the weakness of lies.23
1. A true Muslim must have fear of God. It means he must always check and
countercheck his activities and their consequences, lest one‘s evil conduct
may overtake him leading to unpleasant and undesirable consequences.
2. A true Sufi mystic will always live in hope24 (Raja). The hope leads to a
happy and blissful contingency in future. Thus Islam removes all possibility
of man landing in a hopeless pessimism.
3. A Sufi mystic is one who regrets and repents for the past sins, and takes care
not to commit sins in future. This is technically called Atmavalokana in the
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
philosophy of Bhagvat Gita. A Karma Yogi is one who always looks back to
what he has done and tries to check the inflow of sins. Similarly, in
Buddhism we have the concept of repentance (Paschattapa). It means one
has to proclaim before the assembly what evil deeds he has committed,
thereby he is said to have been relieved from the results of the sinful deeds.
Patience and Tolerance – are the twin virtues that a Sufi mystic should
always observe. These two virtues have their own advantages to the person
who practices them and also the society in which they are practiced.
4. Similarly, a true Sufi mystic is advised to avoid the two vices viz., (i) envy
and (ii) slander.
5. ―Contentment,‖ says the Qur‘an ―is an imperishable treasure.‖ Every Sufi
mystic must possess a mental trait of contentment. In the Indian context,25 we
have a concept called ―Tusti‖ which implores upon us always to be selfcontented. A discontented heart, a heart loaded with despondency, and a
mind without any contentment will always land us in trouble. Contentment is
a personal virtue to be possessed by one and all.
6.
A Sufi must possess an unquestionable faith in God. His faith in God should
be such that, at any given moment of time and space, he must see nothing but
God, talk nothing but about God. A true mystic should always be ―Godintoxicated.‖ This leads him to discover the majesty of God everywhere and
this realization leads him to be one with all.
7.
Similarly a true Muslim must possess a constant awareness of God
(Muraquaba). The famous saying of Qur‘an is:
―Righteousness consists in worshipping God as if thou see at Him; for if thou
see at Him
Not, yet He sees thee.‖26
The above are some of the preconditions which are without any
exception to be practiced by a true Muslim. It is at this stage he becomes
qualified for the grace of God. And when once the mystic becomes qualified to
receive the grace of God, God intervenes at every stage of his life and helps him
to move forward in the spiritual flights.
It is at this stage a true and real transformation in the psyche of the Sufimystic takes place. He realizes that he is a true subject of the Lord (Rabb), God
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and he gradually begins to ignore his individual existence. As a result of this
longing for God, the mystic loses the desire to have any individuality; he will not
have any personal desires and seeks union with God. He subordinates his will,
desire and even needs to the will of God. If at all he has any desire, he will have
the desire to see God, realize God and be in communion with him. He strives to
fulfill what God desires. He refrains from doing what is not desired by God.
Philosophically speaking how do we know what is desired by God and
what is not desired by God? The language of the mystics, the means of
knowledge of mystics and the ways he expresses his experiences are entirely
different from that of ordinary language expressions. One who did not dive deep
into the mystic realms may brush aside all that what a mystic says as ―non-sense
or meaningless27 or ineffable28 or incommunicable,‖ but viewed from the Mystic
point of view and mystical expressions, they have their own validity. It is this
kind of validity that we are explaining here and not the linguistic meaning of the
words.
When the Mystic desires to do nothing but only obey the commands of
the God his feelings gets intensified and God comes into contact with the Sufis,
then the grace of God dawns upon him and as the Sufi continuously performs in a
perfect way the commands of God, and thereby he becomes worthy to receive the
grace of the God. Herein sincerity to God plays a very important role.
―Sincerity‖ in Islam has a special meaning. It reflects the glory of God and it also
indicates utmost obedience to God in every action of the Sufi. In such a state the
Sufi mystic realizes the advantages of the grace of God dawning upon Him and
he stands firm in truthfulness (sidq) in thought, word and deed.29 Psychologically
speaking, the Sufi mystic will be radiating truth in his talk, walk and action.
A Sufi mystic at this stage tends to forget all kinds of selfishness and
becomes magnanimous. Magnanimity is a quality wherein the interests of others
are put before one‘s own interests. He will see that the interests of others are the
same as his own interests and his own interests as that of others. The BhagavadGita puts it in a most interesting manner:
Atmanneva Pasyate Atma – One sees one‘s own self in all the selves.
Sarvabhtantaratma bhava – Seeing the same self in all selves.
And the Lord Buddha has said:
Bahujana hitayaca – The well-being of one and all.
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
Bahujana Sukhayaca – The happiness of one and all.30
The Sufi mystic after fulfilling the terms of the tradition will have an
assured conviction that God will not fail to rescue him, so long as the Muslim
attends to the needs of his Muslim brother. Here a total and complete selfdisregard is envisaged. Vaishnavism has also laid emphasis on three points:
1. Total abnegation of the self;
2. Utter unworthiness of the self; and
3. Realizing the Greatness and God‘s eagerness to rescue and protect the
devotees.
Insight, purity of thought, perfection in moral character, praise of God,
being always grounded in the faith of God all these characteristics help the
mystic to realize God. Generosity is another quality or a state that a mystic
acquires. The Bible says: ―Give in plenty and have plenty.‖ The bountiful man,
the generous man is nearer to God near to man, near to paradise and will be far
away from hell. A miserly man, on the contrary, in spite of his plentiness, will be
nearer to hell.
Having been assured the proximity and nearness to God, the Sufi mystic
will feel fearlessness because he thinks he is always under the protection of God.
God in Hinduism is Jagadrakshaka. He protects and upholds this entire world
and those who seek refuge in him are always protected and divine protection
dispels away all sorts of fears and a fearless man is at peace with him and rest of
the world also will be peaceful at his hands. A man ridden with fear will have a
tendency to cause danger to him and as well to others.
At this state of saintliness, Islam recommends embracing of ―Voluntary
Poverty.‖ The Qur‘an says:
―The poor shall enter paradise five hundred years before the rich.‖31
Knowledge of God, love of God and longing for God are the highest
states to be realized by the grace of God only. Though self-effort ceases prior to
this state, since this is the final state, it is God who helps the devotee or mystic.
In other words, when the mystics‘ moral and psychological advancement reaches
perfection, he looks upon God and at this stage God alone can save him.
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While the above is the description of the mystic states according to alQushairi, al-Sarraj, the predecessor of al-Qushairi prescribes only seven stages in
the mystic path to progress. They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Conversion
Abstinence
Renunciation
Voluntary Poverty
Patience
Satisfaction
Eternal faith and trust in God
So far we have explained the ―states‖ and ―stations‖ that are to be
found in the mystic path and practices of Islam. It should be noted here that
Sufism has produced many men of conspicuous sincerity, holiness and intuition
during the first four centuries of its existence. Of all these great men, al-Ghazali32
is the champion of Islamic practices and faith. It is he who wanted to have a
revival of Islamic faith on sound rational, religious and philosophic grounds.
Orthodox theology and religious law reconciled
There is a controversy among the Muslims that the rationalists are not
following the religious prescriptions of the orthodoxy and are making several
inroads into the classic position of Islam. Several efforts were made by IbanSina, Iban Rustu and al-Ghazali to bring together the relationship that exists
between the orthodox theology and religious law on the one hand, and on the
other to practical and speculative mysticism. Let us see how a kind of synthesis is
attained by the philosopher – theologians.
Contents of Worship
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The nature of the knowledge of the world and God.
The foundations of belief.
The inward meaning of Purification.
The inward meaning of Prayer.
The inward meaning of Alms giving.
The inward meaning of Pilgrimage.
On reciting Qur‘an.
Recollections and Prayers of greatness of God.
Orisons at set times.
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
Of these, the first two steps belong to epistemology and theology, and
three to seven belong to ritual and canon law and the last two belong to
devotional works. As to the personal behavior the following principles are laid
down:
Principles of personal behaviour in Islam
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Modesty in eating.
Modesty in Drinking.
Truthfulness in earning.
Knowledge of lawful and unlawful things.
Good Companionship.
Good Character.
Pious Solitude.
Travel to sacred places.
Listening to the words of Prophet.
Good Counseling
Of these the first three belong to ―Religious Law‖ and the rest belong to
―Mystical Training.‖
Every religion contains certain prescriptions and negations. A true
Muslim is one who not only always fears God, but also abstains from doing the
deadly sins. The following are said to be sins from which a true Sufi mystic
should always keep himself away.
Observances to be followed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The wonderful nature of the heart.33
Self-discipline.
Avoiding sensuality.
Avoiding vices of speech.
Avoiding anger, malice and envy.
Distaste for worldly goods and taste for divinity.
Avoiding arrogance, pride and avarice.
All these are intended to develop psychological and spiritual discipline
among the Sufi mystics. The path to salvation consists of ten stages and at every
stage the mystic has to check back whether he is progressing or not. In other
words, he must go on measuring his spiritual experiences in terms of quality.
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The path to salvation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Conversion.
Fortitude and gratitude to God.
Fear of God Almighty and hope of God as savior.
Voluntary poverty and self-denial.
Belief in one God and always reposing trust in him.
Loving God, yearning of God and satisfaction in God.
Resolve to be faithful and sinless, resolve to be always truthful and
manifested sincerity.
8. Contemplation and self-examination.
9. Constant meditation.
10. The recollection of death and punishment.
References
1.
Haring esoteric spiritual knowledge, p. 514, Oxford University
2.
Quran, 50.15.
3.
Ibid, 96.19.
4.
Ibid, 5.59.
5.
Cf. al-Hasan Bansari.
6.
Cf. Woman Mystic (Saint) Rabia.
7.
There is an interesting parallel to this in the Advaita Philosophy of Sankara.
8.
Quran,
9.
A friend of the Philosopher Ibn Sina, Abu Sa‘id ibn Abil Khair, a Persian mystic wrote:
10. All quotations are taken from the great author prof. Mir Valliuddin, ―The Quranic Sufism‖,
Motilal, New Delhi, 1959.
11. Mir Valiuddin, op. cit., p. 2.
12. In the Indian contedt a yogi is one who has cultivated an equanimity of Mind for Gold and
Mud. ‗Kanta Kancana samadrsti‘.
13. Al-Ghazali, Tahafut al-philosophia, Tr. Umaruddin, p. 120.
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The Sufi Theory and Religious Practices
14. Cf. Abu al Hassan, Umaruddin, Tr. P. 121.
15. Roma Chowdary, Sufism and ―Vedanta, Part – I Sufism, p. 2.
16. We shall refer to his doctrine of Sufism in the next chapter.
17. In the Upanishads this concept of Nearness to God is very beautifully explained it is describe
there as Sayujya, Salokya, Samipya and Sarupya. Islam could extend its speculative thought
only up to Samipya and the concept of sarupya is repugnant to Islam.
18. This is the kind of paradoxical expressions we referred above. Even a Hindu bhakta (Devotee)
expresses himself in such kind of paradoxical language.
19. This is where religion and politics get inextricably mixed up in Islam. The goals of religion
and the goals are pooltics become converged when it is a question of ‗states of Islam‘.
20. The contemporary situation in Middle-East takes the advantage of the second kind of
interpretation and justifies all the wars tht are going on there.
21. I do not know to what extent there is a definite interaction between Hinduism and Sufi
Mysticism. But I can say here one thing certain, I;e., both the Hindu sadhaka, yogi and the
Sufi mystic preferred isolation and seclusion for the realization of God.
22. Observance of silence is a practice in all the religious. The Upanishad says – ―Maunam
Brahma Ucyate‖. Silence is Reality. Similarly the Buddha Kept silence when indeterminate
questions (avyakrta prasnas) were put to him. In recent times it is Wittgenstein said that where
we cannot speak of there we have to keep silence. Practice of silence both in secular and
religious matters is an accepted method.
23. I have narrated this story only with a view to show the importance of Truth in all religions.
24. The Bible says – ―Man lives by Hope in God, but not by breae‖. Speaking in the context of
religion only this saying has a significant meaning. Speaking from the point of view of
ordinary life, it loses its meaning.
25. The case under consideration is the great sage Vasistha is fully contended while living in a
hermit, whereas the King Viswamitra has no contentment and therefore wages a war against
Vasistha for the sake of a cow (Kamadhenu) only to be lost in the war.
26. The unbelievers, the unorthodox and the inedible may not believe in the Omniscience of God,
the all time spectator of all things and all thoughts. But if we have to accept the concept of
‗Sarvajnata‘ it necessarily implies the Divine presence everywhere and He at once becomes
the Sarvasakshji and Sarvadrasta.
27. A.J. Ayer is of the opinion that all metaphysics and the propositions concerning metaphysics
are non-sense and therefore by implication all mystical experiences and expressions of them
couched in a mysterious language become meaningless.
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28. William James, the famous American Philosopher, argues that all mystic experiences are
incommunicable. Cf. William James, ―Varieties of Religious Experiences‖.
29. This ideas has its roots in classical Indian philosophy, particularly in Jainism, Buddhism and
Dharma Sastras, we find the purity in thought, word and deed. ―Mano Vakkayasuddhi‖.
30. To those who regard mysticism and mystical experiences as irrational and unscientific, these
theoretical considerations of mysticism at least reveal their nobility of thought.
31. This particular saying of Quran is subjected to ridicule by the faithless people because they
have not properly understood its meaning. Having been rich, enjoyed the riches, realizing the
futility of riches one has to embrace poverty. It is then only these people become eligible to
enter the heaven earlier than the rich.
32. We shall discuses the contribution of the great philosopher-saint of Sufism – al-Ghazali in
sequel.
33. It is the heart that is the seat of all desires. Unless it is kept under control, one may go astray.
The philosophers believe that it is will or intellect as the seat of all desires and men of religion
believe it is the heart that is the seat of all desires. This confusion is due to Aristotle and
Spinoza, whose ideas have flowed into Islam.
55
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Mysticism and Medical Ethics
Dr. Mahdi Ibrahimi*
Abstract:
―Ethics‖ is about man‘s behavior made by his inner attributes with
cognitive origins. However, mysticism focuses on inner knowledge (of the soul).
The theory presented in this essay is the fact that it is possible to create a new
structure for medical ethics based on mystical principles.
To achieve this, the principles of inner knowledge should first be
discussed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Having a beautiful view of the world
Considering oneself imperfect against God
The idea that the world is mysterious.
According to the three doctrines mentioned above, there are some ways
to achieve new medical ethics:
1.
2.
3.
Submitting to God and His laws
Having a good opinion towards God
Being patient.
Following these points makes inner knowledge possible for man, alters
his approaches to disease and health, and also reforms his ethical behavior. So if
medical ethics gets based on mysticism, it would benefit from more stability and
depth.
Introduction
In order to analyze the mystical fields in medical ethics, the differences
between ethics and mysticism should be first taken into considerations. Ethics is
___________________________
*
Assistance Professor in Mashhad University of Medical Sciences
57
Mysticism and Medical Ethics
a science that analyzes man‘s behavior and also the methods to change it by
means of making changes in attributes or egotistical realm. It believes that good
and evil in behavior must be judged in the same industry where the behavior has
been led to, that is, moral behavior is related to our mental attributes. However, if
mysticism is based on inner knowledge, all reforms and changes happen radically
and the changes will be permanent and ever-lasting.
To attain the inner knowledge, it is required to accept particular
principles and some of them are appointed here:
1. Having a good opinion towards God:
The world is a divine manifestation of the will of the Almighty, so it is
beautiful. Evil is caused by the differences between men, and man cannot
see the world beautiful when he is stuck to his inner conflicts.
2. Considering oneself imperfect against God:
For reaching inner knowledge, man should not consider himself to be
perfect since the first step to stop the movement is to know oneself
perfectly, and such thoughts are a hindrance in gaining inner knowledge.
In the Qur‘anic story of prophet Yousuf, when all evidences changed
direction and confirmed his innocence, he says: ―I‘m not free from sin as
man‘s soul commands to evils.‖1
3. The idea that the world is mysterious:
The world has both esoteric and exoteric aspects. Understanding the
exoteric aspect of the world and its laws can be recognized by man‘s
thoughts, but secrets are not always known by thoughts. Then disease
can be supposed as a spiritual secret that if behaved, as mentioned, the
relationship between a doctor and a patient would change.
As a result, the points that can be used as mystic principles in medical
mysticism are discussed here:
1. Surrendering to God and His laws:
Man‘s will is a presupposition for ethics. So, when there is natural
compulsion, ethics seems nonsense. Even if man cares about his health,
he gets sick naturally. So, it must be treated as other natural events.
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As a result, we are asked to do our best to keep ourselves healthy. But
health and disease can also be caused by factors out of man‘s control.
It is said in Islamic traditions that God forgives some of patient‘s sins,
and his difficulties compensate his sins. It is a fact justified by the
presupposition mentioned above. So, a believer does his best to keep
himself healthy, and if something happened to him, he should know that
there must be some secrets which he is not aware of, and if the secrets
are explicit perhaps it is good for him. God says in Qur‘an: ―You may
hate a thing although it is good for you, and love a thing although it is
bad for you.‖2
In Islamic culture, contentment to divine decree and surrendering to what
is right means that man should be in God‘s service and see himself as
nothing against God. If man reaches this stage, no complaint and
rudeness would be left with him and he will solely submit to God. In
such a condition, both health and disease mean the same for man and are
considered as blessings since they come from God.
In Islamic references it is quoted that religious leaders do not
differentiate between health and disease when thanking of God for
blessings. So, when sick, a believer never loses his control since he
considers disease as a reflection of God‘s blessings. And as man has a
devoting relationship with God and loves Him all the time, he knows his
being as God‘s shadow. In Islamic traditions, so many relevant beautiful
conceptions have been quoted, for instance: ―All the difficulties
encountered to man seem like a souvenir someone brings for his
family.‖3
Another tradition by the Holy Prophet (pbuh) says: ―The descent of
disaster to a believer is like fresh food of the season that someone brings
for his family.‖4 Obviously, the nice interpretation of souvenir and fresh
food of disaster and disease indicates the idea of a blessing a believer
accepts easily.
In some parts of the Islamic supplication, man prays to God in this way:
―O‘God, only Thou deserve worship since destiny and providence
decreed by Thee are all permanent blessings which never decay.‖
So whatever happens to a believer is a blessing and this is the same fact
that the world is mysterious. And man must believe in it.
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Mysticism and Medical Ethics
Now if we treat disease as mentioned above, all our humane relationships
in clinical departments would be improved because as a patient goes to a
clinic, he only does his duty in return for divine blessings. The doctor
and his assistants, whose mission is to cure, are all reflection of the will
of God.
Now with such image, how can a patient complain about destiny and
decree or how can a doctor feel proud or does his duty carelessly?
2. Having a good opinion towards God:
One of the man‘s main beliefs, resulted by surrendering and contentment,
is having a good opinion towards God. To clarify this idea, man should
first find the reason why suspicion is made in man. Suspicion is an inner
feeling in man that is caused by mental disorder; he sees everything as
evil and cannot have a good attitude about others. Or, it can be as a result
of external problems around him, that is, depravity, injustice, corruption
are so omnipresent that man suspects everything around himself. For
instance, if a judicial or security official meets someone in order to fight
corruption in society, unwillingly he considers anyone criminal because
his job involves so.
Obviously, none of these two cases can be true for God; He‘s the
Omniscient and Omnipotent. So, as He lacks nothing, no suspicion is
required. Now, if a believer gets assured that whatever God has decreed
for man is good and a blessing for him, creation is truth, He is the mere
knowledge, power, and all attributes of perfection, no suspicion would be
left for man.
―Having a good opinion towards God means to trust Him merely and fear
from your sins.‖6
―Having a good opinion towards God means to purify your deeds for
Him and to hope He‘ll forgive your sins.‖7
As a result, the criterion for man‘s faith depends on the degree of his
good opinion towards God. Allah in Qur‘an says: ―I‘m as much dignified
as a believer imagines.‖8 This indicates that the relationship between a
believer and God depends on his belief in God. Provided man has a good
opinion towards God, it is nonsense to suppose disease and disaster
emanating from Him, because evil is sent from someone with impure
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essence. God is absolutely free from any imperfection. Then how can He
do evil things? According to this, disease is supposed to be good for
man. A person who has a good opinion towards God feels God with
himself all the time.
Complaining about God contradicts the idea of having a good opinion
towards God: ordinary people complain about God once they suffer from
a problem or disease and this is a kind of mental problem. The concept of
having a good opinion towards God puts an end to such notions.
When sick, we, men, suppose that God has forgotten us and has no
affection towards us. But if we believe that everything is in His kind
domain, we complain no longer.
3. Patience and endurance:
The other main concept in the field of mystic principles in medical ethics
is patience. The idea does not mean that man should not utter a word
when in trouble and should endure the difficulties. Patience means
forbearance for achieving goal that makes a man able to resist against
problems and difficulties until he overcomes them and approaches the
goal. So the practical message of patience is not only bearing the disease
and doing nothing for ourselves, but to do our best to gain in health and
bear all difficulties in this way.
In Islamic traditions, patience has been considered as one of man‘s
excellences.9Even in some religious references, being patient for gaining
health has been recommended.10 This means that we should do our best
to achieve our goal. In medical society, having patience is not only
patient‘s duty but the duty of medical personnel. It can be said that the
more patient a man is, the greater his faith is. If man reaches such a stage
his patience would be that of devoting, and since he believes that a lover
is attached to the beloved, he resists against all difficulties and knows
them as God‘s mercy.
The philosophy that God offers His benevolence in all conditions makes
man stronger and improves his ability. Such a man never loses his hope
to divine healing and believes that when sick, God heals him.11So man‘s
effort for cure should be along with regarding God‘s healing. If patient
regards God‘s healing and others give him hope at the same time,
certainly his health is improved. The Holy Prophet says: ―While visiting
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Mysticism and Medical Ethics
a patient, give him hope of life. Although it might not influence the
divine decree, it makes man satisfied and hopeful.‖12
Words of promises improve man‘s strength and endurance to continue
curing. So, it is concluded that if medical ethics gets based on mystic
principles, invariable and eternal ethics will dominate medical society.
Conclusion
It is concluded that:
1.
2.
3.
Mystic principles can lead to ethical stability.
Mysticism makes God a supporter of man‘s behavior.
Mysticism causes mental comfort in both doctor and patient.
Sources and References:
1.
Qu‘ran/12/ 53
2.
Same/2/216
3.
Reyshahry/Mizan Al hekmah/tradition 1927/Second edition/Dar al hadith Research Center
4.
Same/1926
5.
Qomi/Mafatih/Nodbah/684/Astan-e-Quds printing
6.
Reyshahry/ Mizan Al hekmah/tradition 11589
7.
Same/11590
8.
Same/11580
9.
Majlessy/Behar/78/172/Bayrut printing
10. Reyshahry/Mizan Al hekmah/tradition10090
11. Koran/26/80
12. Majlessy/Behar/81/224
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Islam and Tolerance
Dr. Ghorban Elmi*
Masoumeh Fathi**
Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in the
face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two
kinds: either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation.
—Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
Abstract
Humanity lives today in a ―global village‖ where no people or nation can
live in isolation from and with indifference to what goes on elsewhere. Our world
is so interdependent and so inter-related that peaceful coexistence has become
imperative for all of us. Religious coexistence and tolerance is a noble Islamic
thought suggested in many verses of Quran in different forms, with complete
emphasis and explicitness. Islam recognizes the human right to equality
regardless of any distinction of colour, race, nationality or culture. Maintaining
the proper relations with the people of other faiths, cultures and nations is
comprehensively treated in both the Qur‘an and the Sunnah of the Prophet
(SAAS). Peace, justice, equality and brotherhood are its guiding principles to
develop the mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence.
Introduction
Humanity lives today in a ―global village‖ where no people or nation can
live in isolation from and with indifference to what goes on elsewhere. Our world
is so interdependent and so inter-related that peaceful coexistence has become
imperative for all of us.
___________________________
*
Associate Professor of University of Tehran, Faculty of Theology, Tehran, Iran, E-mail:
[email protected] Tel: 98 21 88742630
**
Academic member of University of Peyambar-e A'zam, Tehran, Iran E-mail:
[email protected]
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Islam and Tolerance
Followers of religions comprise nearly majority of the world‘s
population. The nature of the relationship between them is of considerable
significance for the welfare of the whole human family. Religions have played a
crucial, if ambiguous, role in the history of humankind, particularly in regard to
conflict. Religions have justified, motivated and mandated violence and war. At
the same time they have encouraged the resolution of conflict, tolerance and the
need to create conditions of global peace. So, understanding the role of religion,
both as a source of conflict and of peace, is indispensable. Although religious
differences often seem to aggravate conflict in the modern world, many people
hope that the moral values that are shared by people of faith can provide the basis
for communities and nations to live together in a more peaceful and harmonious
way.
Religious truths are a source of both passion and of conflict. Because of
this, religious people need to find ways of understanding one another and of
living in tolerance with one another, in order to ensure some sort of harmony in
multi-faith societies, as well as in the religiously plural global landscape.
Religious tensions in some places alert us to the need for action as well as words.
Hans Kung has warned us that there will be 'no peace in the world until there is
peace between the religions.‘(Hans Kung, Judaism: The Religious Situation of
Our Time) One guarantee of peace between cultures and civilizations is peace
between religions. All the great universal religions call for peace, love, harmony,
compassion, justice, mercy, charity and tenderness. For example, in the Torah, it
says (Talmud-Avot 1:11), ―Be a student of Aaron: love peace and pursue peace.‖
In the New Testament (Luke 6:27-30), it says, ―Love your enemies, do good to
those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you.
From anyone who takes away your coat do not withhold even your shirt. Give to
everyone who begs from you; and if anyone takes away your goods, do not ask
for them again.‖ Mohammad, the last prophet and messenger of the Islamic
people, claimed, ―You will not enter paradise as long as you do not have faith,
and you will not have complete faith as long as you do not love one another.‖
(Shahid Sani, p.458)
So, each religion highly values peace. It is discussed thoroughly in each
religion. Religions must not only teach nonviolence within their own
communities, but must also teach how to practice it.
The ‗problem‘ of religious pluralism and the relationship of religions to
each other can be only decisively resolved through resorting to traditional
esotericisms and by the application of trans-religious metaphysical principles.‖
(Coomaraswamy, p.445)
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In today‘s multicultural world, the truly reliable path . . . to peaceful
coexistence and creative cooperation must start from what is at the root of all
cultures and what lies infinitely deeper in human hearts and minds than political
opinion, convictions, antipathies or sympathies: it must be rooted in selftranscendence.
Throughout the history of Western and Islamic worlds, one finds persons
who were profoundly affected by experiences of social, political, and religious
division and searching for peaceful coexistence and a virtuous humanity.
The problem of intolerance has been one of the greatest and persistent
predicaments in human history and is no less problematic today. Religion and
culture remain ambient causes of violence, persecution, and division within and
across Islamic and Western civilizations. Tolerance, as a religious, political, and
philosophical concept found within both Western and Islamic traditions, was
sporadically utilized, always subject to the dictates of history. For coexistence to
occur, an equitable analysis of the place of tolerance†, as well as intolerance,
must be made.
Religious coexistence and tolerance is a noble Islamic thought suggested
in many verses of Quran in different forms, with complete emphasis and
explicitness.
Since the beginning of its history, Islam has encountered other religious
communities both in Arabia and in the territories conquered during its expansion.
Since the earliest period of their history, Muslims have been conscious of the
religious diversity of the human race and considered it a problem of importance.
They showed the unique attitude to the multiplicity of religions. (Smith, p. 80)
Muslim tradition debated the nature of religious diversity since its
inception and invested considerable effort in trying to understand its significance
and the background for its development. Furthermore, classical Muslim literature
___________________________
†
Tolerance is a labyrinthine concept not easily encapsulated. When discussing the place of tolerance in
Western civilization, the context of religion is unavoidable. There is little debate that for much of human history
conceptualizations of tolerance were interwoven with religion. (John Christian Laursen and Cary J. Nederman,
―General Introduction: Political and Historical Myths in the Toleration Literature,‖ in Beyond the Persecuting
Society, 7) David Heyd says: Tolerance is a philosophically elusive concept. Indeed, in the liberal ethos of the
last three centuries, it has been hailed as one of the fundamental ethical and political values, and it still occupies
a powerful position in contemporary legal and political rhetoric. However, our firm belief in the value of
tolerance is not matched by analogous theoretical certitude. (Heyd, David, ed. Toleration: An Elusive Virtue, p.
3)
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Islam and Tolerance
reflects intense curiosity concerning the religious history of mankind, from the
creation onward. Numerous verses of the Quran express the idea that humanity
had been united in faith during the primeval stages of its existence. For various
reasons discussed in the tradition, dissension set in afterward, the primordial faith
became corrupt and distinct religious communities came into being. Several
verses of the Quran are devoted to descriptions and appraisals of religions other
than Islam. Qur‘anic exegesis, hadith and jurisprudence have expanded the
treatment of this topic and contain wide-ranging discussions of the religious
traditions encountered by Muslims in the nascent stage of their history: idolatry,
Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Sabianism. A whole literary genre,
known in Arabic as al-milal wa al-nihal, developed since the eleventh century
onward and include detailed treatment of Jewish, Christian and Muslim sects, as
well as extensive descriptions of the religions and philosophies of Iran, India and
Greece. (See ―Al-milal wa al-nihal‖, a major work belonging to al-Shahrastanı).
Islam and tolerance
A lasting solution toward a greater understanding of tolerance across the
Muslim world is to be found not in such Western constructs as liberalism and
secularism but in the root and fabric of Islam itself. Islam‘s potency lies in the
lucidity of its moral imagination, which holds magistrates and citizens
responsible to one another and ultimately accountable to God. (John L. Esposito,
pp. 20–21) Many Muslims today are revisiting and interpreting the wellspring of
values inherent to Islamic tradition and jurisprudence.
Indeed, there is significant value in exploring Islam‘s rich tradition of
tolerance, explicating its humane conceptualizations and heartening examples.
A virtuous, contextual reading of the Qur‘an reveals an inherent ethic of
tolerance. For instance, quoting the Qur‘an, Abou El Fadl writes: ―If thy Lord
had willed, He would have made humankind into a single nation, but they will
not cease to be diverse . . . And, for this God created them [humankind].‖(Qur‘an
11:118––9)
Here one sees the divine imperative to tolerate the temporal immutability
of human difference. In another place, the Qur‘an declares: ―O humankind, God
has created you from male and female and made you into diverse nations and
tribes so that you may come to know each other.‖ (Qur‘an 49:13)
Important of coexistence is the Qur‘anic affirmation of God‘s authority
to resolve all matters of disagreement, perhaps even offering non-Muslims the
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blessing of salvation: ―Those who believe, those who follow Jewish scriptures,
the Christians, the Sabians, and any who believe in God and the Final Day, and
do good, all shall have their reward with their Lord and they will not come to
fear or grief.‖(Qur‘an 2:62) Regarding the other religions, deference is given to
God as the final arbiter of reward and judgment—the key role of the believer is
not to pronounce judgment, but to show the correct ―way‖. Further, a moral and
contextual reading of the Qur‘an illuminates the Islamic teaching of reciprocity.
Muslims must succor and defend the Prophet and Islam against any threats from
non-Muslims, but they must also acknowledge the distinctiveness and divinely
sanctioned ―moral worth and rights of the non-Muslims. (Abou El Fadl, 18) It
follows, then, that such terms as jihad (to strive or struggle—inwardly and
outwardly— for the sake of Islam) are not imperialist and unlimited, but rather
grounded upon the idea of reciprocity: ―If your enemy inclines towards peace,
then you should seek peace and trust in God.‖(Qur‘an. 8:61) Though Islam
encourages Muslims to make peace with those who seek peace, its ethic of
reciprocity compels jihad bis saif (a striving through fighting) in cases of gross
injustice and self-defense: ―Fight in God‘s cause against those who wage war
against you, but do not commit aggression.‖ (Qur‘an 2:190; see 2:193)
An often-repeated verse, ―There shall be no compulsion in matters of
faith,‖ (Qur‘an 2:256) is perhaps the clearest Qur‘anic declaration for religious
tolerance for the cause of freedom for both Muslims and non-Muslims.
What is more, Muslims are not only to forgo religious coercion of nonMuslims, but they are to extend kindness, compassion, and justice to them as
well. ―God forbids you not with regard to those who fight you, not for [your]
faith, nor drive you out of your homes from dealing kindly and justly with them:
for God loves those who are just.‖ (Qur‘an 60:8–9) This Qur‘anic passage
teaches that obedience to Islam requires a proactive charity and justice to all
―peaceful and law-abiding citizens‖ (Muslim and non-Muslim). (Brackney, vol.
3, pp. 46–47)
Unless direct acts of hostility are carried out against Muslims, relations
with the Non-Muslims should be characterized by goodwill and coexistence.
(Ibid, 47) Peace (in the midst of difference) is one of the most righteous and
beneficent wishes for the pious follower of Islam. Even when reciprocating in
self-defense against foreign aggression, ―indiscriminate destruction‖ is
prohibited. According to one report, when the Prophet Muhammad dispatched an
army to rebuff foreign aggression, ―he charged its commander personally to fear
God, the Most High, and he enjoined the Muslims who were with him to do good
(i.e., to conduct themselves properly). . . Do not cheat or commit treachery nor
should you mutilate anyone or kill children.‖ From this perspective of Islamic
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tradition, no temporal circumstances ever relieve Muslims from the religious
obligation of mercy and self-restraint. Emphasizing this Islamic injunction,
numerous Hadith (narrative reports of a saying, precept, or action of the Prophet
Muhammad) demonstrate a congruity between the Qur‘an‘s directives toward
tolerance and the Prophet Muhammad‘s teachings and sayings. Muslims are
taught that ―one who forbids leniency closes the door to all goodness‖ and ―be
merciful to the inhabitants of the earth and He who is in heaven will be merciful
to you.‖ The Prophet Muhammad instructs Muslims on how ―mercy is not
denied to anyone except to those who are cruel to others.‖ He again says, ―One
who is not compassionate, God will not be compassionate to him.‖ (Abu-Zahrah,
al-Mujtamaa ‗al-Insanı-fı-Zill-al-Islam, 2nd ed., pp. 57–58; quoted in
Mohammad Hashim Kamali; The Dignity of Man: An Islamic Perspective, p. 69)
An obedient Muslim disposition, then, encompasses such critical values as
leniency, mercy, and compassion.
A sixteenth-century addition to Hadith literature declares the Islamic
significance of a good disposition:
The believers who are the most perfect in faith are those who are the
happiest in disposition. A good disposition melts offences as the sun
melts ice. A good disposition is the greatest of Allah‘s creations. He who
has a good disposition will receive the same reward as one who has
merit from fasting and prayer. (Kamali, The Dignity of Man, p. 69)
According to Kamali, the Prophet Muhammad taught that din alsamahah was a distinguishing mark of Islam that can be compared to three
English nouns of similar meaning: magnanimity, generosity, and tolerance. (The
Dignity of Man, 68) ―Avoid extremism, for people have been led to destruction
because of extremism.‖ This hadith demonstrates the Prophet‘s aversion to
fanaticism and doctrinal hair-splitting (tanattu‗). (The Dignity of Man, 68) The
Qur‘an‘s proclivity towards tolerance is evident in its injunction to ―hold to
forgiveness, enjoin the good and turn away from the ignorant.‖(Qur‘an 7:199)
Again, it teaches, ―He who bears patiently and forgives—that is a sign of real
resolve.‖ (Qur‘an 42:43) In the Qur‘an, forgiveness is rendered as an example of
wisdom and spiritual maturity. Indeed, un-forgiveness is a tremendous burden to
bear, as hatred of one‘s ―enemy‖ has a sullying effect on one‘s disposition;
forgiveness, however, liberates an individual and helps cultivate a righteous
resolve. Believers are taught not to impatiently challenge every conflicting issue
but, instead, to tolerate (―bear patiently‖) that which ―emanates from ignorance
rather than malice.‖ (Kamali, p. 69)
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Such instruction empowers Muslims to endure the immutable (and what
they consider to be inferior) beliefs and practices of non-Muslims, grounding that
tolerance on the Islamic precept to respect the non-malevolent intentions of the
other.
At the heart of Islam is submission to God and an awareness of the
model life of the Prophet Muhammad—an ideal Muslim life for which all
believers should strive to pattern. The Sunna represents a gathering of the way
and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad for the purpose of illuminating the divine
precepts of normative Islam. Following the Qur‘an the Sunna is the most
important source for Islamic law. The Sira represents a collection of traditions
for the specific purpose of studying, biographically, Muhammad‘s life. Both the
Sira and Sunna recounts the following magnanimous sayings of Muhammad:
The three doors of good conduct are generosity of soul, agreeable
speech, and steadfastness in adversity. The generous man who is
ignorant is more precious in the sight of Allah than the learned man who
is miserly. Generosity is one of the trees of Paradise. Its branches extend
to the earth, and whoever seizes one of these branches will be raised to
Paradise. The most worthy of you is the one who controls himself in
anger, and the most tranquil (forbearing) [tolerant] of you is the one
who forgives when he is in authority. The best of you are those who are
best in disposition, who show kindness and who have kindness shown to
them. (Muhammad Amin, p.70)
From these familiar sayings one learns how the respect of human
difference and the task of coexistence can be commendable values for Muslims.
The kindness, generosity, benevolent speech, and endurance in diversity recorded
earlier are all intentions of tolerance and requisites for coexistence that find
cogency in Islam.
It is evident in the Qur‘an and in numerous Hadith and Sunna that
tolerance is co-dependent with other pervasive values such as compassion,
generosity, restraint, equality, and justice. One of the ninety-nine names most
often ascribed to God perhaps best demonstrates the tolerant and charitable
marrow of the Islamic faith: ―Most Compassionate.‖ Muhammad Kamali
concludes his analysis of tolerance in Islam by declaring that compassion and
tolerance are the perfect attributes of God that humanity is ultimately called to
embrace and reflect upon one another. For that reason, ―tolerance and rahmah
[compassion],‖ he declares, ―become the most favoured of all attributes and they
become characteristic of Islam itself.‖ (Kamali, p. 72)
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Coexistence with the followers of other religions
Different ways have been observed in Islam for foundation of
coexistence with the followers of other religions.

One of the core aims of Islam is ―to create a society based on a deep sense of
moral responsibility and justice in order to preserve human dignity accorded
to man by God‖ (Jullundhri, p. 34.). Thus, ―without the practical recognition
of the basic rights of man, all talks of human dignity will remain empty
verbiage‖ (Ibid). Therefore, the basic duty of a state is to protect the rights
and dignity of its citizens. Duties in this respect are seen as another aspect of
rights, since both duties and rights are the two wings of the bird which
enables the stability of the society.

Acceptance of plurality in human societies: While the notion of
plurality may appear to be as a relative concept, it is not new to those who
are familiar with the Qur‘an. The Qur‘an is quite explicit in reminding all
that if God willed, he would have made of all mankind one nation [5:48;
11:118]. Likewise, the Qur‘an states that had it been God‘s will, He would
have made all people believer [10:99]. This means that forcing people to
believe in Allah runs against Allah‘s decree of free will, which includes the
fact that some will reject Him. The ultimate reward or punishment for
accepting or rejecting belief in Allah is deferred until the Day of Judgment.
This value inculcates the attitude of being non-judgmental and accepting
people, as they are human beings, entitled to chose, but who are answerable
to their Creator.

Prohibition of compulsion in faith: Propagation of faith is not the same
as compulsion in religion. The Qur‘an makes it a duty on believers to
communicate the message of Islam to fellow humans and to be witnesses to
humankind: ―And thus We [Allah] made of you [O Muslims] a justly
balanced community that you might bear witness [to the truth] to humankind
and the Apostle might bear witness over you…‖ (2:143) Being witnesses for
Allah includes both witnessing through righteous deeds and sharing what one
believes is the truth, which is beneficial to humankind. Some communities
use the term ―conversion‖ to designate that later form of witnessing. The
Qur‘anic term for such sharing is ―Da`wah‖, which means, literally,
invitation. The term itself means that the invitee has every right to accept or
reject that ―invitation‖. Compulsion, threats, bribery, deception, manipulation
and exploitation of the invitee‘s vulnerability [such as hunger or illness] are
inconsistent with the notion of ―invitation‖. The Qur‘an gives guidance on
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how to invite others to Islam. Invitation should be with wisdom and in the
most gracious way: ―Invite [all humankind] to the path of your Lord with
wisdom and goodly exhortation and argue with them in the most kindly
manner, for, indeed, your Lord knows best as to who strays from His Path
and best who are the right-guided‖ (16:125). In numerous verses in the
Qur‘an compulsion in religion is forbidden ―Let there be no compulsion in
religion: Truth stands out clear from error.‖ (2:256), ―And so [O Prophet],
exhort them; your task is only to exhort. You cannot compel them [to
believe]. As for one who turns away, being bent on denying the truth, to
him/her will God cause the greatest suffering [in the life to come]. For verily,
unto Us will be their return, and verily, it is for Us to call them to account.‖
(88:21-26), ―Had your Lord so willed, all those who live on earth would
surely have attained faith, will you then compel people, against their will, to
believe?‖ (10:99). The Qur‘an does not prescribe any punishment for
rejecting the ―invitation‖ to accept Islam ―but if they turn away [from
accepting Allah‘s message, then know that] We have not sent you to be their
keeper. Your duty is only to convey [the message].‖ (42:48)
Therefore, the principle of the freedom of belief has been unequivocally
established in two Qura‘nic verses:
―Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from
error.‖ (2:256)
"If it had been your Lord's Will, they would all have believed, - all who
are on earth - will you then compel them to be believers!" (10:99).
The latter is addressed to the Prophet. The Holy Prophet really loved the
people and wanted them to be true believers. The Qura‘n says the use of
force in the matter of belief is meaningless. (Motahhari, p.37)
The Qura‘n recognizes the right to religious freedom not only in the case of
other believers in God, but also in the case of not-believers in God [if they
are not aggressing upon Muslims]. (For instance, see 6: 108)
In the history of Islamic universe, we observe that, despite deviating from the
path of the Prophet and his true successors, Muslim rulers usually observed
the Islamic principle of human equality and granted much more freedoms
and rights to their subjects than any other past or contemporary state. Not
only Muslims but also non-Muslims enjoyed full freedom in the states ruled
by Muslims. Amir ‗Ali, stating that Islam never interfered with the dogmas
of any faith, writes:
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Islam and Tolerance
―Whilst orthodox Christianity persecuted with equal ferocity the Jews and
Nestorians…, Islam afforded them both shelter and protection. Whilst
Christian Europe was burning witches and heretics, and massacring Jews and
infidels, the Muslim treated their subjects with consideration and tolerance.
They were the trusted subjects of the state, councilors of the empire. Every
secular office was open to them along with the Muslims. The Teacher
himself had declared it lawful for a Muslim to intermarry with a Christian,
Hebrew, or Zoroastrian.‖ (Seyyed Amir ‗Ali, pp. 219-220)
As long as the non-Muslim does not wage war against the Muslims, he can
live in Muslim country freely and equally like a Muslim and he can enjoy all
social and political rights. He is free to perform his own religious rituals even
though they are against Islam, such as taking a holiday other than Fridays,
worshiping in synagogues, churches, convents, and monasteries by
tintinnabulation, baptism, and any other programs and observing practices
that they have in their religious rites. They are allowed to do these as long as
these actions do not weaken the beliefs and freedom of the Muslims.
Anything that is considered as violating the beliefs and freedom of Muslims
will not be permitted to be done openly, this corrective measure is not against
human rights, but is in accordance with the conventions and stipulations that
exist in the Islamic country. Just as the Islamic government is bound to
preserve the rights, properties, and prestige of Muslims, it is bound exactly in
a similar way without anything less or more, to protect the rights, properties,
and prestige of religious minorities. (Imam Ali, Nahjul Balagha, Khotbeh, 27;
letter, 53)
Therefore, the dhimmi and other non-Muslims loyal to the Muslim state
enjoy freedom of faith and worship. Their worship places are protected.
(‗Amid Zanjani, pp.164-65) They usually receive liberal grants from Muslim
rulers. Though they have equal legal rights, they are free to refer their
disputes to their own religious authorities. (Ibid., pp. 186-87) They are
accorded all the rights granted to Muslim citizens, that is, right to education
and dissemination of knowledge, freedom of thought, right to property,
business, agriculture, industry and honorable living. They are treated equally
in social matters and are respected. (See Ibid, pp.170-203)

Universal Mercy: The essence of Islam and its Prophet‘s mission is
summed up in the following verse: ―And [thus, O Muhammad], We have not
sent you, but as mercy to all the worlds‖ (21:107). To remove any
particularization of this mercy, the Prophet Muhammad explained that mercy
is not being merciful to one‘s companion but being merciful to all. (Narrated
by Al-Tabarani, quoted in Al-Ghazali, Muhammad, Khuluq Al-Muslim,
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Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
p.254) He also explained ―He who is not merciful to others, will not be
treated mercifully.‖ (Sahih Al-Bukhari Vol. 8, Hadeeth 42) It is obvious that
Muslims are not the only dwellers of the earth. Hence the command to be
merciful applies to all. In fact mercy applies as well to animals and other
creatures of Allah.( Ibid, Vol. 4, Hadith 689) A logical fruit of this attitude of
mercy is to love humankind as persons and fellow honored creatures of
Allah, while dissociating oneself from their erroneous beliefs or even
rejection of Allah.

Universal Peaceful Co-Existence: The basic rule governing the
relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims is that of peaceful coexistence, justice and compassion. The following two verses are key verses
that embody that general rule: ―As for such [non-Muslims] who do not fight
you on account of [your] faith, or drive you forth from your homelands, God
does not forbid you to show them kindness [also love and respect] and to
deal with them with equity, for God loves those who act equitably. God only
forbids you to turn in friendship towards such as fight against you because of
[your] faith, and drive you forth from your homelands or aid [others] in
driving you forth. As for those, from among you, who turn towards them for
alliance, it is they who are wrongdoers‖. (60:8-9) This verse makes it a
Muslim‘s duty to treat peacefully co-existing persons with equity [Qist] and
[Birr]. The term Birr and its derivatives are the same expressions used in the
Qur‘an and Hadith to refer to one‘s relationship with his/her parents. Such
relationship is more than kindness, since it includes also love and respect.
Many English translation of the Qur‘an have translated this Qur‘anic term as
kindness, a translation that falls short of the richer meaning of the original
Arabic term. To ameliorate this problem, the bracketed statement [also love
and respect] was added above.

Peaceful Dialogue, Especially With the ―People of the Book‖: All of
the above nine principles apply to all non-Muslims. The Qur‘an accords the
People of the Book [Jews and Christians] a special position. The very term to
designate them distinguishes them from others such as idolatrous Arabs
[98:1]. It is a complimentary title as it acknowledges that, like Muslims, their
faiths are based on revealed books or scriptures. In its family and dietary
laws, the Qur‘an gives a special consideration to the ―People of the Book‖.
For example, a Muslim male may marry a believing Jewish or Christian
woman (5:5). The Qur‘an exhorts Muslims to engage in peaceful dialogue
with Jews and Christians: ―Say [O Muslims], O People of the Book! Come to
a common term which we and you hold in common: that we shall worship
none but Allah, and that we shall not ascribe divinity to none beside Him,
and that we shall not take human beings for our lord beside Allah, and if they
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Islam and Tolerance
turn away, then say: bear witness that we submit ourselves unto Him‖ (3:64).
It may be noted that ―turning away‖ from this invitation is not presented as a
punishable offence in this life and that the consequence of rejection is to
simply testify Muslims‘ submission to Allah. Another verse in the Qur‘an
encourages peaceful dialogue and invites all to build upon the common
ground between Muslims and the People of the Book. The Qur‘an instructs
Muslims: ―And do not argue with the People of Book except in a most kindly
manner, except for those of them who are bent on evil-doing, and say: ‗We
believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in that which has
come down to you; our Lord and yours is One and it is to Him that we [all]
submit ourselves‘‖. (29:46) Not only do Muslims, Christians, and Jews share
belief in the One God and divine revelation, they also share belief in human
responsibility, consequences of good and evil deeds, moral teachings and
other values such as love, peace and justice.
Therefore, as the Persian poet Sa‗di says, ‗we are as members of one
body, we must feel the pain of another as our own; only then will we be worthy
of the name ‗human being.‘‘
―Human beings are like members of one body
created from one and the same essence.
When one member feels pain,
the rest are distraught.
You, unmoved by the suffering of others,
are unworthy of the name human!‖ (Sa‗di, p. 190 )
Bibliography

Ali ibn Abi Talib, Nahdjal-Balagheh.

Abou El Fadl, Khaled. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. New York:
HarperCollins, 2005.
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Abu - Zahrah, al-Mujtamaa‗ al-Insa-nı- fı- Zill al Isla-m, 2nd ed. (Jeddah: Da-r al S¸ u‗u diyyah, 1981.

Al-Ghazali, Muhammad, Khuluq Al-Muslim, Dar Al-Bayan, Kuwait, 1970.

‗Amid Zanjani, ‗Abbas ‗Ali, Huquq-e Aqaliyyat ha bar asas-e qanun-e qarardad-e dhimmah,
Tehran, 1362 A.H.
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
Amin, Muhammad, Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf, n.d.)
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Brackney, William H., ed. Human Rights and the World‘s Major Religions. 4 Vols. Westport,
CT: Praeger, 2005.
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Coomaraswamy, ―Sri Ramakrishna and Religious Tolerance‖ qtd. in Journeys East, 445.
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Esposito, John L. ―Practice and Theory,‖ in Islam and the Challenge of Democracy, ed. Joshua
Cohen and Deborah Chasman, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
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Holy Qura‘n, translated by a group of Muslim Brothers, Tehran
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Holy Quran. Trans. Shakir, M.H., Qom, and IRI: Ansariyan Publication, n.d.

Jullundhri, Rashid Ahmad, ―Human Rights and Islam‖, in Understanding Human Rights: An
Interdisciplinary and Interfaith Study, ed. Alan D. Falconer, Dublin: Irish School of
Ecumenics, 1980.
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Heyd, David, ed. Toleration: An Elusive Virtue. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
1996.
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Kamali, Mohammad Hashim, The Dignity of Man: An Islamic Perspective, Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 2002.

Kung, Hans, Judaism: The Religious Situation of Our Time.
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Laursen, John Christian and Cary J. Nederman, ―General Introduction: Political and Historical
Myths in the Toleration Literature,‖ in Beyond the Persecuting Society, New York:
St.Martin‘s, 1999.
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Motahhari, Mortaza, Jihad, tr., Tawhidi, Tehran, 1988.

New Testament, Translated out of the original Greeks, Copyright 1999, Wadsworth Publishing
Company.
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Sa‗di, Shaykh Muslih al-Din, Gulistan, ed. Muhammad Khaza‘ili,Tehran: Intisharat-i Javidan,
1361/1982.
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Sahih Al-Bukhari [translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan], Maktabat Al-Riyadh AlHadeethah, Riyadh, 1982.

Seyyed Amir, ‗Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, 1965.
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Shahid Sani, Zein al-Din, Adab-e Talim va tarbiat dar Islam, translated by Muhammad Baqer
Hojjati, Tehran, 1367 H.Sh.
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Shahrastanı, Mohammad, Kitab al-milal wa al-nihal, Beirut, 1986.
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
Smith,W. C. The meaning and end of religion, New York: MacMillan, 1963

Talmud, The Babylonian Talmud, Translated by Michael L. Rodkinson, London, 1918.
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture
Dr.Hasan Zolfagharzadeh*
Abstract
Researchers and orientalists have adopted a variety of methods to
apprehend the Islamic architecture. Some have resorted to a descriptive research
or historical analysis and others have adhered to a fundamental study of the
bases. A few have also investigated the topic comprehensively attending to the
combination of factors influential in knowing architecture. The latter perspective
is called a systematic or fundamental view on which a good portion of the present
article is based. In accordance with this method, the Islamic architecture would
be understood in three stages: First stage: From an Islamic perspective,
architecture is a social manifestation with politics, culture, and economy having
influence upon it. An Islamic society enjoys three world views (religious,
philosophical, and scientific) constituting the fundamentals of the Islamic
architecture. Second stage: This stage investigates the interior factors of the
Islamic architecture including the categories of beauty, creation, and wisdom.
The mentioned categories stem from the divine names and attributes the architect
is innately endowed with which interacting with the exterior phenomena, wisdom
and imagination result in designs and consequently outward appearances. Third
stage: This is concerned with the architecture domain developed by the architect
and the life space designer who follow the Creation architect (world Creator)
constantly improving the existing world with his Agent tending to upgrade the
living space along the same lines.
Introduction
While investigating the Islamic architecture, researchers and orientalists
have adopted a variety of methods. Some like Grope, Herzfeld, and Pope have
resorted to a phenomenological descriptive method or analysis taking each
architectural work apart from other phenomena while considering it in a
historically-based order. A few such as Guenon, Karasumi, Schoun, Burkhart,
___________________________
*
Dean of Faculty of Architecture and Urban Development, Imam Khomeini International
University (Qazvin), Email:[email protected]
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Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture
Howzen, Nasr, etc., have also regarded the issue by means of a historical analysis
or a fundamental and traditionalistic perspective which began since 1950s.
Others have dealt with the topic comprehensively attending to the combination of
factors which influence understanding architecture. The latter perspective is
called a systematic or fundamental view on which a good portion of the present
article is based. Accordingly, the Islamic architecture could be studied and
understood in three stages:
The first stage has to do with perceiving the subject fundamentals which
could then fall into taxonomy of three world views including religious,
philosophical, and scientific; in the second stage the interior factors concerned
with the subject are recognized; in the course of the third stage the architectural
domain is apprehended.
Every religion, ritual, and school of thought is somehow relying upon a
kind of world view. World view is the attitude towards the world and existence,
i.e., the interpretation or attitudes on the part of a school of thought towards the
world and existence are counted as the infrastructure or ideological support of
that school renowned as so-called world view.
World view or anthology is, in other words, the mankind's interpretation
of the world. Generally speaking, world view consists of three types or in three
resources: religion, philosophy, and science (Motahari, b., p. 63).
The three world views lie alongside not vertically and what takes them
apart and specifies their domain is the subject, method, and destination
(Zolfagharzadeh, 2004) associated with them. The subject addressed by religion
is the divine word where the method enjoys fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
principles as well as Ijtihad (exertion) and the target is to improve and exalt
human beings. The subject matter of philosophy is existence based on existence.
It resorts to reasoning and argumentation as the method which applies wisdom
and means to know and interpret the existing world and to discover the truth. The
subject addressed by science is a being with a special manifestation. The method
adopted whereby is empirical and statistical which applies material and sensible
instrumentation and aims at disclosing truths and realities of the manifested
being.
The three world views are considered as the basic fundamentals of every
political, cultural, economical, and artistic school. Regarding the above
definitions an architectural school known as a compound system and a real
purposeful phenomenon can not be apart from the basic cause hence hinging
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upon a type of world view. Within a cognitive system, religion takes the role of a
chief variable and axis.
Religious world view
In this world view, tendencies possess an inbuilt gravity and notify
consensus. The life space and architecture come to be also unified on the basis of
the cited tendencies. It should be noted that tendencies have individual, social,
and governmental dimensions. The basis underpinning any specialized subject
especially architecture stem from religion (Zolfagharzadeh, 2007). In Avicenna's
‗Book of Healing‘ (i.e., of the soul) while discussing about prophecy, he writes:
"Imam (religious Muslim leader) is in charge of every affair related to peoples'
lives. He is the number one in a theocracy." "Religion is not only the key to
realizing the Universe but also a staple means therewith man (architect) can
afford to travel to the divine court (perfection and development) through the
inferior section of his existence" (Nasr, 1990).
Religion, in reality, looks like a sacred, indispensable, and infallible
jewel; the religious insight however is variable and gradually improving since
man is no absolute being.
In a religious world view the total of Islamic doctrines fall into three
sections:
1. Section of beliefs, namely, instructions and issues to be known and
believed in: monotheism, God's attributes, public and private prophecy
… (scholastic theology).
2. Section of ethics, namely, the issues and instructions bearing upon "howness" of men regarding spiritual attributes and characteristics, justice,
piety, brevity, chastity, wisdom (Greek Sophia), endurance, loyalty,
honesty, ....
3. Section of instructions, namely, affairs bearing upon deeds and conducts
with regard to what to do and how. Namaz (saying prayers), Hajj
(Muslims' pilgrimage to Mecca), jihad (fight for God), commands,
prohibitions, purchase, lease, marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc. (Islamic
jurisprudence) (Motahari, b., p. 75). The governance of God's law is the
governance of any beauty and goodness and prohibiting from all the
nasty and ugly which consequently causes the human society esp. the
architects to ascend to happiness, exaltation and perfection.
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Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture
Beliefs and architecture
It deserves to be noted in this section that all its principles are intuitive
and argumentative but not imitative. As a supportive infrastructure, monotheistic
world view changes the attitudes towards art and architecture. This view means
appreciating the fact that the world has come to existence out of a wise will and
that existing order hinges upon welfare for beings, mercy, and fostering them to
attain a deserved perfection.
Monotheism is a most basic foundation of religious principles. Avicenna
writes: "Invitation to monotheism is the most important directive policy on the
part of the prophets by means of which they wish to unify human beings not to
obey any soul and to exercise an absolute freedom from any confinement except
for the obedience to God. What is the policy better than this to benefit both the
government and public" (Meshkatoddini, 1970).
Monotheism possesses both general and specific meanings. In its special
sense it bears upon innateness, attributes, practices, and worship. Names and
attributes are the key to appreciating anthology, epistemology, and theology. The
world Architect (Creator) depicted the whole world applying names and his
vicegerent architect has the same capacity with His permission. "Architecture has
the capacity to flesh out all the concepts…. A majority of the lasting human
conceptions ranging from grandeur to privacy have been realized as the
architectural evidence. Whatever human concepts including grandeur,
uniqueness, privacy, wonderment, splendor, transparency, purity, attachment,
beauty,… (in the Islamic architecture) have made up samples for a variety of
architectures (Haeri, M., 1995). Therefore, knowing the Names, one could
fantasize the space where a name is depicted hereby deciphering a Muslim
architect's ideas.
In a lower level, Monotheism or Unitarianism makes a general sense.
Unit, unity, etc., stem from the same root. Derived from the same root are space
unity, architectural unity, sense of unity1, and unitary space with a great deal of
evidence in Islamic architecture.
In the modernist world view, mankind is on his own, independent from
every thing and can be a ruler. A modern person is cut off the past and in no need
of religion. He is the axis for everything. In the traditional societies, diminishing
religion and penchant for modernism have resulted in the lack of identity in
architecture and led to social chaos.
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Prophecy counted as a doctrinal principle has special and general
meanings. In special sense of the word, the Almighty God has sent messengers
and revealed holy books to orient human societies towards improvement and
perfection. The last of the prophets is the display of a perfect mankind all over
the universe, the first Grace of the most High God, the first artistic identity and
the most beautiful creature of the sublime God. The divine light has successively
been manifested in the prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and
Mohammad, peace be upon them all) and from Ebn-e-Arabi's viewpoint written
in Fosus-ol-Hekam each prophet carries a message with an inward and outward.
The messages are names proper and any name can manifest a space.
Prophecy, in general sense, can be inferred as meaning: mission, art
mission, artistic, architect, artistic message (messenger …), cultural message, and
city message.
What is the
architecture?
relationship
between
art,
architect
and
It could be stated that after the Messenger of God's appointment and
advent of Islam, architect's manliness was mixed up with the Islamic spiritual
values so that it would be futile and impossible to dissociate the two. In a
manliness custom, workmanship stems from a sacred dynasty and the manly had
the conviction that each one of the past prophets and Imams (religious leaders
after the last prophet) had mastered a craft and people from all classes used to
resort to such people. Noah is said to have been the first mason. When the storm
subsided, he took to reconstructing the cities and villages where people resettled
and populousness flourished.
It is furthermore stated that when asked who the first mason was, say:
Abraham the Friend of God was the first one who established Kaaba. Every
engineer and mason, therefore, is his follower. When asked who the greatest
mason was, answer: the last prophet (peace be upon him). When Kaaba's
structure was flooded and demolished, he embarked upon renovating the
structure and himself put the Black stone in the place (Nadimi, 1996).
Another doctrinal principle is Resurrection day with general and
particular meanings. The chief meaning of Resurrection has no more than one
evidence which has to do with the occurrence of Resurrection for judgment.
In the general sense, however, Resurrection means return, turning back
to architectural identity, purposefulness, and philosophy of the Islamic art. And a
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Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture
basis of Islamic architecture is to abstain from absurdity and idle doing. These
subjects have put forth an abundance of discussions.
Moulana believes deeply in Resurrection, Judgment, Reward and
Punishment. He generalizes deeds manifestation to human ulterior thoughts and
suppositions and compares this meaning in tender words to a mansion engineer
whose mental map gets full appearance and exterior manifestation.
"This fancy is hidden here however manifested outside where it can grow
shapes,
The fancy will get out as the earth gives out from the interior seeds,
Within an architect's mind there is the plan of a house like a seed in the
earth.
Any thought which finds a place in the mind will finally take shape in the
day of Resurrection".
Justice is another doctrinal principle with general and particular senses.
In a particular sense, it implies the justice of the Creator. Justice in its general
sense includes all creatures. Justice has been defined in four senses:
a) Well-proportionedness, meaning that there should be enough quantity
(not quality) of everything - against this is disproportion and
wrongdoing. "Indeed the heavens and the earth is established based
upon Justice" (Sura Arrahman, Aya 7).
b) Equality and elimination of any discrimination (in human societies in
relation to Islamic rules).
c) To observe individual's rights and grant to the rightful whose rights (vs.
oppression), namely, to trample on the rights and to transgress and
possess others' rights.
d) "To observe deservingness in imparting existence and not to abstain
from grace and blessing poured upon that which has the possibility of
existence.''
All four meanings have been used in Islamic architecture: included are
well-proportionedness and equality of individuals' and architects' rights before
law, deservingness, and proportion of spaces and rapport between the
compartments of architecture. In this architecture, "measure" is the device to
regulate the dimensions and sizes and geometry guides architecture in ensuring
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proportions and rapport of the building (Abolghasemi, 1990, p.382). Measure not
only has a role in the design and size of pillars and columns, length, width of
chambers and hallways but is also applied in the composition of the structure,
doors, slash, and the relations between them. In the Islamic architecture,
deserving of spaces, namely, the size and place of any space has been cautiously
observed.
Imamat is another doctrinal principle. In its particular sense, it means
''leader, and guide'' and the general sense and derivations including "strategy,
strategic plans, way, hallway" (in Khan-e-Shiraz school twelve hallways are
designed in relation to twelve Imams) all stem from the particular sense of this
word.
Moulana remarks: As the holy souls of the Imams and saints have passed
through the universe and joined the Truth and manifested the light of the Truth,
their companionship leads to gaining the favor of the Truth and keeping away
from them is to keep away from perfection, evolution, and improvement.
"To everyone who wishes to keep Lord's company say to sit in the
presence of the holy saints,
If you keep away from them then you will be dead as you are a part
without a whole,
Consider any saint as Noah the captain of the Ship, and people's
companionship as storm."
In the architect's letter of manliness too, arriving at the Truth and
perfection is considered to hinge upon following the holy authority.
Morality and architecture
Within the methodology of the Islamic architecture, morality is counted
as the basis of this profession with respect to the ethical aspect. While traveling
within the domain of manliness, what one could be gifted with in the realm of art
and creation is as follows: Merit and politeness are conditions under which one
could enter into the realm of the profession and domestication, and attachment to
the manliness is the provision to be made for existence. The manly have unveiled
selfishness, thawed their self within the fire of the Truth, and prepared for Lord's
grant.
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Research Methodology of Islamic Architecture
Concerning the manliness principles, Imam Ali (peace be upon him)
remarks: "The following eight qualities set up the manliness foundations and the
ones who do not put them into practicality will not deserve the name of
manliness: admonition, guidance, repentance, loyalty, honesty, security,
generosity, and humility." In Tohafolakhvan, the plagues of manliness are
counted as follows: self-conceit, vanity, extravagance, bravery, self-glory
(Nadimi, 1996, p.7).
"Then know that a beautiful face is worth nothing with bad attributes,
Know that the outward appearance vanishes but the world of meaning
remains for eternity."
The Muslim architects, having engendered innovative works, possessed
this temperament and spiritual qualities were of prior importance to them; so one
can never disclose the secrets behind theses works without a prior recognition of
these qualities.
Principles and architecture
In the methodology of the Islamic architecture, the jurisprudence
principles include all human life affairs, and it should be noted that not for any
single event, Islamic principles and regulations have been expressed individually
and in detail, but rather they are stated as a train of principles and totalities. So,
all human actions are overshadowed by these general principles.
The religious principles have two aspects, topical and commanding,
where both topic and command are general and comprise all human deeds:
1. Topic includes a variety of the existing qualities and that which is
feasible to be studied.
2. Command states the relationship between mankind and topics or issues.
It talks about musts and mustnots and determines the position mankind
takes on in relation to himself and others.
An Islamic characteristic is that some affairs are variable according to
the necessity of time. These variables are linked with invariables, that is, any
variable issue hinges upon an invariable. It is simply a jurisprudent who intends
to discover this relationship and then to state Islamic injunctions. This is the very
motive of Islam.
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Example: A principle of Islamic architecture corroborated and enjoyed in
Islam with a general command and topic is to abstain from futility. The third
Ayat of the Sura Mo'men (true believer) says: ―Those who avert from futility.‖
Here it is inferred that uselessness is not allowed in Islam and extravagances
have nothing to do with the Islamic architecture (Pirnia, 1990, p.22).
Seeking legal advice on the quality of the architecture of the place for
public prayer in Tehran, someone questioned Imam Khomeini and he replied:
"The simplicity of the prayer place should remind one of the simplicity of where
the first Muslims prayed and one should avert from setting up the deceitful and
hypocritical walls of the American mosques. May God bless all those who are
concerned with establishing Lord's Mosques." (Imam Khomeini, 1988) So,
according to the Islamic injunction on the public prayer place, it should be a
simple one and deviating from this injunction will be related to a Muslim who
acts based on his personal view and not the Islamic injunction.
Philosophical world view
Philosophy (Tabatabaee, p. 1) is a science which is concerned with the
general conditions of creatures where the world, regulations, and generalities
exist in the world of wisdom; they are general as they stand in the world of
wisdom. So they exist while not being material and then are not perceived
through sense and experience. "The origin of the word philosophy is Greek"
(Motahhari, 1983, p.105) and made of two components: philossos meaning lover
and sofia means wisdom (Hikmat2) that is science of the beings' reality according
to the human capacity. Philosophers have generally divided philosophy into two
sections: theoretical philosophy and wisdom as well as practical philosophy and
wisdom (Avicenna) (1996, p.9). The theoretical wisdom includes: theology,
mathematics, natural sciences (prime philosophy, middle philosophy, and final
philosophy). The practical wisdom contains moral refinement (morality),
household management, and political science (Dehkhoda, 1994). Avicenna
confirms this classification. Philosophy undertakes replying to the questions
concerning whyness, whatness, and howness. "Islamic issues are deeply rooted in
the holy Qur'an and narration" (Nasr, 2004, p.55). Philosophy and the whyness
cornerstones imply what is said regarding the root cause from which the origin of
existence stems. One regards it as material (such as modernism and modern
architecture); another counts it as divine. Out of these two differing world views
emerge two absolutely different architectures (Zolfagharzadeh, 2005, p.76).
Frameworks are shaped within the modern architecture cut off from the past and
within the conventional architecture interacting with the past.
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Whatness of architecture is apart from whyness. "When questioning
about whatness and essence of the limited beings (like architecture), we mean to
refer to the individual characteristics evident in their existence" (Ibid, p.35). In
other words, "the essence of objects is their specific validity" (Motahhari, 1984,
p.35) providing "the essence outside mind exists along with individual validity
but in the world of wisdom along with a general validity" (Dinani, 1979, p.140).
For example, Vitruvious, the Roman architect of the first century knows
architecture as having three specific qualities including beauty, resistance, and
efficiency -- all existing within the world of wisdom and abstract from material.
They are, however, abundantly evidenced in the material world. In the Islamic
architecture also three characteristics include beauty, creation, and wisdom.
According to the religious world view, they rise from the divine names and
expose the architecture to public view (Zolfagharzadeh, 2005, p.100).
The Islamic architecture questions howness of architecture, i.e., how
architecture is created and what kind of relationship it has with the creator if the
development of architecture takes place in a constant relationship with the
absolute grace of the Creator or an architect generates independent from Him.
From an Islamic world view, architect and architecture would not have their
being without the divine grace. Walking in the right path and abiding by His
commands, the architect is assisted as the following holy Aya expresses: "If you
help God, He will help you." Hereby, the architect gains access to a new virtue
and he develops space in the course of historical evolution. From among the
philosophical categories, one could refer to unity and multiplicity, time and
place, quality and quantity, freewill and awareness, relation and relativity3. These
categories are chief directors for the architect in configurating architecture. No
atheist or monotheist architect could be found to provide a comprehensive
definition for architecture and its factors without insisting on the cited items. In
an Islamic world view, these categories have a close relationship with
architecture, so the following questions are posed: What does unity mean in the
Islamic architecture? What is the impact of time and place on architecture? What
is relativity4? What does architectural relativity mean? All these questions rise
out of a philosophical world view, and are considered as the basis for the
methodology of Islamic architecture. Relativity is evidenced by relationships.
Architecture too comes to existence with respect to the total of relationships and
factors involved in it, and the religious, philosophical, and scientific factors have
a basic impact.
According to the above brief explanations, in a philosophical world view
and Islamic architecture, researcher follows what, why, and how architecture is
configurated.
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Scientific world view
The subject of science is the being with a specific objectivity (Nasr, 1975, p.9).
Any science addresses a specific subject like architecture, medicine, etc., and the
methods adopted by science are basically empirical and statistical. The empirical
knowledge is classified into three groups: society, nature, and products. Each
group has a basic impact on the methodology of Islamic architecture. As the
universe all over is Lord's practice and action, i.e., all the creatures make up His
divine workshop and Lord's action resembles Lord Himself, architect experiences
beings bestowed with Lord's grant.
If nature in general and local region in particular are not known, the
impact of region in architecture will not be recognized either. Therefore, there
will take place an incomplete appreciation of architecture. A region can be
divided into three categories: atmosphere, land, and water. Interacting with each
other and being effective factors in architecture, these three bring about different
environmental conditions.
Without the knowledge of societies, one cannot study the influences of
society on architecture. The general factors of society including policy, culture,
and economy have a direct impact on architecture; for example, a society with a
weak economy will definitely result in a weak architecture. And the culture of a
society has a direct impression on its architecture like inner-directedness, private
quarters, and outers which are derived from the reverence and sanctuaries
confirmed in the Islamic culture.
The society products, both movable such as cars and immovable like
buildings, streets, etc., are phenomena created by means of special scientific
accomplishments. Certainly without knowing the frameworks, networks, and the
rules and regulations affiliated with them, there will be an incomplete knowledge
of the architectural structure of an area. So in respect of a scientific world view,
the researcher of an Islamic architecture would study architectural proportion of
the impact of the natural, social, and artificial factors in creating a work.
Architecture subject
From the philosophers' and mystics' perspective, any professional and expert gets
involved with the names which bear upon his expertise. Along the same lines, an
architect plans and organizes a human life space applying his architectural
specialization in the most general categorization of his specific subject namely
beauty, creation, and wisdom (Zolfagharzadeh, 2003, p.450). Architecture as a
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compound system and genuine phenomenon with mastery in coordinating the
human life spaces targets at a philosophical aim whose root cause is realized in
accordance with beauty stemming from the beauty attached with the Absolute
Truth and the creation, which connects the cause, and the aim constitutes the
human life space. The names, therefore, by means of which the architect designs
a life space, include beauty, creation, and wisdom which will be addressed within
the methodology of Islamic architecture in the section called "To investigate
interior factors."
Beauty
Beauty is a predominant factor without which the architect will not be
capable of creating an innovative and durable work. What does beauty mean?
This word is enjoyed in terms of goodness, subtlety, delicacy (Dehkhoda, 1998)
all emanated from the same origin "all possess a unitary nature especially the
term beauty which begs extra contemplation being one of the two divine
attributes of beauty and majesty within which other attributes are hidden"
(Nademi, 2001, p.51). Beauty is basically rooted in the essence of God. Beauty of
soul, mind, and action appears when it is linked to the Unique Creator. A
beautiful deed or a Godly doing is a ray sent off the Godly light manifested in
this deed (Motahhari, 1990, p.79).
Beauty is in relationship with a variety of factors. "Beauty accompanies
gravity, love, need, motion, and praise. There is gravity where beauty is
evidenced. Where beauty exists, love and need dwell. There is motion and
movement where beauty exists. Beauty itself brings about movement. To the
divine philosopher's thought, any movement existing in the universe, even the
essential movement putting the whole universe as a unitary existence into move,
are brought forth by love (Motahhari, 1983, p.57).
Beauty is a divine attribute manifested in both mankind and universe as
both worlds, big and small (mankind and universe), reflect the divine beauty and
a unitary, beautiful, and comprehensive system rules over both (Khamanei, S.
M., 2002, p.10). Plato had an absolute belief in beauty and saw as beautiful any
beautiful object in the light of "absolute beauty" since he considered beauty as a
logical and sensible issue which is evidenced through "examples" and "superb
example" at the highest level (Dinani, 2002, p.100). Beauty, therefore, is no
relative matter so that everybody sees something beautiful from his/her own
perspective but rather there is some believed proportion of beauty within the
outer world because if it had no manifestation in the world of soul, mind, and
action, it would be futile to talk about it. "The beauty of a flower, a scene, and an
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artistic work" is felt in the light of the "absolute beauty" and "the superb
goodness," and "the absolute beauty" is realized in the reality of affairs. The
divine words and names are beautiful when they appear from an unseen world
and hiding-place (Makman5). ―Beautiful words, such as the holy Qur'an,
originate from the sanctuary for the unseen which is beautiful." (Dinani, 2002, p.
101) So whoever hears it is impressed. As Qur'an is revealed, and revelation
means the appearance of beauty, accordingly it appears within the scriptures of
the holy places. The same analysis is made in the architectural methodology. The
beauty of architecture is revealed to the architect and architecture is revealed
within the outside world. From where? From the architect's unseen hideout as
even the architect possesses such a place. Lord is both evident and ulterior, and
both mankind and architect being the manifestation of the Truth are both evident
and ulterior.
Farabi too sees beauty in the light of and compared with the Exalted
existence and remarks: "The value, cost, and beauty of any being bears upon the
fact that whether it is bestowed with the highest possible existence and
perfection. And as the prime being is the most exalted one, the beauty
characterizing any beautiful being vanishes in the light of that" ( And He made
you up in the best way possible6).
As joy, pleasure, and envy are mostly appreciated through sensing the
most beautiful and the most beautiful being feels joy, pleasure, and envy by
means of his/her firm believed senses and in addition his/her nature is the most
beautiful and evident one among all the creatures in an absolute way…" (Farabi)
(1992, p.152)
In his ‗Feast‘, Plato describes the degrees of beauty as follows: First are
the sensible beauties. The natural phenomena are the manifestations of beauty.
Flower is the manifestation of beauty. Beauty in a higher level is the beauty of
Self. Virtues are beautiful. A virtuous human is beautiful. These are, however,
not the origin of beauty but they enjoy and manifest beauty.
Surpassing the beauty of Self is beauty of wisdom. Wisdom is most
beautiful. It means to assimilate with God. However, wisdom also does not mean
beauty but enjoys it. And finally, the origin of beauty is Lord and the Absolute
goodness, i.e., the Absolute Beauty. Plato says goodness is ulterior and wherever
it appears beauty is manifested. From Plato's viewpoint, idea engenders
everything. This point bears upon the argument of attributes. This world is that of
attributes which are manifested in sciences. Philosophy, however, studies the
origin of attributes. The universe is the place where the divine names are
manifested. Mystics say these are the manifestations of the Truth attributes.
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Beauty is a divine attribute which is beautified when manifested (Avani, 1999).
Names and attributes identify. Idea (idos) refers to meaning. An architect relates
the idea of the house in mind to an extraordinary idea whether he knows it or not.
The world of feelings is the world of appearance and the world of meanings is
that of ideas.
An architect can create immortal works and convert the spiritual beauties
into corporal manifestations. That is how the Muslim architects expose their
works to public view. Names and attributes constitute the general ideas of
architects and artists. And when these ideas enter into the realm of mathematics
and proportions, they turn into the architect's planning tools. These proportions
and deservings in relation to the beautiful and the ugly have counterparts inside
mankind called innate predisposition human nature is endowed with. If this
predisposition is led correctly, it will appreciate true beauties.
An architectural work constituted upon the pure predisposition will
definitely demonstrate the exalted architecture which will aggrandize other
human natures. Therefore, the mechanism and quality of beauty revelation and its
manifestation take place as follows: Beauty is first revealed from the unseen
sanctuary to the architect through practicality and the architect as the capturing
practitioner manipulates and combines it through his will. And then manifests it
as an impressive work which, in turn, works as a following affected practitioner
within the outside world. In the methodology of the Islamic architecture,
therefore, the researcher seeks out spatial deserving in proportion to which the
architect has bestowed proportional qualities and quantities upon those spaces.
Creation
Creator means craftsman, maker, and the one who puts together an object
with his own hands and the equivalents applied are technique, technology, and
innovation (Dehkhoda, 1994).
Creation is a Qur'anic term applied in the holy Ayat
‫صْن َع اللَّ ِـه الَّ ِذي أَتْـ َق َن ُك َّل َش ْيء إِنَّهُ َخبِريٌ ِِبَا تَـ ْف َعلُو َن‬
ُ﴿
﴾
7
" and in another
narration it says: Oh, Creator who creates everything8. He creates everything
including mankind and even human products, He is the prime and axial creator
and practitioner: Oh, thou who act in thy creation with wisdom9. The world is the
workshop of the divine creation and nothing is created baseless as He has
wisdom and does nothing absurdly.
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Oh, thou the creator of anything created10. He is the Creator and not
created . Mankind and architect, however, are divine yields and the attribute of
creator is a godly gift bestowed upon the architect and mankind. Indeed, Lord is
Aware of what you create.12 So Lord's axial practicality holds true everywhere
and without a Godly grace nothing is created.
11
"He creates a faceless figure giving it the face and body with senses and
tools" Therefore, the second factor in planning and a key subject in all eras and
styles is the matter of creation, technology, and industrial products in the general
sense. And in the course of the architectural history, all the renowned architects
have been involved with the issue of industry and technology (Ghobadian, 2003,
p.50).
The term ―technology13‖ is derived from the Greek root "techne14" and
they called ―art‖ or better still ―work of art15‖ as techne. But what is techne? In
Greek's view, techne means knowing16 and bears upon episteme17. In the chief
sense, techne means to earnestly prepare from beginning for looking upon
something which will be gifted some time later. Techne in this sense -- not
related to new technology (modernity) -- equals one of the philosophical
expressions of the Islamic period which is ―creation.‖ Primarily, techne means
the way of knowing. It, however, is the science addressing innovation and those
dealing with techne usually innovate something. What is, however, important is
that their creation and innovation are based on their previous knowledge. And it
is the prior knowing which determines the type and quality of applying the
required tools for innovation as well as the suitable materials and components
(Rikhtegarian, 2001, pp. 20-22). Nowadays in the terminology of the
architectural domain, it is mentioned as the building technique. As already noted,
the words ―art‖ and ―techne‖ means the same in Greek and Roman. In Persian
language too the lexemes ‫( فن‬Fan) and ‫( هنر‬Honar) are used interchangeably. In
the direction of satisfying the personal needs by art, the part depending upon
tools, skills, and experience has joined the technical accomplishments of the
society (Haeri, 1982, p. 59). So under the auspices of creation and innovation,
technique and art are considered as the designer's and architect's characteristics.
So the architect can enhance his designs by improving his professional and
technical abilities. The equivalent for that is the term ‫( نيارش‬Niaresh) which
would be applied abundantly in the past Iranian architecture. This term referred
to the knowledge of establishments, building technique, and materials. The past
architects did not isolate the term from beauty. Based on experience, they had
obtained measures for covers, mouths, and pillars all derived from ‫( نيارش‬Pirnia,
2001, p.30). ‫ نيارش‬is one of the chief principles of the Islamic architecture.
According to the Islamic attitude towards architecture, "Muslim craftsmen,
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though striving to make skillful use of their tools, follow such excellent cause as
obtaining mastery (and perfection). As a result, the beauty of the artistic work
done by the craftsman is the manifestation of Lord's grandeur." (Burkhart, 1991,
p.204) So in recognizing the Islamic architecture, the researcher seeks out the
construction styles, calculation methods, tools, and materials applied by the
architect which is in its own right related to perfection.
Wisdom
The third effective factor in creating an architectural work is the
workability and efficiency of the work. The Architect of the universe did not
create the world and mankind in vain. Lord the Almighty says: "And we did not
create the heavens and the earth and whatever between them in vein."18
Whatsoever exists in the heavens and the earth is created for a truth and
originated from the absolute perfection. It is on the move towards that perfection
so the appearance of the divine names in creation cannot be aimless and futile.
"And we did not create the heavens and the earth and whatever between them as
playthings."19 The Architect of the world has created everything wisely. "In deed
thou are All-knowing and Wise."20 Here the term Wise refers to a Nature whose
words and actions are wise and truthful. He knows everything about the objects
inside and outside and acts in accordance with wisdom and management (Esna
Ashari, B. p.33).
According to the cited descriptions, wisdom bears upon truth. Truth
means truthfulness, honesty, and reality. One of Lord's names is Truth and the
whole Islamic philosophy targets as uncovering a deep understanding of that….
Many philosophers are attached to the unity between philosophy or wisdom and
truth which lies in the heart of Qur'an. Ebn-e-Arabi is renowned to say that:
"Wisdom originates from prophecy" (Nasr, 2005, p.58). On the other hand,
wisdom is meant to infer end, purposefulness, and abstaining from aimlessness.
"There exists nothing within the divine school without limits. The world has
limits…an eternal limit. If all the existence leads to absolute non-existence then it
all ends in futility. Now it begs the question: What is existence for? For nonexistence! Existence tending to get non-existence ends in emptiness."
(Motahhari, 1999, p.91)
"A wise man is the one who takes a calculated and purposeful action and
whose performance is done based on a flawless planning." (Sobhani,
1980, p.68) "A wise man is the one who is purified from nasty and
unpleasant deeds and does not take useless and fruitless actions against
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his genuine goals. Wise in this sense is an attribute of the exalted God."
(Sobhani, 1980, p.72)
In the methodology of the Islamic architecture too the researcher traces the
architect's sage aims (p.14).
"The world is like a face with eyes, wrinkles, spots and eyebrows where
everything is in its right place."
Refraining from futility is a principle which existed in the pre-Islamic
architecture (for the sake of monotheism history) in Iran and has also been
emphasized after Islam. God the Almighty says: "Those who abstain from
futility" (Pirnia, 1990, p.22). This principle has also penetrated into art and
architecture so in the methodology of the Islamic architecture, it required to
discover the purposefulness of architecture and architects. So, looking into the
architectural work one can discover the architect's target, that is, what the ancient
architect traced when creating any space and what the reason behind the creation
of any space had been.
Domain
The universe represents the Architect's domain. As the world is under
development, the same domain has also been bestowed upon His agent. So
another target aimed at by the faithful architect is to expand the life space. To
expand means to open out. Lord is the Almighty Truth who is opener and allknowing.21 "And We did create the world with power and We are always
expanding."22 The architect of the world is expanding the world of the creatures
and His architect and agent on the earth following his Creator and Ruler tends to
improve the human life spaces. Burkhart believes that "the true aim of the
Islamic architecture is to enhance the spaces" (Burkhart, 1991, p.16). The air and
space are in His powerful hands.23 Air and space are some divine names and He
is the one who expands them. "He restrains and grants"; He is the Capacious and
the Spreader (opener, giver and deliverer). Today, the manifestation of the
Spreader is bestowed upon the support of the family of Mohammad who is the
means to forward His blessings (Esna Ashari, B. p.43). Man is the being who
seeks out perfection for his exalted soul. So he likes to advance towards
perfection. The expansion of human needs towards perfection for the sake of
human development increases the growing need of the human society for
architecture.
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In its objective manifest, architecture has constantly been exposed to
change and movement. How does this change take place? The aim or final cause
is indicative of architecture direction which could then lead to a descending or
elevating movement.
The Islamic architecture is directed towards nearness and elevation and
the architects represent the developmental pivot of that. Without an improvement
in architecture, it would be impossible to develop architecture. The former is a
social issue which will be possible through a divine world view and without a
religious world view an ascending growth will not take place. Amelioration of a
subject has a close relationship with its final target and leading the subject in the
direction of that target. Innovation and creativity directed towards development
and evolution expand the architect's domain vastly.
According to this perspective, architecture plays an underpinning role in
designing the life space of society so as to strengthen relationships, improve
social relations, and accelerate the spiritual, mental, and objective quality of
human spaces and society. Stimulating and creating motivation, training
mentalities, guiding human emotion and disposition towards the innate nature
and expanding culture make up the value through which the architect's prophecy
take shape. To expand ugliness or beauty of architecture bears upon the degree of
rapport between the architect's idea and his piety and worldliness.
From the Islamic revolution's great leader's perspective, "Muslim
architects and artists should, as an important section of the society and the life
space designers, fill out the whole world space with love for the Essence of God
as well as a practical loath and grudge against His enemies and not even for a
moment overlook the worldwide Unitarian sacred tune of Islam" (Imam
Khomeini, 1987, p.4). So the architectural space too should denote this tune and
with his designs, the architect ought to expand and restrain spaces and seek help
in order to elevate mankind in the direction of the absolute perfection.
Addressing the architects and civil constructors, our distinguished leader
describes an Islamic city and architecture features notifying the divine names
manifestation (beauty and grandeur) as follows: "In an Islamic city, a
phenomenon aids the propagation of Islamic life and movement and the various
symbols and appearances in streets, parks, and gardens provide, in addition to
attraction, the basis for the citizen's penchant for spiritualities." He stipulates that
in an Islamic system nobody should feel insecure in his daily life as it is a quality
of an Islamic city where the pious and virtuous feel secure and the seditious find
nowhere in which to commit crimes and corruption. And this should be taken
into complete consideration in all environments related to the municipalities
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including parks and centers of culture. He says: "In civil construction too the
Islamic architecture should be noted and buildings should be set up so as to
remind the Islamic life. In this case, it will be required to observe and maintain
households' sectaries as well as to avoid applying some annoying samples." He
furthermore states: "In an Islamic system, under the protection of religion,
everybody should consider taking on delivered duties and tasks as well as
attracting Lord's satisfaction, eminence of the Islamic system and people's
welfare. Besides enjoying the positive worldly effects, this person will also be
granted divine rewards and everyone giving service everywhere should regard
this" (Khamanei, 1996). These factors effective in the methodology of Islamic
architecture in all stages of recognition, planning, and construction must be taken
into consideration. "They all pave the way for comfort and relief on this land
followed by a spiritual journey. What counts is to move towards God and to
notice Him. All workshops are dedicated to Him. All efforts made by the
prophets from Adam to the Last Prophet signify the journey towards God‖ (Imam
Khomeini, 1984). An Islamic city and architecture states the bases and principles
and spiritual message of a divine revelation. There is no category so general and
epidemic as architecture. A large part of human lifetime is spent in an
architectural space. In an Islamic city, the realities of the divine revelation make
up the commonalities between all elements comprising a culture, and the unitary
factors of comprehensiveness and harmony are counted as its components
(Avani, 1995). In this respect, in the course of the Iranian architectural history
especially Islamic period, the architect has strived to advance towards space
openness and expansion. So the central yard has played an important role in this
process. Balconies are the spaces which open onto the yard. Damghan's
Tarikkhaneh mosque, Isfahan's Imam and Sayyed mosques, Kashan's
Aghabozorg mosque and school and Goharshad mosque exhibit noticeable
examples of space openness in the architecture history. Damghan's Tarikkhaneh
mosque began the Iranian Islamic history with a sample closet for nocturnal
prayers and central yard sampling our prophet's mosque. The architect of
Isfahan's mosque designing two small yards in the south east and west relates the
big yard and small yards with some openings. In the schools of Chahar Bagh and
Sadre Isfahan, the architect has created space openings by designing four small
yards with eight sides. In Kashan's Aghabozorg mosque and school, the space
Ceylon and opening space have been doubled by the architect's designing of the
dome-chamber garden hole as a semi-open space. The architect of Isfahan's
Sayyed mosque has designed some winter and summer closets for prayers in
three sides of the yard having constructed some chambers over east and west
closets. There are four terraces before the chambers. These terraces have created
some kind of large depressions which open out the address's view to notice the
space depth. The designing architect of Tehran's Shahid Motahhari School has
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exploited these terraces in the 4 sides of the yard to increase the space Ceylon
and lightness.
Furthermore, openness and continuity of space has been the target of the
Iranian architects. The space of the mosque dome-chamber is established on four
pillars and the adjacent spaces of the dome-chamber are balconies and prayer
closets. For instance, Goharshad mosque's architect has taken off the wall
between the dome-chamber and the balcony facing the north and created an
"excellent space opening" and made a direct connection between the spaces of
the dome-chamber, balcony, and yard.
In this design, the space gains the maximum opening and Ceylon in the
sample of dome-chambers. This brings about a light and suspending manner in
the dome and here one could observe the evolution process of the dome-chamber
sample with respect to space opening.
In the late Mirmiran's opinion, the points such as transparency, openness,
and lightness are considered as the principles and bases of the Islamic
architecture and the samples too are exposed to public show within the
framework of constructions like yard, dome-chamber, and similar spaces
(Mirmiran, 2005, p. 358). Therefore, from one perspective, the domain of an
architectural work includes the existential expansion of spaces.
Spaces appear in open, semi-open, and closed frameworks. "The open
space (yard) plays its role including the ability to look upon the landscape and
open up the closed space" (Haeri, 2002, p.77). The basic sample "chamber,
balcony, yard" or "closed space+ semi-open+ open" is a complete reflection of
the styles adopted by the Islamic architects.
The development, expansion, and transparency of the Islamic
architecture stems from one of the crucial principles of cosmology, namely, the
evolutional movement of the universe from the material quality to a spiritual one
and there exists a continuous and evolutional traveling from the material decrease
to space increment. As an evident example, one could name Isfahan's Hasht
Behesht Mansion (Mirmiran, 1995). And, as the concluding remark, it should be
noted that the cited factors in bases, subject and domain all originate from the
Islamic world view as well as revelation. In other words, the organic relationship
between architecture and Islamic worship stemming from the mindful nature of
this art, which sets up the final aim of all deeds and rites in Islam, and the role
played by the architect in every Muslim's life in particular and the Islamic nation
in general confirm the friendly association between the Islamic revelation and
architecture.
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Conclusion
In the methodology of the Islamic architecture, it would be impossible to
systematically appreciate the subject without a prior recognition of bases and
principles. Meanwhile, in recognizing the bases, the Islamic world view takes
priority over the philosophical and scientific world views, respectively.
In the Islamic world view, it is necessary to study the influences made by
the Islamic drills including beliefs, ethics, and injunctions.
In the philosophical world view too, whyness, whatness, and howness of
the Islamic architecture should be provided with answers.
In the scientific world view too, it is required to address mankind's and
architect's experiences in the realm of nature, society, and products (including
movables like cars… and immovables like architecture and civil construction, to
investigate the quality of drawing upon these factors in the past, to illuminate
future through past, and to exploit them in improving and not repeating the
designs).
In Islam, any subject contains some major divine names and the Islamic
architecture too embodies the names associated with beauty, creation, and
wisdom. The totality of these names in the outside world realizes an architectural
work.
The domain of the Islamic architecture could be discussed in three
spreads. The first, second, and third spread cover the national, international
(between Islamic nations), and world levels, respectively. One could study the
domain in the past and to exploit it in the future. The developmental process and
space openness in the history of the Islamic architecture are counted as the
crucial aims and factors of this architecture that should be addressed in the
methodology of the Islamic architecture so that one could observe the thinking
and Islamic architectural processes in the evolutional process and apply them in
recognizing the Islamic architecture and the developmental and evolution
processes.
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
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Avani, Gholamreza. The unification of the architects' unity of theory and practice in the
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
Avicenna, Bu Ali. Implications and Admonishments. Translation of Dr. Hassan Malekshahi's
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
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
Burkhart, Titus. The eternal values in the Islamic art. In The Eternity of Art: A Collection of
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
Dehkhoda, Ali Akbar. Dehkhoda Dictionary. Tehran: Tehran University, 1998.

Dinani, Gholam Hossein E. The General Philosophical Principles in the Islamic Philosophy.
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
Farabi, Abu Nasr. The Policy of Medina, translated by Dr. Sayyed Jafar Sajjadi. Tehran: The
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
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
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
Haeri, Mahdi, Y. The Queries of the Practical Wisdom (Ethical Philosophy). The
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
Haeri, Mohammad Reza. Abadi, 19, 1995.
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Haeri, Mohammad Reza. The manifestation of the Islamic concepts in art and architecture. In
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
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
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
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Mirmirian, Sayyed Hadi. Abadi, 19, 1995.
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
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
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
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
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
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
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Notes
1.
Ardalan, Nader & Bakhtiar, Laleh. Sense of Unity, translated by Hamid Shahrekordi. Tehran:
Khak, 1991.
2.
"Hikmat (wisdom) is a combination of the mysticism and philosophy of Illumination and
Lyceum which are neither speculative nor theology nor philosophy in the regular sense. The
western equivalent is 'theosophy'. Of course, theosophy in the genuine sense and not today's
fake sense which is applied by the spirit-believer groups" (Nasr, 1986, p. 498).
3.
The Americana Encyclopedia- volume 23- 1993, p. 351.
4.
Relativity is the theory developed by Einstein (1879-1955) in two phases: the particular
relativity theory (1905) and the general theory (1913). See also the Americana encyclopedia.
5.
The secret interior hiding-place
6.
Sura (chapter of Qur'an) Ghafer (Foregiver), Aya 64.
7.
Sura Naml (Ant), Aya 88, "This is the (skillful) creation of Lord who has created everything
exactly", He is all-aware of what you do. And in Aya 27, Sura Momenoon (believers): "So we
revealed to Noah (construct the ship according to our orders and instructions)". The
commentators interpret that Creation is a divine inspiration. (Gheraati, Mohsen: The
Interpretation of Light, vol 8, p. 95, the culture center, Lessons from Qur'an, Tehran, 2003).
8.
Joshane Kabir (Great Protection)-17
9.
Joshane Kabir (Great Protection)-19
10. Joshane Kabir (Great Protection)-10
11. Joshane Kabir (Great Protection)-46
12. Sura Noor (Light), Aya 30 (Lord is very All-aware of what they do and He is very Skillful
13. Technology
14. Techne
15. Work of art
16. Knowing
17. Episteme
18. Sura Sad, Aya 27, and Sura Ale Emran (The Family of Emran) Aya 191: Oh, Lord! Thou did
not create this invein, you are the Pure, so save us from the scourge of fire.
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19. Sura Anbia (prophets) Aya 16 and Sura Dokhan (the Smoke) Aya 38
20. Sura Baghareh (the Cow) Aya 32
21. Sura Baghareh (the Cow) Aya 115: So wherever you go He is there. In fact, He is the Opener
and the All-knowing.
22. Sura Zariat (the Scatterers) Aya 47
23. Joshane Kabir (Great Protection)-56
102
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Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Mail Box
Send your views & comments to:
Al-Mustafa International University,
18, Tilak Marg, Iran Culture House, New Delhi-110001
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Obaidullah Fahad ([email protected])
Dear Brother
I was too fortunate to regularly receive the different issues of "Religious
Thought" and delighted to go through the content of comparative religion and its
pluralistic essence. An article with the title ―Concept of Love in Islamic
Tasawwuf - A Study of Rabiah al-Adawiyyah" is attached for publication in your
esteemed journal. It was read in the 3rd International Seminar on Peaceful Coexistence with Focus on Mysticism and Spirituality in Islam and Indian
Religions, March 11-12, 2012 held in N.Delhi. Please acknowledge the receipt.
Your's Sincerely
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Associate Professor
Deptt. of Islamic Studies
A.M.U.Aligarh 202002
Mob: +9997605069
Morteza Akhlaghifard ([email protected])
Hello dear Dr. Shayanrad
Thanks a lot for your kindness and responsible answer.
This is my article which got accepted, I respectfully send it to you. I am hoping
and waiting for its publication. Let me please know on the date of publishing.
Sincerely yours
Morteza Akhlaghifard
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.M.A. Aon ([email protected])
Dear Sir,
Slaamun‘alaikum
Thank you very much for the latest E. Magazine. It is indeed a great work with
high academic effort. I am sure this will help people understand eastern schools
and religion in a better manner. The result of such academic work will soon have
its constructive impact on Indian society and people.
May Allah bless you!
Waslaam
Dr. Baleshwar Prasad Yadav ([email protected])
To,
The Editor,
International Journal of Religious Studies
Dear Sir,
I feel very happy to learn that your institution has resumed an International
Journal on the issues of religion and ethics. I have been very much interested in
Islam and other world religions. I have also been a regular participant in the
seminars conducted by your Institution. Please let me know the rules and
compliances for contributing an article to your esteemed journal as I wish to be
the part of your solemn enterprise.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely
Dr. Baleshwar Prasad Yadav
Asst. Professor of Philosophy,
Faculty of Humanities,
Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth University
Varanasi, (Uttar Pradesh)- India
Contact No.- 09450271991
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
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Hashim Ali ([email protected])
Attn. Mr. Shayan Rad, Managing Editor,
International Journal for Religious Thoughts
Dear Managing Editor,
I saw your international journal in the office of one of my colleagues
in Delhi University. I really liked the international journal. It is a
very well-edited, well-designed and neatly published magazine. Your
choice of articles too is great. For the first time, I am seeing the
style of giving summary of articles in Hindi, Urdu, Persian. This is a
novel concept. Also the summaries have been done in a proper manner so
as to pass on the gist of the articles.
I have not seen any other journal of this type in India. I must really
complement you for it.
Best wishes for a great future,
Hashim Ali
DU
Ghorban Elmi ([email protected])
Dear Sir Prof. Abdullah Shayanrad,
Enclosed you will find our paper for publication in International Journal of
Religious Thoughts entitled: ―Islam and tolerance‖. The attached file is our paper
and is in doc (win word) format. I am looking forward to hearing from you soon.
Sincerely yours,
Elmi
Ghorban Elmi, Associate Professor of University of Tehran, Faculty of Theology,
Tehran, Iran, E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 98 21 88742630
Masoumeh Fathi, Academic member of University of Peyambar-e A'zam, Tehran,
Iran E-mail: [email protected]
105
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Indrani Datta Chaudhuri ([email protected])
Sir/Madam,
Thank you very much for for the magazine. Please let me know how I can
submit an article in your journal.
Thanks and regards,
Indrani Datta (Chaudhuri)
Ali Hosain ([email protected])
Assalaumunalikum,
Dear Brothers,
Thank you for sending me this email, Jazakallah and may Allah swta bless you
with abundance for quality articles.
Please do not hesitate to contact me for any further information if required.
Best regards
Ali Hosain
Bellfield College
31 Rossmore Ave West,
Rossmore NSW 2257
T: (02) 9606 2666
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Dr. D. Mohanta ([email protected])
Thank you for the journal. I have been working for interreligious
understanding and pluralism for more than a decade. Thank you for
associating me with your journal.
106
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
Rgds
Dr D. Mohanta [Former Fulbright Visiting Lecturer in the Dept of
Religion, University of Florida]
Professor of Philosophy
University of Calcutta
1 Reformatory St KOLKATA-700 027
Ph 09432863177
Sushil Tiwari ([email protected])
Dear Prof.Abdollah Shayan Rad
Received the issue Volume 1, Number 3 Autumn 2011. Thanks again. Sir, you
are really doing a commendable job through your journal in helping us to know
and comprehend the major religions and cultures of the world. My good wishes
are with you and your journal. I too want to contribute an article on critique of
religion -Marx's approach. Should I send it?
Sushil K. Tiwari
Department of Philosophy
D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur (U.P.) India
Soumyajit Patra ([email protected])
Dear Dr Shayan Rad
Thanks for the timely publication of the 'International Journal of
Religious Thought'. I have gone through the latest issue of the Journal
(Volume 1 Number 3, 2011). Almost all the articles are well written,
but I would particularly mention the articles written by Hamid
Ghalandri and Saiyed A. Haider.
I understand the care you took to publish such an enriching journal
and I must advise the students of religion studies to read the
articles.
107
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I look forward to the next issue.
Thanking you
Shoba-e-Dawat JIH ([email protected])
The Editor in Chief
Al-Mustafa Islamic Research Society, New Delhi
‫السالم عليكن و رحمة هللا و بركاته‬
We have received the third issue of ―Religious Thoughts‖ and are grateful to you
for providing us with such an esteemed journal.
However, we are sorry to say that, due to continuous travelling it would not be
possible for me to provide any comments on the articles.
Thanking you
Mohammad Iqbal
Shoba-e-Dawat, Markaz Jamaat-e-Islami Hind
D-317, Dawat Nagar,
Abul Fazl Enclave, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi - 110025
Ph: 91-11-26951409, 26948341
Fax: 91-11-26950975
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International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
ys[kksa dk laf{kIr fooj.k
109
110
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
lwQh jgL;okn vkSj Hkkjrh; /keZ
izksQSlj ds +Vh +,l +lkjko*
Hkkjr esa bLyke ds izlkj ds ihNs lwfQ;ksa dh “kkafriw.kZ xfrfof/k;ksa
dk cM+k jksy jgk gSA /kekZarj.k esa lwfQ;ksa dh Hkwfedk vizR;{k jgh bl rjg
fd muls lekurk,a] muds dke vkSj mudh thou”kSyh ds dkj.k Hkkjrh;
yksxksa dh bLyke ds izfr lgkuqHkwfr c<+hA vU;Fkk lwQh fdlh xSj eqfLye
dks eqlyeku cukus dh txg igys ls gh eqlyeku dks ,d csgrj
eqlyeku cukus ij vf/kd [kq”k FksA
lwfQ;ksa }kjk lc ls egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku ;g Fkk fd mUgksua s bLyke
vkSj Hkkjrh; ewy ds /keksZa dh nk”kZfud fopkj/kkjk dks izksRlkfgr fd;kA bl
izdkj ds lEidZ ds ek/;e ls] ftl esa lwfQ;ksa dh lknxh vkSj O;kid
ekuorkokn ds dkj.k vkSj vf/kd cy feyk] lc ls vf/kd la[;k esa
bLyke dh vksj /kekZUrj.k gqvkA bl ek;us esa mUgsa fe”kujh Dgk tk ldrk
gSA vPNh rjg ls izyfs [kr vuqla/kku crkrs gSa fd fofHkUu /keksZa ls bLyke
dh vksj /kekZarj.k esa fdlh izdkj dh t+ksj t+cjnLrh ugha dh xbZA
;g dguk xyr gksxk fd Hkkjr esa pyh vk jgh tkfr O;oLFkk ds
dkj.k nfyr oxZ us lkekftd U;k; ds fy, bLyke dks xys yxk;kA ;g
dguk Hkh xyr gksxk fd ckS/k /keZ ds ekuus okyksa us bLykeh lerkokn dks
cq) }kjk tkfr O;oLFkk vkSj vlekurk ds ckjs esa is”k fd, x, fopkjksa ls
feyrk tqyrk ik;kA ysfdu ;g lp gS fd bu fupyh tkfr;ksa dks bLyke
dqcy
w djds [kksus ds fy, dqN ugha Fkk] fo”ks’k :i ls og volj tks mUgsa
eqfLye lekt esa feyus dh mEehn Fkh vkSj tks tkr ikr ij vk/kkfjr ml
le; ds lekt esa mUgsa ugha feyrs FksA
___________________________
*
ckS/k v/;;u foHkkx] fnYyh fo”ofo|ky;] fnYyh
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Summary of Articles in Hindi
bLyke ds izlkj dh ,d cM+h fo”ks’krk ;g Fkh fd iwohZ Hkkjr ds
og {ks= tgka bLyke lc ls rst+h ls QSyk czge.k izHkko ls eqDr FksA bZLV
caxky] tks vkt caxykns”k gS] bLykeh lRrk ds dsUnzksa ls nwj fLFkr Fkk
ijUrq lEiw.kZ Hkkjr o’kZ esa eqfLye vkcknh dh loksZPp ,dkxzrk ;gha ij FkhA
bl lQyrk dk lsgjk lwfQ;ksa ds flj tkrk gSA yacs le; esa ns[ksa rks
njxkgksa vkSj [kkud+kgksa us /kekZrj.k esa ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkbZA bl
lanHkZ esa ys[kd us d”ehj esa lwfQ;ksa dh Hkwfedk ij ppkZ dh gS vkSj
lwfQ;ksa }kjk cuk, x, _f’k flyflys vkSj “kSo jgL;okn ds jksy ij Hkh
foLr`r tkudkjh nh gSA.
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Hkkjr ds lkaLd`frd bfrgkl esa f”k”kqukyk “kjhQ
vkSj ehjkckbZ ds ;ksxnku dk ekufp=
MkDVj latho dqekj ,p ,e*
MkDVj izhrh dqekj**
;g isij nks lwQh larksa f”k”kqukyk “kjhQ vkSj ehjk ckbZ dh f”k{kk
dh cqfu;knksa dk ekufp= izLrqr djrk gS] ftudh f”k{kk dsoy ekSf[kd :i
ls vkxs c<+h tks muds n”kZu lapfjr ds lkaLd`frd bfrgkl dh izd`fr dk
irk yxkus dk ,d egRoiw.kZ L=ksr gSA nksuksa lwQh larksa us u rks vius
xhrksa vkSj dforkvksa dks fyf[kr :i esa is”k fd;k vkSj u gh os eq[;/kkjk
“kkL=h; Hkk’kkvksa esa dgs x,A cfYd ;g cksypky dh Hkk’kk esa dgs x,
ftudk ih<+h nj ih<+h ekSf[kd Vªkalfe”ku /kkfeZd&yksd dkO; ds :i esa
gqvk tks vkt Hkh ekStwn gSA nf{k.k Hkkjr ds dukZVd esa f”k”kqukyk “kjhQ
ds xhrksa vkSj dforkvksa ¼rRo ikM+k½ dks vke cksy pky dh t+cku ftls
/kkjokM+ dUuM+ Dgk tkrk gS esa Dgk x;k tfCd mRrj Hkkjr ds jktLFkku esa
ehjk ckbZ ds xkus ¼i|½ czt Hkk’kk esa dgs x,A nksuksa lwQh lar vke yksxksa
ds chp cgqr yksdfiz; gSaA
tfCd ehjk ckbZ vk?;kfRedrk vkSj dkeqdrk ds la;kstu dks
izfrfcafcr djrh gSa ogha “kjhQ ds fopkjksa esa dkeqd Hkkouk,a vkSj dkeqd
bPNk,a vk/;kfRed izxfr esa ck/kk gSaA okluk vkSj dkeqd bPNkvksa ls “kjhQ
dh vk/;kfRed uQjr dk rkfdZd fp=.k muds yksd xhrksa esa is”k fd;k
x;k gSA ,d dfork esa “kjhQ us okluk vkSj ;kSu vukpkj dh rqyuk
fo”kSys lkai ls dh gS] ftlds ifj.kke cgqr [kjkc gks ldrs gSaA
___________________________
*
lgk;d izksQSlj] varjjk’Vªh; laca/k foHkkx] Lkekftd foKku ladk;] nf{k.k ,f”k;kbZ
fo”ofo|ky;] fnYyh
**
,lksfl,V izksQl
S j vkSj ize[q k] bfrgkl vkSj Hkkjrh; laLd`fr foHkkx] Vksd
a ] jktLFkku
113
Summary of Articles in Hindi
lwQh vkSj HkfDr jgLe;n”kZu ds f[kykQ vlarks’k vkSj fojks/k gj
le; tkjh jgkA f”k”kqukyk “kjhQ vkSj ehjk ckbZ ds xhrksa vkSj dforkvksa esa
izfrjks/k vkanksyu dh >yd ns[kus dks feyrh gS vkSj bldh “kSyh izfrjks/k
vkanksyu dk izfrfuf/kRo djrh gSA f”k”kqukyk “kjhQ us tks ,d fuEu oxZ
ds eqlyeku Fks vius xhrksa vkSj dforkvksa esa czkge.koknh opZLo vkSj
mldh dV~VjiaFkh fopkj/kkjk dks pqukSrh nh gS vkSj lwQh “kSyh esa jpukvksa
ds ek/;e ls lnHkko vkSj /kkfeZd v[kaMrk dk lans”k QSyk;k gSA og ,d
nk”kZfud vkSj lekt lq/kkjd Fks ftudk ;ksxnku dukZVd esa lwQh iaFk dh
lqcg dk izrhd gS( mUgsa dUuM+ t+cku esa igys eqfLye dfo ds :i esa
ekU;rk izkIr gSA ehjk ckbZ tks jktLFkku ds :f<+oknh jktiwr oa”k ls Fkha
e/;;qxhu Hkkjr dh “kfDr”kkyh vkSj dV~VjiaFkh fir`lRrkRed O;oLFkk ds
f[kykQ ukjhoknh pqukSrh dk izfrfuf/kRo djrh gSaA
bu nksuksa lwfQ;ksa ds gokys ls ys[kd us ml nkSj ds lkaLd`frd
bfrgkl dks Li’V “kCnksa esa is”k fd;k gSA
114
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Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
lwQh fl)kar vkSj /kkfeZd vkpj.k
MkDVj pkS/kjh izsek dqekj*
bLyke ds fo’k; ij dqN egRoiw.kZ ys[kdksa ds vuqlkj eqlyekuksa
dk cgqer vius /kkfeZd ;ksxksa dks u rks tkurk Fkk vkSj u mudks le>
ldus esa l{ke FkkA muds fglkc ls ft+Unxh “kfj;r ¼/kkfeZd d+kuwu½ vkSj
efLtn] rhFkZ;k=k] miokl] nku nsus vkSj izkFkuk vuq’Bku ds nkSjksa esa f?kjh
FkhA ijUrq bl vis{kkd`r NksVs ls o`r ds fo}kuksa ds vfrfjDr vU;ksa us bls
ukdkQh ik;k] [kkldj mu yksxksa us tks vjc ugha Fks vkSj fofHkUu /kkfeZd
ijEijkvksa ls /kekZUrfjr FksA og ,d ,sls Hkkoqd] okLro esa HkkoukRed /keZ
dh ifjdYiuk djrs Fks ftlesa Hkxoku I;kj nsrs gq,] iqpdkjrs gq,] fe=
izrhr gks vkSj izpfyr xw<+ fopkjksa dks ugha le> ldrs FksA [kkl rkSj ij
tc bLyke mu “kkldksa ds gkFk esa igqap x;k ftu dk /keZ ls dksbZ
rkYyqd+ ugha Fkk rks ;g yksx riLoh rugkbZ esa pys x,] rkfd U;k; ds
fy, fu/kkZfjr fnu og [kqnk ds xqLls dk f”kdkj gksus ls cps jg ldsAa ;g
lwQh er dk vkx+kt+ FkkA
lwQhokn dh lksp bLyke dh nks /kkjkvksa ds lekxe ds rkSj ij is”k
dh xbZ Fkh% 1% riLoh] 2% HkfDrA ijUrq nwljh “krkCnh fgtjh rd HkfDr
/kkjk vf/kd yksdfiz; gks xbZA d+;ker ds fnu dh lt+k ds Mj dh txg
izse vkSj vkjk/kuk us ys yhA nwljh “krkCnh fgtjh ds lekiu ls igys gh
lwfQ;ksa us KkuekxZ ¼ekjsQr½ izkIr djus dk jkLrk ¼rjhd+k½ <+a<w fudkyk Fkk
vkSj lwQh iaFk dh yksdfiz;rk vR;kf/kd c<+ xbZ FkhA
;g vk”p;Z dh ckr ugha gS fd cgqr de le; esa gh lwQh
:f<+oknh /keZ”kkfL=;ksa ds fu”kkus ij vk x,A :f<+oknh /keZ”kkfL=;ksa ds fy,
lwfQ;ksa dh cgqr lh ckrksa dks ipkuk vklku ugha FkkA
___________________________
*
QSdYVh] n”kZu”kkL= foHkkx] vka/kzk ;wfuoflZVh] fo”kk[kkiVue] vka/kz izns”k
115
Summary of Articles in Hindi
,d BsB jgL;okn ds ekxZ ds jkgh dks bu eaft+yksa ls xqt+juk
vko”;d gS% i”pkrki] la;e] R;kx] fu/kZurk] /kS;Z] bZ”oj esa fo”okl vkSj
lrks’kA bu lc pj.kksa dks ikfjr djds gh ,d lwQh psruk ¼izKku½ dh
mPp eaft+yksa rd igqaprk gS tgka mls irk pyrk gS fd Kku] Kkrk vkSj
Kkr ,d gh gSaA
ys[kd us lwQh er ds izdkjksa dk foLr`r o.kZu fd;k gSA blds
i”pkr cd+k vkSj Quk ds uke ls lwQh er dh nks n”kkvksa dk o.kZu gSA
lwQh er dh izpfyr ifjHkk’kk,a vkSj dRrZO; foLrkj ls fy[ks x, gSaA muds
fopkj ls lwQh er vkarfjd thou dh ifo=rk dk fuek.kZ djus ds lk/ku
ds :i esa ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A og iz”u djrs gSa fd ,d lwQh ds thou dk
var vkSj mldk mn~ns”; D;k gS vkSj blds ckn lwQh fl)kar vkSj /kkfeZd
vkpj.k dk foLr`r mYys[k djrs gSaA og lwQh ft+Unxh dh :gkuh vkSj
/kkfeZd izFkkvksa dk Hkh o.kZu djrs gSaA vUr esa bcknr ds ewy rRoks]a mudh
ikyu fof/k vkSj eks{k izkfIr ds iFk dk fooj.k djrs gSaA
116
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
jgL;okn vkSj fpfdRlk uhfr”kkL=
MkDVj esgnh bczkgheh*
^^uhfr”kkL=** balku dh vkarfjd fo”ks’krkvksa ds lkFk laKkukRed
ewy dh cqfu;kn ij mlds O;ogkj ds dkj.k gksrk gSA gkykafd jgL;okn
¼vkRkek ds½ vkarfjd Kku ij /;ku dsfa nzr djrk gSA bl fuca/k esa tks
fl)kar is”k fd;k x;k gS og ;g gS fd jgL;okn ij vk/kkfjr fpfdRlk
ds }kjk uSfrdrk ds mlwyksa dh lajpuk dh tk ldrh gSA
bl y{; dks gkfly djus ds fy, igys vkarfjd Kku ds fl)karksa ds :i
esa fuEukuqlkj ppkZ dh tkuh pkfg,%
¼1½ nqfu;k ds ckjs esa lqUnj ut+j;k j[kuk pkfg,A
¼2½ vius vki dks [kqnk ds lkeus viw.kZ le>saA
¼3½ ;g fopkj jgs fd nqfu;k jgLe;iw.kZ gSA
mi;ZqDr rhu fl)karksa ds vuqlkj ubZ fpfdRlk uSfrdrk izkIr djus ds dqN
rjhd+s gSaA
¼1½ Hkxoku vkSj mlds d+kuwu ds vkxs ureLrd gksukA
¼2½ Hkxoku ds fy, vPNs fopkj j[kukA
¼3½ /kS;Z dk lkFk u NksM+ukA
___________________________
*
lgk;d izksQSlj] e”kgn esfMdy lkbZlsat+ fo”ofo|ky;] bZjku
117
Summary of Articles in Hindi
bl ekxZ ij pydj vkneh ds fy, vkarfjd Kku laHko gksrk gS]
chekjh vkSj LokLFk ds fy, mlds n`f’Vdks.k cny tkrs gSa vkSj og vius
uSfrd O;ogkj esa lq/kkj ykrk gSA rks vxj fpfdRlk uSfrdrk jgL;okn ij
vk/kkfjr gks tk,] rks vf/kd fLFkjrk vkSj xgjkbZ ls mls vf/kd ykHk
igqapsxkA
118
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
bLyke vkSj lfg’.kqrk
d+qjcku byeh*
eklwesg Qrgh**
vkt ekuork ,d ^oSf”od xkao* esa jg jgh gS tgka dksbZ Hkh leqnk; ;k
jk’Vª nwljksa ls dV dj ugha jg ldrk vkSj nwljs D;k dj jgs gSa bl ls
vufHkK gksdj Hkh ugha jg ldrkA gekjh nqfu;k ,d nwljs ij bruk
vU;ksU;kfJr gS fd “kkafriw.kZ lgvfLrRo ge lHkh ds fy, t:jh cu x;k
gSA
nqfu;k dh vkcknh dk cs”krj fgLlk fdlh u fdlh /keZ dk vuq;k;h gSA
bu /keksZa ds chp laca/kksa dh izd`fr laiw.kZ ekuork ds dY;k.k ds fy, dkQh
egRoiw.kZ gSA /keZ us ekuo tkfr ds bfrgkl esa ,d egRoiw.kZ ;|fi vLi’V
Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ gS] fo”ks’k :i ls la?k’kZ ds laca/k esaA /keksaZ us fgalk vkSj ;q)
dks mfpr Bgjk;k gS vkSj izfs jr fd;k gSA lkFk gh lkFk mUgksua s la?k’kZ ds
[kkRes] lfg’.kqrk vkSj fo”o “kkafr dh “krksaZ dks cukus dh vko”;drk ds
ladYi dks izksRlkfgr fd;k gSA blfy, /keZ dh Hkwfedk dks le>uk
vifjgk;Z gS] pkgs la?k’kZ ds ,d L=ksr ds :i esa ;k veu o “kkafr iSnk
djus okys L=ksr ds :i esAa
dqjvku us “kkafriw.kZ lgvfLrRo vkSj lfg’.kqrk ij dbZ vk;rksa esa cgqr t+kjs
ns dj ckr dh gSA bLyke jax] tkfr] jk’Vªh;rk ;k laLd`fr ds fdlh Hkh
varj dks ugha igpkurk vkSj ekuo lekurk dks loksZijh ekurk gSA vU;
/keksZa] laLd`fr;ksa vkSj tkfr;ksa ds yksxksa ds lkFk mfpr laca/k cuk, j[kus dks
dqjku vkSj iSxEcj dh lqUur nksuksa esa O;kid :i ls izksRlkfgr fd;k x;k
gSA “kkafr] U;k;] lekurk vkSj HkkbZpkjk vkilh le> vkSj “kkafriw.kZ
___________________________
*
rsgjku fo”ofo|ky; esa ,lksfl,V izksQSlj] /keZ”kkL= ladk;] rsgjku
I;kEcjs vkte fo”ofo|ky; dh vdknfed lnL;] rsgjku
**
119
Summary of Articles in Hindi
lg&vfLrRo dk fodkl djus ds ewy fl)kara gSaA bl lc ij ys[kd us
dqjku vkSj gnhl ds ek/;e ls xgu ppkZ dh gSA
tSlk fd Qkjlh dfo lknh us Dgk gS] ^ge ,d “kjhj ds lnL;ksa ds :i esa
gSa] gesa nwljksa ds nnZ dks vius [kqn ds nnZ ds :i esa eglwl djuk pkfg,]
rc ge balku uke ds ;ksX; gks ik,axAs *
120
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
bLykeh okLrqdyk dh vuqla/kku fØ;kfof/k
MkDVj glu t+ksyQsd+kjt+knsg*
bLykfed okLrqdyk dh dk;Ziz.kkyh ds fo’k; dks iw.kZ rjhd+s ls
le>k gh ugha tk ldrk tc rd fd ge mldh cqfu;knksa vkSj fl)karksa
dks us le>sAa
“kks/kdrkZvksa us bLykeh okLrqdyk dks le>us ds fy, fofHkUu
rjhd+kas dks viuk;k gSA tgka dqN us o.kkZRed vuqla/kku ;k ,sfrgkfld
fo”ys{k.k dk lgkjk fy;k gS vU;ksa us vk/kkj LrEHkksa dk ekSfyd v/;;u
djuk mfpr le>k gSA dqN ,d us O;kid okLrqdyk tkuus ds fy,
izHkko”kkyh dkjd dh tkap dh gSA ckn ds bl ifjizs{; dks O;ofLFkr ;k
ekSfyd n`”; ds :i esa ns[kk tk ldrk gS ftl ij orZeku ys[k dk vPNk
fgLlk vk/kkfjr gSA bl fof/k ds vuqlkj bLykeh okLrqdyk dks rhu pj.kksa
esa le>k x;k gSA izFke pj.k% ,d bLykeh ut+fj, ds vuqlkj okLrqdyk
,d lkekftd vfHkO;fDr gS ftl dk izHkko jktuhfr] vFkZO;oLFkk vkSj
laLd`fr ij iM+rk gSA ,d bLykeh lekt ds rhu n`f’Vdks.k /kkfeZd]
nk”kZfud vkSj oSKkfud gksrs gSa ftudh cqfu;kn ij bLykeh okLrqdyk dk
xBu gksrk gSA nwljk pj.k% bl pj.k esa bLykfed okLrqdyk ds vkarfjd
dkjdksa tSls lqUnjrk] fuekZ.k vkSj Kku dh Jsf.k;ksa dh tkap gksrh gSA ;g
Jsf.k;ka [kqnk ds ukeksa vkSj fo”ks’krkvksa vkSj ckgjh ?kVukvks]a Kku vkSj
fMt+kbZuksa esa dYiuk ds QyLo:i rkyesy ds urhts esa lkeus vkrh gSaA
rhljk pj.k% bldk lEca/k okLrqdyk {ks= ls gS ftlesa fMt+kbZuj jgus dh
txg vkSj fuekZ.k dks bl nqfu;k ds fuekZrk }kjk cuk, x, mlwyksa ls
tksM+ dj thou dks vkjkenk;d cukuk pkgrk gS vkSj fuekZ.k dh [kkeh ds
dkj.k thou esa vk jgs d’Vksa dks nwj djuk pkgrk gSA
___________________________
*
Mhu] okLrqdyk vkSj “kgjh fodkl ladk;] beke [kqeuS h varjkZ’Vªh; fo”ofo|ky;] d+kt+ohu] bZjku
121
Summary of Articles in Hindi
bLykeh okLrqdyk ds dk;Z{ks= dks rhu rjg ls le>k tk ldrk
gSA igyk jk’Vªh;] nwljk varjjk’Vªh; bLykeh ns”kksa ds chp vkSj rhljk
fo”o Lrj ijA vrhr dk v/;;u djds Hkfo’; esa Hkh mlls ykHk fy;k tk
ldrk gSA bLykeh okLrqdyk ds fodkl ds fofHkUu nkSj] mlds mn~n”s ;ksa
vkSj dkjdksa ij ckrphr bLykeh okLrqdyk dh dk;Ziz.kkyh dks lgh rjhd+s
ls le>us ds fy, vko”;d gS rkfd ge bl okLrqdyk esa fodflr gksrh
lksp vkSj mlds mRFkku dh izfØ;kvksa dk ikyu djsa vkSj mUgsa ykxw dj
ldsAa
122
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
123
Summary of Articles in Urdu
‫اقمتال ک اکصالہ‬
124
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫وصیفکوصتػکاورکدنہواتسینکذماہ‬
‫*‬
‫رپورسیفکےک‪.‬یٹ‪.‬اسی‪.‬اسراؤ‬
‫دنہواتسؿکںیمکاالسؾکےنلیھپکےک کےھچیپکاہیں کےککوصویفںکیک کرپ کا نکگرمرںویںک ا کڑااکروؽکر اکے۔ کذمہک‬
‫ےک کفاوغ کںیم کوصیف کرضحا ک ا کرکدار کباولہطس کر ا کاس کرطح کہک کاؿ کےک کاسھت کرتشم ا ‪ ،‬کاؿ کےک ک اؾ کاور کاؿ کیک کرطزک‬
‫زدنیگکےککسکاھبریتکوعاؾکیککاالسؾکیککرطػکہدردیکڑایھ۔کورہنکوصیفکرضحا کیسککریغکملسمکوککاملسمؿکانبےنکیکک‬
‫کایرتہبکاملسمؿکانبںیئک۔‬
‫ہگجکاسکںیمکز کبادہکوخشکےھتکہککےلہپکےسکاملسمؿکصخشکوک ک ک‬
‫وصیفکرضحا ک اکسکےسکامہکرکدارکہیکاھتکہککاںوھںکےنکاالسؾکاورکدنہواتسینکذماہکےککرتشم کنایفسلہنک‬
‫کت‬
‫اید‬
‫ان کےک کس کم ک ک‬
‫ولہپؤں کوک کشیپ کایک۔اس کرطح کےک کراوطبں ک ا کہجیتن کاھت‪ ،‬کسج کوک کوصیف کرضحا کیک کاسدیگ کاور کان‬
‫ڑیک‬
‫ااکحتسؾ کاچنہپ‪ ،‬کہک کس کےس کز کبادہ کافااد کاالسؾ کںیم کدالخ کوہےئ۔ کاس کینعم کںیم کا ںیھ کیرنشی ک اہ ک ا ک اتک کے۔ کداتسو ک ا‬
‫قیقحتکاتبیتکےکہککفلتخمکذماہکےسکاالسؾکںیمکداےلخکںیمکیسککمسقکیککزورکزڑادیتسکںیہنکیککیئگ۔‬
‫ہی کانہک کطلغ کوہاگ کہک کدنہواتسؿ کںیم کراجئ کذا کناؾ کےک کس کامسپدنہ کہقبط کےن کامسیج کااصنػ کےک کےئل کاالسؾک‬
‫ت‬
‫وبقؽکایک۔کہیکانہککیھبکطلغکوہاگکہککدبھکمکےککریپو اروںکےنکاالسیمکاسموا کیککمیلعتکوککدبھکےککذا کاظنؾکاورکدعؾک‬
‫___________________________‬
‫کاڈٹسڑکنشکیس‪،‬کدیلہکویوینریٹس‪،‬کیئنکدیلہ‬
‫* دبھ ک ا‬
‫‪125‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫اسموا کےک کبارے کںیم کایختال کےس کاتلم کاتلج کبابکا۔ کباووجد کاےکس کہی کتقیقح کے کہک کامسپدنہ کےقبط کےک کباس کاالسؾ کوبقؽک‬
‫رکےککوھکےنکےککےئلکھچککںیہنکاھت‪،‬کاخصکوطرکرپکوہکوماعقکوجا ںیھکادیمکیھتکہککملسمکامسجکںیمکںیلمکےگکوجکذا اکب کرپک‬
‫ںیمںیہنک ےتلکےھت۔‬
‫رصحنمکدنہواتسینکامسجک ک‬
‫االسؾ کےک کالیھپؤ کیک ککای کدپسچل کوصختیص کہی کیھت کہک کرشمیق کدنہواتسؿ کےک کوہ کالعےق کاہجں کاالسؾ کسک‬
‫ت ت‬
‫ک‬
‫کاطق‬
‫ےس کزیتی کےس کالیھپ کڑامھنوںں کےک کاڑا کو کرخوخ کےس کززاد کےھت۔ کرشمیق کاگنبؽ‪،‬کوج کوموجدہ کہلگنب کدشی کے‪ ،‬کاالسیم‬
‫ک ت‬
‫کارثکیکںیہیکرپیھت۔کاسک‬
‫ےککرماکاکےسکدورکواعقکاھت‪،‬کنکیلکوپرےکدنہواتسینکڑاکریغصکںیمکاملسمونںکیککسکےسکڑای‬
‫ت‬
‫ک اب کے۔وطلی کدم کںیم کدںیھکیکوت کدراگوہں کاورکاخاقنوہں کےنکوعاؾ کےککاالسؾک‬
‫ اایمیب ک ا کرہسا کوصیف کرضحا کےک کگر ا‬
‫ںیمکداےلخکںیم ک‬
‫کایکامہکرکدارکاداکایک۔کاسکےلسلسکںیمکومضمؿکونسیکےنکریمشککںیمکوصویفںکےککرکدارکرپکرچہچکیککےکاورک‬
‫وصویفںکےککاقمئکرکدہکریشکےلسلسکاورکویسایکوصتػک اکروؽکیھبکنایؿکایککے۔‬
‫‪126‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫ت‬
‫دنہواتسؿکیککاقثیتفکبارخیکںیمکوششباتالکرشفیکاورکریمابایئک‬
‫یککرشاتککیککشقنک اری‬
‫*‬
‫ڈارٹککویجنسکامکرکاچی‪.‬امی‪.‬‬
‫**‬
‫ڈارٹککرپیتیکامکر‬
‫ت‬
‫کرکبکے‪،‬کنجکیککمیلعتک‬
‫ہیکرپیپکدوکوصیفکوتنسںکوششباتالکرشفیکاورکریماکبایئکیککاینبدیک تامیل کیککشقنک اری ا‬
‫ت‬
‫رصػکزباینکوطرکرپکزےگکڑایھکوجکاؿ کےککےفسلفکیککاقثیتفکبارخیکیککونتیعکوککالتشکرکےنک ا ک‬
‫کایکامہکذرہعیکے۔کدوونںک‬
‫وصیفکوتنسںکےنکہنکوتکاےنپکےمغنکاورکںیمظنکدنبملقکےئیککاورکہنکیہکوہکڑایکالکیکیسکزباونںکںیمکےہککےئگ۔کہکلبکہیکوبؽکاچؽکیکک‬
‫نسن‬
‫زباؿکںیمکےہککےئگکنجک اکلسنکدرکلسنکزباینکرٹا شنکذمیبہکـول کتیگکےککوطرکرپکوہا‪،‬کوجکزجکیھبکوموجدکے۔ونجیبک‬
‫تت‬
‫دنہواتسؿ کےک کرکبای کںیم کوششباتال کرشفی کےک کاگونں‪ ،‬کومغنں کاور کومظنں(ت کبادا) کوک کاعؾ کوبؽ کاچؽ کیک کزباؿ کےسجک‬
‫کک کےتہک کںیہ کںیم کمظن کدنبھ کایک کایگہکبج کامشیل کدنہواتسؿ کےک کرااھتسجؿ کںیم کریمابایئ کےک کاگےن ک(ید) کڑاج کزباؿک‬
‫داھڑواڑ ن ا‬
‫ںیمکےہککےئگ۔دوونںکوصیفکوعاؾکںیمکےبکااہتنکوبقمتیلکرےتھککںیہ۔‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*‬
‫ش‬
‫کیٹلکیف‪،‬کونجیبکاایشییئکویوینریٹس‪،‬کیئنکدیلہ‬
‫اٹنٹسسکرپورسیف‪،‬ک عبئہکنیبکاتالوقایمکاقلعت ‪،‬کخولشکاسسنیئنب ت‬
‫شھ‬
‫ت‬
‫** ک‬
‫اوسیسکرپورسیفکاورکگرڑااہ‪،‬کبارخیکاورکاھبریتکاقث تفکنشکیس‪،‬ک لی کویوینریٹس‪،‬کنوی‪،‬کرااھتسجؿ‬
‫‪127‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫کت‬
‫کت‬
‫کوہشان کےک کومجمہع کیک کاکعیس کرکےت کںیہ‪ ،‬کاس کےک کڑاصالػک‬
‫کرواحن کاور‬
‫ہکبج کریما کبایئ کےک کاگےن کاور کےمغن‬
‫رشفیکےککایختال کےککاطمقبکوہشاین‪،‬کوہش کازیگنکااسحاس کاورکیسنجکوخااشہ کرواحینکاراقتٔکںیمکر اوٹکںیہ۔ک ااتکمک‬
‫اور کیسنج کوخااشہ کےس کرشفی کیک کرواحین کرفن کوک کیلقع کدتاللئ کےک کاسھت کاؿ کےک کولگ کوتیگں کںیم کشیپ کایک کایگک‬
‫ے ک‬
‫۔ای کمظن کںیم کرشفی کےن کیسنج کااعتشؽ ک ا کومازہن کزہاےلی کاسی کےس کایک کے‪ ،‬کسج کےک کاتنجئ کتہب کیہ کخاابکوہک‬
‫ت‬
‫تکسکںیہ۔‬
‫ب ت‬
‫وصیفکاورک لکھ کہفسلفکےککصالػکااجتحجکاورکاالتخػکراےئکہاکزامےنکںیمک اریکر ا۔وششباتالکرشفیکاورکریماک‬
‫رطزیککامندنئیگک‬
‫اڑیکےکک ک‬
‫کرحتییککرطػکاشارہکاتلمکےکاورکہیکابالقیبکش ا‬
‫بایئکےککاگونں‪،‬کومغنں اورکومظنںکںیمکماایتمہ ک ک‬
‫رکےت کںیہ۔ کوششباتال کرشفی کےن‪ ،‬کوج ک‬
‫کای کےلچن کےقبط ک ا کاملسمؿ کاھت‪ ،‬کاےنپ کاگونں‪ ،‬کومغنں کاور کومظنں کںیم کڑاانمہ کوادیک‬
‫رطزےککذرےعیکمہکزیگنہکاورکذمیبہکاستیملک اکاغیپؾکالیھپ کاب۔کوہک‬
‫کلایککاورکوصیفک ک‬
‫کککراخسکاتالاقتعدیکرکفکوک ک ک‬
‫ایقد کاورکایکس ن ا‬
‫ک‬
‫کککزباؿکںیمکےلہپکوصیفکشارعک‬
‫ایکیفسلفکاورکامسیجکحلصمکاھتکسجکےنکرکبایکںیمکوصیفکتنپکیککرشواع کیککاورکا ںیھ ن ا‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ک ابکے۔ریمابایئکوجکرااھتسجؿکےککدقامکدنسپ کران ت کےس کےسککر قکرھت یکںکویطسکاھبریکیکک‬
‫ےککوطرکرپک ابا ا‬
‫ککیھتنپکرکفکےککصالػکوقحؼکوسناںکیککڑلایئکیککامندنئیگکرکیتکںیہ۔‬
‫اطوتقر ن ا‬
‫ت‬
‫اؿ کدوونں کوصیف کوتنسں کےک کوحاےل کےس کومضمؿ کونسی کےن کاس کدور کیک کاقثیتف کبارخی کوک کواحض کوطر کرپ کشیپکایکک‬
‫ے۔‬
‫‪128‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫وصیفکویھتریکاورکذمیبہکرخوام‬
‫*‬
‫ڈارٹککرپامیکامکر‬
‫ک ت‬
‫کارثکی کہن کوت کاےنپ کذمیبہ کدیقعے کوکک‬
‫االسؾ کےک کبارے کںیم کھچک کامہ کےنھکل کواولں ےک کاطمقب کاملسمونں کیک‬
‫ ایتنکیھت کاورکہنکیہکاؿ وککھجمسکتکسکیککوق کرھت یکیھت۔کاؿ ےککاطمقبکزدنیگکرش( تک(ذمیبہکاقونؿ)کاورکدجسمکےکک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کڑکےنک‬
‫رکچ‪،‬کجح‪،‬کروزہ‪،‬کریخا کاورکریمسکامنزکیکدحمودکیھت۔کنکیلکاملعءکرکاؾکےککاسکوھچےٹکےسکداڑاےکےککباہاکز کبادہ ا‬
‫اےسکبا ایفکبا کاب‪،‬کاخصکرککاںوھںکےنکوجکریغکرعبکےھتکاورکفلتخمکذمیبہکروابکا کےککاسھتکاالسؾکںیمکدالخکوہےئکےھت ک۔‬
‫وہ ک‬
‫کای کاےسی کخابایت‪ ،‬کےب ککش کخابا کازیگن کذمہ ک ا کوصتر کرکےت کےھت کسج کںیم کخدا کایپر کدےتی کاور کاکچپرےت کوہےئک‬
‫ت‬
‫دوسکےککوطرکرپکداھکیئکدےکاورکراجئکرعتافی کوککھجمسکباےنکےسکاقرصکےھت۔کاخصکرککجکاالسؾکاؿکرمکحاونںکےکک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ک‬
‫کایقم‬
‫ اوھتںکںیمکگ چنکایگکنجک اکذمہکےسکوکیئککر قکںیہنکاھت‪،‬کوتکہیکولگک تدد کیککاخرطکاہنتیئکںیمکےلچکےئگ اکبہککروز‬
‫خداکےککبضغکےسکےچبکرہکںیکس۔کہیکوصویفںکیککادتباعکیھت۔‬
‫ت‬
‫ب ت‬
‫کھ‬
‫ل‬
‫ب‬
‫ش‬
‫۔ک‬
‫وصتػ کیک کخوچ کاالسؾ کیک کدو کداھراؤں کےک کمگنس کےک کوطر کرپ کشیپ کیک کیئگ کیھت‪ :‬ک(‪ )۱‬ن ںی‪ ،‬ک(‪)۲‬‬
‫ت ب ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کایقمےککدؿکیککزساکےککڈرکیککہگجکتبحمکاوررعتفیک‬
‫ک‬
‫کرجہی لکھ کمسقکےنکوبقمتیلکاایتخرکرککیل۔‬
‫ک‬
‫نکیلکدوگریکدصی‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*یٹلکیف‪،‬کہفسلفک اکنشکیس‪،‬کزدنرھاکویوینریٹس‪،‬کوشااخمنٹپ‪،‬کزدنرھاکرپدشی‬
‫‪129‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫ےن کےل کیل۔ کدوگری کدصی کرجہیکےککاخہمت کےس کےلہپکیہ کوصیفکرضحا کےنکرعم تف کاحلصکرکےنک ا کرطہقیکدربکا تفک‬
‫رکایلکاھتکاورکوصیفکرکفکاخیصکوبقمتیلکاحلصکرککیکچکیھت۔‬
‫ک‬
‫ت‬
‫ہیکریح کیککبا کںیہنکےکہککتہبکمککوہفقکںیمکیہکوصیفکرضحا کدقامکدنسپکذمیبہکرامنؤںکےککناےنک‬
‫ت‬
‫رپکزکےئگ۔کدقامکدنسپکاملعءکرکاؾکےککےئلکوصویفںکیککتہبکیسکباوتںکوککاچپکبابا کزاسؿکںیہنکاھت۔وصتػکیککراہکرپکاگماؿک‬
‫ت‬
‫اسمفا کوک کاؿ کلزنولں کےس کرزربا کتالزیم کے‪ :‬کوتہب‪ ،‬کرپزیہ‪ ،‬کارتسداد‪ ،‬کرغی‪ ،‬کربصو کلمحت‪ ،‬کخدا کںیم کنیقی کاور کاانیمطؿ۔ کاؿک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کوہبکےکہککملع‪،‬کملعک اےننک‬
‫کوہبکےکاورکاےسکااسحس ا‬
‫رمالحکےسکرزرےنکےککدعبکیہکوصیفکوککایلعٰکدرہجک اکوعشرکاحلص ا‬
‫کاییہکںیہ۔‬
‫واتالکاورکوہکوجک اباکایگ ک ک‬
‫ت‬
‫ومضمؿکاگنرکےنکوصتػکےککااسقؾکیککیلیصفتکواضجکیککے۔کاسکےککدعبکاقبکاورکانفکےککباؾکےسکوصتػکیکک‬
‫دوکاحوتلںک اکذرککے۔کوصتػکیککفلتخمکرعتںیفیکاورکوصویفںکےککفااضئکیھبکلیصفتکےسکےھکلکےئگکںیہ۔ککاؿ ےککایخؽک‬
‫ںیم کوصتػ کوک کادنروین کزدنیگ کیک کاہطر کو کبازیکیگ کیک کریمعت کرکےن کےک کذرہعی کےک کوطر کرپ کداھکی ک ابا کاچےئہ۔ کاںوھں کےنک‬
‫خواؽکوپاھچکےکہک ک‬
‫کایکوصیفکیککزدنیگک اکااتتخؾکاورکااکسکدصقمکایککےکاورکاےکس کدعبکوصیفکویھتریکاورکذمیبہکرخوام ک اک‬
‫یلیصفت کذرک کرکےت کںیہ۔ کوہ کوصیف کزدنیگ کیک کرواحین کاور کذمیبہ کرخوام ک ا کیھب کذرک کرکےت کںیہ۔ کزخا کںیم کوہ ک تدد کےکک‬
‫ت‬
‫خاوا ‪،‬کاؿکرپکلمعکدرزوریکےککذراعئکاورکتاج کےککرا ہتک اکیھبکیدرکہکرکےتکںیہ۔‬
‫‪130‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫وصتػکاور ن‬
‫کبطکاصالایق‬
‫*‬
‫ڈارٹککدہمیکاڑاایمیہ‬
‫ت‬
‫’’ادقار‘‘ اناؿکےککادنروینکافص کےککاسھتکیملعکامخدکیککاینبدکرپکاےکسکڑ اابؤکےککسکوہیتکںیہ۔کاحتالہکنک‬
‫وصتػک(روحکیک)کملعکرپکینبمکے۔کاسکومضمؿکںیمکوجکرظنہیکشیپکایککایگکےکوہکہیکےکہککوصنایہنکاوصولںکیککاینبدکرپ ن‬
‫کبطک‬
‫ایاینکڈاھاچنکانببکا اک اتککے۔‬
‫اصالایق کےککےئلک ک ک‬
‫دصقموککاحلصکرکےنکےککےئلکباینطکملعکےککدنمرہجکذلیکاوصولںکرپکابتدہلکایخؽکرکباکاچ ہبوے۔‬
‫اسک ک‬
‫‪ )۱‬داینکےککبارےکںیمکوخوصبر کرظنہیکرانھککاچ ہبوے۔‬
‫‪ )۲‬اےنپکوککخداکےککاسےنمکبالمکمکںیھجمس۔‬
‫ےہککداینکرپکاگرارکے۔‬
‫‪ )۳‬ہیکایخؽکر ک‬
‫ذموکرہکنیتکاوصولںکےککاطمقبکےئن ن‬
‫کبطکاصالایق کوککاحلصکرکےنکےککھچککرطےقیکںیہ۔‬
‫‪ )۱‬خداکاورکاےکسکوقانینکےککاسےنمکگرکمیلستکمخکرکبا۔‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*اعموؿکرپورسیف‪،‬کدہشمکڈیملکیکاسزسنئکویوینریٹس‪ ،‬ککاڑااؿ‬
‫‪131‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫‪ )۲‬خداکےککےئلکایھچکراےئکرانھک۔‬
‫‪ )۳‬ربصکوکلمحتک اکدا نکہنکوھچڑبا۔‬
‫ت‬
‫کوہبکے‪،‬کامیبریکاورکتحصکےککےئلکااکسکنطئئہک‬
‫اسکراہکرپکلچکرککاناؿکےککےئلکادنروینکملعکاحلصکرکباک نکم ا‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کرکب کے۔ کوت کامر ن‬
‫کبط کاصالایق کوصتػ کرپکینبمکوہ ک اےت کںیہ‪ ،‬کز کبادہک‬
‫ک ابکے کاور کوہکاےنپ کاصالیق کروےی کےک کاالصح ا‬
‫رظن کدبؽ ا‬
‫رہگایئکاورکااکحتس کؾےسکاےسکدئ ہہکےچناگ۔‬
‫‪132‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫االسؾکاورکرواداری‬
‫ت‬
‫فاباؿکیملع‬
‫ت‬
‫وصعمہمکفھح‬
‫*‬
‫**‬
‫کت‬
‫کای’اعیملکاگؤں’ ںیمکرہکریہکےکسجکںیمکوکیئکیھبکمروپک کابکوقؾکدوگروںکےسکٹککرککںیہنک‬
‫انکزج ک ک‬
‫ان‬
‫رہکیتکسکاورکدوگرےکایککرککرےکںیہکاسکےسکاتاجؿکوہکرککیھبکںیہنکرہکیتکس۔کہاریکداین ک‬
‫کایکدوگرےکرپکاسکدقرکرصحنمک‬
‫ےہککرپکا نکاقبےئکبایمہکہارےکےئلکض دحکرووریکوہکایگے۔‬
‫ک‬
‫ت‬
‫داین کیک کزبادی کیک کارثک کی کیسک کہن کیسک کذمہ کیک کریپو ارے۔ کاؿ کذماہ کےک کدرایمؿ کاقلعت کیک کونتیعک‬
‫ت‬
‫کت‬
‫انکیککالفحکوکوبہبدکےککےئلک ایفکاک تیکیککاحہ کے۔کذماہکےنکینبکونعکاناؿکیککبارخیکںیم ک‬
‫کایکااہتنیئکامہ ک‪،‬‬
‫امتؾکان‬
‫ اتالہکن کمہبم کرکدار کاداکایک کے‪ ،‬کاخص کوطرکرپ کانتزہع کےک کےلسلس کںیم۔ کذماہ کےنکدشتد کاور کج کوک ک اڑا کرہٹا اب کےکاورکایکسک‬
‫وحہلصکازفایئکیککے۔کاسھتکیہکاسھتکاںوھںکےنکانتزہعکےککاخےمت‪،‬کرواداریکاورکاعیملکا نکےککاحتال کدیپاکرکےنکیکک‬
‫ارزڑ کے‪ ،‬کاچےک‬
‫روور کوک کلح کرکےن کیک کوکوششں کیک کوحہلص کازفایئ کیک کے۔ کاس کےئل کذمہ کےک کرکدار کوک ک انھجم کب ک ا‬
‫انتزاع کےک ک‬
‫کایکذرےعیکےککوطرکرپک کابکا نکوکاامؿکاقمئکرکےنکےککذرےعیکےککوطرکرپ۔‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*رہتاؿکویوینریٹسکںیم ک‬
‫کاوسیسکرپورسیف‪،‬کیٹلکیفکداینی ‪،‬کرہتاؿ‬
‫**ایپربمکامظعکویوینریٹسکیککاڈیککمکرنک‪،‬کرہتاؿ‬
‫‪133‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫ت‬
‫افزؿ کےن کذمیبہ کاقبےئ کبایمہ کاور کرواداری کرپ کیئک کزوتیں کںیم کتہب کزور کدے کرک کبا کیک کے۔االسؾ کرن‪،‬ک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کرکب کاور کاالسیم کاسموا کےک ک ق ک ا کملع کڑادار کے۔درگی کاقع ہ‪،‬ک‬
‫کامز کوک کمیلست کںیہن ا‬
‫لسن‪ ،‬کوقتیم ک کاب کاقث تف کےک کیسک کیھب ک ا‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫نت‬
‫کس کدوونں کںیم ک اعمک‬
‫اقث تف کاور کوقومں کےک کولوگں کےک کاسھت کانمس کاقلعت کڑافاار کرےنھک کوک اکفزؿ کاور کرخوؽ کیک‬
‫وطر کرپ کاتب اب کایگ کے۔ا ن‪ ،‬کااصنػ‪ ،‬کاسموا کاور کاھبیئ کاچرہ کبایمہ کااہفؾ کو کمیہفت کاور کرپ کا ن کاقبےئ کبایمہ کدیپا کرکےن کےکک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫کدحیےککوحاےلکےسکبا ک‬
‫کچکیککے۔‬
‫اینبدیکاوصؽکںیہ۔کاسکسکرپکومضمؿکونسیکےن اکفزؿکاور ک ک‬
‫اسکےئل‪،‬کاسیجکہککدئریسکشارعکیدعیکےتہککںیہ‪،‬ک ’مہ ک‬
‫کایکیہکمسجکےککار اؿکےککوطرکرپکںیہ‪،‬کمہکوککدوگرےک‬
‫ےککدردکوککاےنپکدردکےککوطرکرپکوسحمسکرکباکاچ ہبوے‪،‬کرصػکاسکوصر کںیمکمہکاناؿکباؾکےککاقبکوہکباںیئکےگ۔’‬
‫‪134‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫قیقحت اکرطہقی‬
‫االسیمکنفکریمعتا کیکک ک‬
‫*‬
‫رٹکنسحکذوااقفلرکزادہ‬
‫ڈا ک‬
‫ت‬
‫االسیمکنفکریمعتکےککرطہقیک ارکوککحیحصکوطرکرپک انھجمکبا نکمکےکجکیکہککمہکاس یککاینبدوںکاورکرطوقیںک‬
‫وککہنکںیھجمس۔کنیققحمکےنکاالسیمکنفکمیلعتکوککک ےنھجکےککےئلکفلتخمکرطوقیںک اکالامعتؽکایککے۔کاہجںکھچککےنکواضیتحک‬
‫ت‬
‫قیقحتک کابکباریخیکزجتہیک اکاہسراکایلکے‪،‬کدوگروںکےنکالصکاکن ک اکاینبدیکاطمہعلکرکباکرتہبکاھجمسکے۔کدنچ ککایکےنکنفکریمعتک‬
‫ت‬
‫ اےننکےککےئلکرووریکباکاڑاکوعاہ کرپک اعمکقیقحتکیککے۔کؤمخاکاذلرککوک ک‬
‫کایکمظنمک کابکاینبدیکنطئئہکرظنک اہک ا اکبکے‪،‬کسجک‬
‫رپکوموجدہکومضمؿک ا ک‬
‫کایکااھچکہصحکینبمکے۔کاسکرطےقیکےککاطمقبکاالسیمکنفکریمعتکوککنیتکرمالحکںیمکاھجمسکایگکے ک۔‬
‫ت‬
‫کایکاالسیمکنطئئہکرظنےسکنفکریمعت ک‬
‫الہپکرمہلح‪ :‬ک‬
‫کایکامسیجکرہظمکےکسجک اکاڑا کوکرخوخکایسس‪،‬کاقث تفکاورکتشیعمکرپک‬
‫ت‬
‫ڑپب کے۔ ک‬
‫کای کاالسیم کاعمرشےکےککنیت کنطئئہ کرظن ک(ذمیبہ‪ ،‬کنایفسلہن کاور کاسیسنئ) کوہےتکںیہ کنج کیک کاینبد کرپ کاالسیمکنفک‬
‫ا‬
‫ت‬
‫کوہبکے۔کدوگراکرمہلح‪:‬کاسکرمہلحکںیمکاالسیمکنفکریمعتکےککادنروینکوعاہ کےسیجکوخوصبریت‪،‬کقیلختکاورکلقعک‬
‫ریمعت اکایقؾ ا‬
‫ت‬
‫ےککااسقؾکیککقیقحت کوہیتکے۔کہی کااسقؾکخدا کےککباؾ کاور کافص کاور کریبوین کاظمہا‪ ،‬کتمکح کاور ک‬
‫کذڑاانئ کںیم کلیخت کےک اکبؽک‬
‫لیم کےک کہجیتن کےک کوطر کرپ کاسےنم کزےت کںیہ۔ کرسیتا کرمہلح‪ :‬کااکس ککر ق کنف کریمعتا کےک کاس کوگہش کےس کے کسج کںیمک‬
‫ک‬
‫ڈڑاارنئکرےنہکیککہگجکاورکریمعتکوککاسکداین کےککاخقلکےککانبےئکےئگکاوصولںکےسکوجڑکرککزدنیگکوککزرادمہکانبباکاچاتہکےکاورک‬
‫ریمعتکیککاخیمکےککسکزدنیگکںیمکزکریہکاخںویںکوککدورکرکباکاچاتہکے۔‬
‫ت‬
‫ارٹنلنشیناامؾکینیمخکویوینریٹس‪،‬کفاونی‪ ،‬ککاڑااؿ‬
‫ک‬
‫*رسیئکیٹلکیفکامعمری‪،‬ک‬
‫‪135‬‬
‫___________________________‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Urdu‬‬
‫االسیم کنف کریمعت ک ا کالعاقیئ کزجتہی کنیت کرطح کےس کایک ک ا ک اتک کے۔ کاس کںیم کالہپ کوقیم‪ ،‬کدوگرا کنیب کاتالوقایمک‬
‫(االسیمکاممکلکےککدرایمؿ)کاورکرسیتاکداینکےککحطسکرپکوہاگ۔کامیضک اکاطمہعلکرکےککلبقتسمکںیمکیھبکاس ےسکدئ ہہکایلک اک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ اتککے۔کاالسیمکنفکریمعتکیککبارخیکےککڑاایقیتکادوار‪،‬کاس ےککامہکاقمدصکاورکوعاہ کرپکوگتفگکاالسیمکنفکریمعتکےککرطہقیک‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ ار کوک کحیحص کوطر کرپ کک ےنھج کےک کےئل کرووری کے اکبہک کمہ کاالسیم کنف کریمعت کںیم کاشکدہ کوہیت کرکف کاور کایکس کڑایق کےک کولہپؤں ک اک‬
‫اشمدہہکرکںیکاورکااکنکاالطؼکرککںیکس۔‬
‫‪136‬‬
International Journal of Religious Thoughts
Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012
‫خالصه مقاالت‬
137
‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫عزفان صوفی و مذاهب هندی‬
‫پش‪ٚ‬فؼ‪ٛ‬س ػبسائ‪ٛ‬‬
‫*‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ٌ :ٜ‬ؼتشؽ اػالْ دس ‪ٙٞ‬ذ ث‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٛ‬ست ٘تید‪ ٝ‬غیش ٔؼتمیٓ فٔبِیّت ‪ٞ‬بی كّح آٔیض‬
‫ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب اتفبق افتبد ‪ ٚ‬ث‪ ٝ‬چ‪ٙ‬ذیٗ ٘ؼُ ا٘تمبَ یبفت‪ٓ .‬شفبٖ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ ٚ‬آییٗ ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٙٞ( ٚ‬ذ‪ٚ‬ییؼٓ) اص‬
‫ِحبٍ اك‪ٔ َٛ‬تبفیضیه ‪ ٚ‬آٔ‪ٛ‬صؽ ّٕٓی ثب ‪ ٓٞ‬تـبث‪ٟ‬بتی داس٘ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٌ ٝ‬فت‪ ٝ‬ت‪ٔٛ‬بع وّشی ‪ ٓٞ‬ث‪ٛ‬دیؼٓ‬
‫‪ٓ ٓٞ ٚ‬شفبٖ ك‪ٛ‬فی ثش ػ‪ٛ‬دٔ‪ٙ‬ذی "ٔشالج‪ ٚ ٝ‬تفىّش" ثشای سؿذ س‪ٚ‬حی تإویذ ٔی و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ٚ .‬‬
‫ٔ‪ٛ‬ه‪ٓٛ‬بت ٔشالج‪ ٚ ٝ‬تفىّش دس ‪ٞ‬ش د‪ ٚ‬ث‪ٙٔٔ ٝ‬ی ٘بت‪ٛ‬ا٘ی ‪ ٚ‬پ‪ٛ‬چی خ‪ٛ‬یـتٗ‪ ،‬اخت‪ٙ‬بة ٘بپزیشی ٔشي‪،‬‬
‫٘بپبیذاس ‪ٌ ٚ‬زسا ث‪ٛ‬دٖ تٕبْ پذیذ‪ٞ ٜ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬غیش لبثُ تل‪ّٛ‬س ث‪ٛ‬دٖ حمیمت اػت‪.‬‬
‫اػالْ ٌشایی دس ‪ٙٞ‬ذ سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ث‪ ٝ‬ػ‪ ٝ‬دػت‪ ٝ‬تمؼیٓ وشد‪ٛ٘ :‬ویـی یب تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت فشدی‪،‬‬
‫تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ٌش‪ٞٚ‬ی ‪ ٍٖٕٛٞٚ‬ػبصی ‪ ٚ‬فش‪ ًٙٞ‬پزیشی‪ .‬اػتٕشاس حٕبیت یىی اص دالیّی اػت و‪ٝ‬‬
‫ٔىشسّاً ثشای ٘‪ٌٛ‬ش‪ٚ‬ی فش‪ٍٙٞ‬ی‪ٔ -‬ز‪ٞ‬جی روش ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت‪ .‬دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ٌش‪ ٜٚ‬ا‪ َٚ‬فشد ٕٔىٗ اػت‬
‫ٔؼتمیٕب ثب ت‪ٛ‬خّ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬وـ‪ٛ‬سی و‪ ٝ‬دس آٖ ص٘ذٌی ٔی وشد‪ٌ ،‬ش‪ٚ‬یذٖ ث‪ٌ ٝ‬ش‪ٞٚ‬ی خبفّ سا ث‪٘ ٝ‬فْ خ‪ٛ‬د‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*سئیغ دپبستٕبٖ ث‪ٛ‬دیضْ دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬د‪ّٞ‬ی‪ -‬د‪ّٞ‬ی ٘‪ٛ‬‬
‫‪138‬‬
‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫ٔی دیذ ‪ٌ ٚ‬ش‪ٚ‬یذٖ ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ‪ ،‬ؿب٘غ فشد سا ثشای پیـشفت ؿغّی اؽ‪ ،‬افضایؾ ٔی داد‪ .‬و‪ٙ‬تشَ‬
‫ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ثش فٔبِیّت ‪ٞ‬بی التلبدی‪ ،‬ؿشایي ٔ‪ٙ‬بػجی سا ثشای اػالْ ٌشایی ٔ‪ٟ‬یبّ ٔی ػبخت‪.‬‬
‫ٌش‪ ٜٚ‬د‪ ْٚ‬ؿبُٔ وؼب٘ی ث‪ٛ‬د و‪ ٝ‬دس ػبی‪ ٝ‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت‪ ،‬س‪ٞ‬جشا٘ـبٖ ٘یض ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ س‪ٚ‬ی ٔی‬
‫آ‪ٚ‬سد٘ذ‪ .‬ایٗ ٌ‪ٌ ٝ٘ٛ‬شایؾ ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ ٘یض ٕٔىٗ اػت ثب ت‪ٛ‬خ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ؼبئُ ػیبػی ‪ ٚ‬التلبدی أىبٖ‬
‫پزیش ؿذ‪ ٜ‬ثبؿذ‪ٌ ٚ .‬ش‪ ٜٚ‬ػ‪ ْٛ‬ؿبُٔ ٌش‪ ٜٚ‬ثضسٌتشی اص افشاد اػت‪ .‬وؼب٘ی و‪ ٝ‬تإثیش تذسیدی ایٗ‬
‫تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت سا دس ص٘ذٌی اختٕبٓی ‪ ٚ‬اص ًشیك ثشخ‪ٛ‬سد ثب ٔ‪ٟ‬بخشاٖ ٔؼّٕبٖ یب ك‪ٛ‬فی تدشث‪ٔ ٝ‬ی‬
‫وشد٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫ُب‪ٞ‬شاً ٔبْ٘ اكّی دس تغییش ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت ‪ٙٞ‬ذی ث‪ٔ ٝ‬زا‪ٞ‬ت ی‪ٟٛ‬دی‪ٔ ،‬ؼیحی‪ ،‬دالیُ اختٕبٓی‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬د ٘‪ ٝ‬دالیُ س‪ٚ‬حی ‪ٛٙٔٔ ٚ‬ی‪ .‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی دیٍش فشآی‪ٙ‬ذی و‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ًٛ ٚ‬ال٘ی ث‪ٛ‬د و‪ ٝ‬ثبیذ‬
‫اص سا‪ٞ ٜ‬ب ‪٘ ٚ‬ؼُ ‪ٞ‬بی صیبدی ٓج‪ٛ‬س ٔی وشد‪ .‬ایٗ فشآی‪ٙ‬ذ تذسیدی ا٘تمبَ ‪ ٚ‬خزة فش‪ٍٙٞ‬ی ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫ك‪ٛ‬ست ػؼت ؿذٖ س‪ٚ‬اثي اختٕبٓی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی لجّی‪ ،‬ك‪ٛ‬ست ٔی ٌشفت ‪ ٚ‬آٖ س‪ٚ‬اثي ‪ ٚ‬پی‪٘ٛ‬ذ ‪ٞ‬ب‬
‫ث‪ٔ ٝ‬حن ٌش‪ٚ‬یذٖ ث‪ ٝ‬یه ٔز‪ٞ‬ت خذیذ‪ ،‬فشأ‪ٛ‬ؽ ٕ٘ی ؿذ٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد اػالْ‪ ،‬فشآی‪ٙ‬ذ اػالْ ٌشایی دس ػٌح اختٕبٓی‪ ،‬فشآی‪ٙ‬ذ خزة اػالٔی ث‪ٛ‬د و‪ٝ‬‬
‫دس آٖ افشاد ‪ٌ ٚ‬ش‪ٞ ٜٚ‬ب ث‪ ٝ‬تذسیح پی‪٘ٛ‬ذ ‪ٞ‬بی خ‪ٛ‬د سا ثب ٓمبیذ لذیٕی خ‪ٛ‬د ٔی ؿىؼت‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ ٚ‬سا‪ٞ‬ی سا‬
‫دس پیؾ ٔی ٌشفت‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬دس ٘‪ٟ‬بیت ث‪ٚ ٝ‬اثؼتٍی آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ث‪ ٝ‬ػبختبس ؿشیٔت اػالْ ختٓ ٔی ؿذ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬یظٌی خبِت دیٍش دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ٌؼتشؽ اػالْ ایٗ ث‪ٛ‬د و‪ ٝ‬دس ٘‪ٛ‬احی ؿشق ‪ٙٞ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫ؿذّت ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ س‪ٚ‬ی آ‪ٚ‬سد٘ذ ث‪ًٛ ٝ‬س لبثُ ت‪ٛ‬خ‪ٟ‬ی اص ٘ف‪ٛ‬ر ثش‪ٕٞ‬بیی خجشی ٘ج‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬دس حمیمت دس‬
‫ا‪ٚ‬ایُ لش‪ٚ ٖٚ‬ػٌی‪ ،‬ث‪ٍٙ‬بَ یه ٔ‪ٛ‬سد اػتث‪ٙ‬بیی دس ؿج‪ ٝ‬لبس‪ ٜ‬ی ‪ٙٞ‬ذ ث‪ ٝ‬ؿٕبس ٔی سفت‪.‬‬
‫‪139‬‬
‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫ؿشق ث‪ٍٙ‬بَ و‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬د‪ٚ‬س اص ٔشاوض لذست اػالٔی ث‪ٛ‬د وٓ وٓ ثیـتشیٗ خٕٔیّت ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ دس‬
‫ؿج‪ ٝ‬لبس‪ ٜ‬ی ‪ٙٞ‬ذ سا دس خ‪ٛ‬د خبی داد‪ .‬دس ٓیٗ حبَ ٘جبیذ خّك ‪ ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬ی آییٗ ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ ٚ‬سا ٘یض ٘بدیذ‪ٜ‬‬
‫ثٍیشیٓ و‪ ٝ‬ایٗ دس اػتمجبَ اص فشل‪ٞ ٝ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬اك‪ َٛ‬خذیذ‪ ،‬آػبٖ ٌیشتش اص اػالْ اػت‪.‬‬
‫ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب و‪ ٝ‬دس چبسچ‪ٛ‬ة اػالْ ػٔی داؿت‪ٙ‬ذ استجبى ٔؼتمیٓ ثب خذا ثشلشاس و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪،‬‬
‫س‪ٞ‬جشاٖ س‪ٚ‬حب٘ی ٔشدٔی ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ و‪ ٝ‬صٖ ‪ٔ ٚ‬شد آ٘‪ٟ‬ب دس ػٌح خبٔٔ‪ ،ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬یبی ‪ٞ‬ذایت ‪ ٚ‬ت‪ٛ‬كی‪ٞ ٝ‬بی‬
‫د٘ی‪ٛ‬ی ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪ .‬لذست ٔٔدض‪ ٜ‬آٔیض ‪ ٚ‬اسصؽ ‪ٞ‬بی اختٕبٓی آ٘‪ٟ‬ب‪ ،‬غیش ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ سا ث‪ ٝ‬ػٕت آ٘بٖ‬
‫خّت ٔی وشد‪ .‬خبِت ت‪ٛ‬خّ‪ ٝ‬ایٗ و‪ ٝ‬تٔبُٔ اختٕبٓی ثیٗ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬الـبس ٔحّّی دس چبسچ‪ٛ‬ة‬
‫فشأیٗ ٔختّف ك‪ٛ‬فی‪ ،‬ث ‪ٌ ٝ‬شایؾ آ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ ٚ ٝ‬پی‪ٛ‬ػت‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ ا٘دبٔیذ‪ .‬صیشا ایٗ ٘‪ ّٛ‬تٔبُٔ‬
‫خ‪ٛ‬اػتبس ؿىؼتٗ ٔ‪ٛ‬اْ٘ اختٕبٓی ‪ ٚ‬فشل‪ ٝ‬ای ث‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ا‪ِٚ‬یبء ‪ ٚ‬ؿٔشای ك‪ٛ‬فی ثشای ػش‪ٚ‬د‪ٞ ٜ‬بی ؿٔشی ؿبٖ‪ ،‬اص تلب‪ٚ‬یش ‪ِ ٚ‬جخ‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ٞ‬بیی اص‬
‫ص٘ذٌی س‪ٚ‬صٔش‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٟ‬ش‪ٌ ٜ‬شفت‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ٕٞ ٚ‬یٗ اػتفبد‪ ٜ‬فشا‪ٚ‬اٖ ‪ٙٔ ٚ‬بػت آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ثبٓث ٔی ؿذ حتّی ٔشدْ ثی‬
‫ػ‪ٛ‬اد ‪ٙٔٔ ،ٓٞ‬ی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ف‪ ْٟٛ‬آٖ سا ث‪ ٝ‬ساحتی دسن و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ .‬تإویذ ثش ثشاثشی ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ‪ ٚ‬غیش ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ثبًُ دا٘ؼتٗ ٔفب‪ٞ‬یٓ وفّبس تب خبیی و‪ ٝ‬دس ثشخ‪ٛ‬سد ثب افشاد ػبیش ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت اػتفبد‪ٔ ٜ‬ی ؿذ‪ٛٔ ،‬ه‪ّٛ‬‬
‫سایح ثؼیبسی اص ؿٔشای ك‪ٛ‬فی ؿذ‪.‬‬
‫ٓشفبٖ ك‪ٛ‬فی ٘مؾ ثؼیبس ٔ‪ّٕٟ‬ی دس و‪ٙ‬تشَ احؼبػبت ‪ ٚ‬پیؾ دا‪ٚ‬سی ‪ ٚ‬ثشلشاسی پُ‬
‫‪ٞ‬بی استجبى ‪ ٚ‬دسن ثیٗ ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت ٔت‪ٙ‬بلن داؿت‪ .‬هذّ خ‪ٛ‬اف ٔح‪ٛ‬سی‪ ،‬هّذ تمذّع ٔأثی‪ ،‬هذّ‬
‫تـشیفبت ٔح‪ٛ‬سی ‪ٚ‬آٔ‪ٛ‬ص‪ٞ ٜ‬بی اؿٔبس ك‪ٛ‬فی‪ ،‬ث‪ٙ‬بی س‪ٚ‬ی آ‪ٚ‬سدٖ غیش ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ث‪ ٝ‬آغ‪ٛ‬ؽ اػالْ‬
‫سا پبی‪ ٝ‬سیضی وشد‪.‬‬
‫ػشٓت تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت دس ٘‪ٛ‬احی ؿٕبِی ‪ٙٞ‬ذ و‪ٔ ٝ‬شوض لذست ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ث‪ ٝ‬ؿٕبس ٔی سفت‪،‬‬
‫ثؼیبس پبییٗ ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬دس خ‪ٛٙ‬ة ‪ ،ٓٞ‬ایٗ ػشٓت ثؼیبس و‪ٙ‬ذ ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬أب دس ث‪ٍٙ‬بَ ٔخل‪ٛ‬كبً دس ٔ‪ٙ‬بًك‬
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‫ؿشلی خبسج اص دػتشع‪ ،‬ػشٓت تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ثؼیبس ثبال ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت یب ٘‪ٌٛ‬ش‪ٚ‬ی ‪ٞ‬بی‬
‫اخجبسی ثؼیبسی اتّفبق افتبد‪ .‬أب ًجك اًالّٓبت آٔبسی‪ ،‬اوثش آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ث‪ٌٕ ٝ‬شا‪ٞ‬ی وـیذ‪ ٜ‬ؿذ٘ذ‪ٔٔ .‬ش‪ٚ‬ف‬
‫تشیٗ ٕ٘‪ ٝ٘ٛ‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ثشادساٖ ‪ٞ‬بسی ‪ٞ‬بسا ‪ ٚ‬ث‪ٛ‬وب‪ ،‬پبی‪ٌ ٝ‬زاساٖ أپشاً‪ٛ‬سی ثضسي ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬یدبیب٘بٌبسا (‪ )6565-6336‬اػت و‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬اخجبس ٔحّٕذ ت‪ٛ‬لّه دس ػبَ ‪ 6337‬ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ س‪ٚ‬ی‬
‫آ‪ٚ‬سد٘ذ‪ .‬لبثُ ت‪ٛ‬خّ‪ ٝ‬تشیٗ ٔثبَ دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت‪ ،‬دس وبس٘بتبوب اتفبق افتبد و‪ ٝ‬تیپ‪ ٛ‬ػٌّبٖ تٕبْ‬
‫ؿ‪ٟ‬ش‪٘ٚ‬ذا٘ؾ سا ّٔضْ وشد‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٛ‬دو‪ ٝ‬ثبیذ ث‪ ٝ‬اػالْ س‪ٚ‬ی آ‪ٚ‬س٘ذ‪٘ .‬بوبسآٔذی تجّیغ دی‪ٙ‬ی اص ًشف‬
‫ػٌّ‪ٙ‬ت سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ اص آ٘دب ف‪ٕٟ‬یذ و‪ ٝ‬أش‪ٚ‬ص‪ ٜ‬فمي پ‪ٙ‬ح دسكذ اص خٕٔیّت ٔ‪ٌٙ‬م‪ ٝ‬تحت فشٔب٘ش‪ٚ‬ایی‬
‫تیپ‪ٛ‬ػٌّبٖ‪ٔ ،‬ؼّٕبٖ ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ .‬دس حبِی و‪ٌٙٔ ٝ‬م‪ٔ ٝ‬دب‪ٚ‬س آٖ یٔ‪ٙ‬ی ػبحُ ٔبالثبس ػی دسكذ‬
‫ٔ ؼّٕبٖ داسد‪ٕٓ .‬ذتب ث‪ ٝ‬خبًش ای‪ٙ‬ى‪ ٝ‬آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ث‪ٛٙٓ ٝ‬اٖ ٔٔبّٔ‪ٌ ٝ‬شا٘ی كّح ًّت‪ ،‬دس لشٖ ‪ٞ‬ـتٓ دس آٖ‬
‫ٔ‪ٌٙ‬م‪ ٝ‬ص٘ذٌی ٔی وشد٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫ثب ت‪ٛ‬خّ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت اختیبسی‪ ،‬ؿبیذ ا٘تِبس س‪ٚ‬د و‪ ٝ‬ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ی ٔؼتمیٕی ثیٗ ٔ‪ٙ‬بًك‬
‫تحت و‪ٙ‬تشَ ػالًیٗ د‪ّٞ‬ی ‪ ٚ‬أپشاً‪ٛ‬ساٖ ٔغ‪ٚ َٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬د داؿت‪ ٝ‬اػت‪ .‬أب داد‪ٞ ٜ‬بی آٔبسی اثجبت‬
‫و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬ی چ‪ٙ‬یٗ ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ای ٘یؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ .‬اص ایٗ س‪ ٚ‬تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت اختیبسی ‪ ٚ‬تغییشٔزا‪ٞ‬ت حبكُ اص تجّیغ‬
‫دی‪ٙ‬ی ػٌّ‪ٙ‬تی‪ُ ،‬ب‪ٞ‬شا فمي ٓ‪ٛ‬أُ وٕىی ٘بچیضی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٓ ٝ‬ال‪ٔ ٜٚ‬ؼّٕب٘بٖ ػبوٗ ٔشص‪ٞ‬بی‬
‫غشثی ‪ ٚ‬ػبحُ ٔبالثبس اص لشٖ ‪ٞ‬ـتٓ ث‪ ٝ‬ثٔذ تجذیُ ث‪ ٝ‬خٕٔیّت ‪ٞ‬بی و‪ٛ‬چىی ؿذ٘ذ ‪ٞ ٚ‬یچ اغتـبؽ‬
‫‪ ٚ‬فت‪ ٝٙ‬ی ثضسٌی دس خٕٔیّت ‪ٞ‬بی ٔؼتمش ایدبد ٘ىشد٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫س‪ٚ‬ی ‪ ٓٞ‬سفت‪٘ ،ٝ‬مؾ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب دس تغییش ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ثش‪ٕٞ‬بیی‪ٙٞ-‬ذ‪ ٚ ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬أْ لجیّ‪ ٝ‬ای ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫اػالْ دس وـ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٔ ،‬خل‪ٛ‬كبً ث‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٛ‬ست غیش ٔؼتمیٓ‪ ،‬ثؼیبس ٔ‪ ّٟٓ‬ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬ا٘تمبَ ‪ ٚ‬خزة فش‪ٍٙٞ‬ی‬
‫ً‪ٛ‬ال٘ی ‪ٚ‬و‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬دس ٔذّت صٔب٘ی ً‪ٛ‬ال٘ی اتّفبق ٔی افتبد‪٘ ،‬ـبٖ اص ‪ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬د خجش دس پغ ایٗ تغییش‬
‫ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت اػت‪ .‬اك‪ٛ‬الً ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب ث‪٘ ٝ‬بدیذ‪ٌ ٜ‬شفتٗ فبكّ‪ ٝ‬ثیٗ ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ‪ ٚ‬غیش ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ وٕه‬
‫وشد٘ذ‪.‬‬
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‫جستجوی عزفانی هویّت‬
‫نگاشت تحقیقات و کارهای" شیشوناال شزیف" و "میزا بای" در‬
‫تاریخ فزهنگی هند‬
‫*‬
‫دوتش ػب٘دی‪ ٛ‬وٕبس‬
‫دوتش پشیتی ؿشٔب‬
‫**‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ :ٜ‬ایٗ ٔمبِ‪ ٝ‬ثب ا‪ٞ‬تٕبْ ثش ٍ٘بؿت ٔجب٘ی ث‪ٔٔ ٝ‬شفت ؿ‪ٙ‬بػی د‪ ٚ‬تٗ اص لذّیؼیٗ ٓشفب٘ی‬
‫یٔ‪ٙ‬ی ؿیـ‪٘ٛ‬بال ؿشیف ‪ٔ ٚ‬یشا ثبی و‪ ٝ‬فّؼف‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬د سا ثٌ‪ٛ‬س ؿفب‪ٞ‬ی ٔ‪ٙ‬تمُ ٔی ػبخت‪ٙ‬ذ ‪٘ ٚ‬مـی‬
‫حیبتی دس وـف ٔب‪ٞ‬یّت تبسیخی فش‪ ًٙٞ‬د‪ٚ‬س‪ٞ ٜ‬بی ٔشث‪ٛ‬ى ث‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬د سا ایفب ٔی ٕ٘‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪ ،‬پشداخت‪ٝ‬‬
‫اػت‪ .‬الصْ ث‪ ٝ‬تزوّش اػت و‪ ٝ٘ ٝ‬ت‪ٟٙ‬ب ‪ٞ‬یچیه اص ایٗ د‪ٓ ٚ‬بسف اؿٔبس خ‪ٛ‬د سا ث‪ ٝ‬تحشیش وـیذ‪ ٜ‬ثّى‪ٝ‬‬
‫حتی ٓمبیذ خ‪ٛ‬د سا دس لبِت صثب٘ی والػیه ٓشه‪٘ ٝ‬ذاؿت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ ‪ ٚ‬دس ٓ‪ٛ‬م ثب صثبٖ ٔحب‪ٚ‬س‪، ٜ‬ایٗ‬
‫ٓمبیذ سا اص ٘ؼّی ث‪٘ ٝ‬ؼُ دیٍش دس لبِت اؿٔبس ‪ ٚ‬تشا٘‪ٞ ٝ‬بی ٔحّی ٔ‪ٙ‬تمُ ػبخت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*اػتبدیبس ٌش‪ ٜٚ‬س‪ٚ‬اثي ثیٗ إُِّ دا٘ـىذ‪ ّْٛٓ ٜ‬اختٕبٓی دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬آػیبی خ‪ٛٙ‬ثی‬
‫**اػتبدیبس ‪ ٚ‬ػشٌش‪ ٜٚ‬دا٘ـىذ‪ ٜ‬تبسیخ فش‪ٙٞ ًٙٞ‬ذ‪ ،‬دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬ثب٘بػتبِی –ساخؼتبٖ‬
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‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫ٓال‪ ٜٚ‬ثش ایٗ‪ٓ ،‬مبیذ ٘بؿی اص تدشثیّبت آ٘‪ٟ‬ب دس صٔی‪ ٝٙ‬تجٔین ‪ٞ‬بی اختٕبٓی ٘ؼجت ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫الّیّت‪ٟ‬ب ‪ ،‬فشآی‪ٙ‬ذ فّؼف‪ ٝ‬آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬اؿٔبس ‪ ٚ‬تشا٘‪ٞ ٝ‬بی ایٗ ٓشفب آساػت‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ػجه ا٘مالثی‪ ،‬خّ‪ٌ ٜٛ‬ش‬
‫خ‪ٙ‬جـ‪ٟ‬بی ٔمب‪ٔٚ‬ت دس ٔمبثُ تبثٔیّت ثی چ‪ ٚ ٖٛ‬چشا ‪ٚ‬ث‪ ٝ‬د‪ٚ‬س اص آٌب‪ٞ‬ی ‪٘ٚ‬یض ا‪ٞ‬تٕبْ ثش ػبصٔب٘ذ‪ٞ‬ی‬
‫ٓ‪ٙ‬بكش ‪ٛٞ ٚ‬اخ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬بٖ ٔز‪ٞ‬جی ٔشث‪ ًٝٛ‬سا ث‪ ٝ‬تل‪ٛ‬یش ٔی وـذ‪.‬‬
‫ؿیـ‪٘ٛ‬بال ؿشیف ٔؼّٕب٘ی اص ًجم‪ٔ ٝ‬حش‪ ْٚ‬اختٕبٓی ثب فّؼف‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬یؾ‪ٕ٘ ،‬بیبٍ٘ش‬
‫آتشام ث‪ ٝ‬تجٔین ‪ٞ‬بی ًجمبتی اختٕبّ ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ،ٜ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ػجه ك‪ٛ‬فی ثب ٌؼتشؽ پیبْ اتّحبد ‪ٚ‬‬
‫یىپبسچٍی دی‪ٙ‬ی‪ٓ ،‬مبیذ دٌٕبتیه ‪ ٚ‬ػٌّ‪ًّ ٝ‬جب٘‪ ٝ‬ثش‪ٕٙٞ‬ی سا ث‪ ٝ‬چبِؾ ٔی وـذ‪ٕٞ .‬چ‪ٙ‬یٗ خب٘ٓ‬
‫ٔیشا ثبی و‪ ٝ‬اص ساخپ‪ٛ‬ت ‪ٞ‬بی ػ‪ٙ‬تّی ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪ ،‬خّ‪ ٜٛ‬ػبص چبِؾ خ‪ٙ‬جؾ ػشػخت حم‪ٛ‬ق ص٘بٖ دس‬
‫ثشاثش ِ٘بْ ٔشد ػبالسی لذستٕ‪ٙ‬ذ لش‪ٚ ٖٚ‬ػٌبیی ‪ٙٞ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬صٖ سا ث‪ ٝ‬حبؿی‪ ٝ‬أ‪ٛ‬س ٔحذ‪ٚ‬د ٔی دا٘ؼت‪،‬‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٙ‬بثشایٗ د‪ٙٔ ٚ‬جْ ٔدضّای ‪ٛٞ‬یّت یٔ‪ٙ‬ی ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ‪ ٚ‬خ‪ٙ‬ؼیّت و‪ ٝ‬اػبع تحٕیُ ‪ ٚ‬تجٔین‬
‫اختٕبٓی سا فشا‪ٔ ٓٞ‬ی آ‪ٚ‬س٘ذ‪ ،‬دس ایٗ ٔمبِ‪ ٝ‬ثشسػی ‪ ٚ‬تـشیح ؿذ‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫سیـ‪ٞ ٝ‬بی ایٗ ؿ‪ٛ‬سؿ‪ٟ‬بی فىشی دس ًیف ٔت‪ ٚ ّٛٙ‬چ‪ٙ‬ذ ٌب٘‪ ٝ‬ای اص ًشیك فّؼف‪ ٝ‬ایٗ د‪ٚ‬‬
‫ٓبسف و‪ ٝ‬یىی ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ ٚ‬دیٍشی ثىتی اػت دس ػبختبس و‪ ٚ ٟٗ‬ث‪ٙ‬یبٖ ٘‪ٟ‬بد‪ ٜ‬ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اختٕبّ ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ ،‬دس‬
‫ًیّ اد‪ٚ‬اس ٔذیذ‪ ،‬ثٌ‪ٛ‬س ٕٓیك ‪ ٚ‬خذّی سؿذ یبفت ‪ ٚ‬خبیٍب‪ٞ‬ی ٔؼتحىٓ ایدبد وشد‪ .‬چـٍٕیشتشیٗ‬
‫‪ٚ‬یظٌی خ‪ٙ‬جؾ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ ٚ‬ثىتی و‪ ٝ‬د‪ ٚ‬ػ‪ّٙ‬ت ٓشفب٘ی ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ ا٘ـٔبثـبٖ اص د‪ٔ ٚ‬ز‪ٞ‬ت ‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٚ ٚ‬‬
‫اػالْ اػت و‪ٔ ٝ‬ح‪ٛ‬س اكّی ‪ٞ‬ش د‪ٔ ،ٚ‬ب‪ٞ‬یّتی ػ‪ّٙ‬تی ‪ٟ٘ ٚ‬بدیٗ سا داسا ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
‫ایٗ فّؼف‪ ٝ‬تٔشیفی ٔدذّد اص پشػتؾ ‪ٓ ٚ‬جبدت سا ث‪ً ٝ‬جم‪ٔ ٝ‬حش‪ ٚ ْٚ‬دس الّیّت اسائ‪ٔ ٝ‬ی‬
‫د‪ٞ‬ذ‪ .‬ؿخلیّت ‪ٞ‬بیی چ‪ ٖٛ‬وجیش‪ٔ ،‬یشاثبی‪ ،‬ت‪ِٛ‬ؼی داع‪ ،‬دا‪ٚ‬د‪ ،‬و‪ٛ‬ت‪ٛ‬ثبٖ ‪ ٚ‬خیبػی‪ٚ ،‬اط‪ٞ ٜ‬بیی‬
‫خبف ‪ ٚ‬ادثیبتی غ‪ٙ‬ی دس ایٗ ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬اص خ‪ٛ‬د ث‪ ٝ‬خبی ٌزاسد٘ذ‪٘ .‬بٌفت‪ٕ٘ ٝ‬ب٘ذ و‪ٞ ٝ‬یچیه اص ایٗ ٘بْ‬
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‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫آ‪ٚ‬ساٖ‪ ،‬ایٗ ادثیبت ‪ٚ‬یظ‪ ٜ‬سا ث‪ ٝ‬صثبٖ خبكّی ٔحذ‪ٚ‬د ٘ؼبخت‪ٙ‬ذ تب اػتفبد‪ ٜ‬آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ثشای ‪ ٕٝٞ‬الـبس‬
‫ٔشدٔی ٔیّؼش ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
‫ٔشاْ ك‪ٛ‬فی ثب اسائ‪ ٝ‬تفؼیشی اص لشآٖ ٔدیذ ‪ ٚ‬احبدیث‪،‬و‪ٛ‬ؿؾ خ‪ٛ‬یؾ سا دس سا‪ ٜ‬آٔ‪ٛ‬صؽ‬
‫احىبْ ‪ ٚ‬اك‪ َٛ‬اػالٔی ‪ٕٛٞ‬اس‪ ٜ‬خبسی ٍ٘ب‪ ٜ‬داؿت‪ ،ٝ‬ثب تإویذ ثش ًشیم‪ٚ ٝ‬كبَ‪ ،‬استمبء س‪ٚ‬ح سا‬
‫اسخحیّت لبئُ ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت‪.‬‬
‫دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ٓشفبٖ‪ ،‬ث‪ٟ‬تشیٗ ت‪ٛ‬كیف‪ٓ ،‬ـمی ثی ا٘ت‪ٟ‬ب ث‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬خبیٍضیٗ ‪ٚ ٕٝٞ‬اثؼتٍی‬
‫‪ٞ‬بی ٓبًفی د٘ی‪ٛ‬ی ث‪ٛ‬د‪٘ٚ ٜ‬یض اؿتیبق ث‪ٚ ٝ‬كبَ ٔی ثبؿذ‪ٕٞ .‬بٍ٘‪ ٝ٘ٛ‬و‪ ٝ‬ایٗ ٔ‪ٛ‬اسد اص ؿبخق ‪ٞ‬بی‬
‫اسوبٖ ٔشاْ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ ٚ‬ثىتی ٔحؼ‪ٛ‬ة ٔی ؿ‪٘ٛ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫دس ‪ٞ‬شد‪ ٚ‬خ‪ٙ‬جؾ‪ ،‬ثبصتبثی اص ٔبِىیّت فشدی افشاد ثش یه ػشی ل‪ٛ‬آذ ٔتذا‪ٔ ٚ َٚ‬شػ‪ْٛ‬‬
‫سفتبسی ‪ ٚ‬آداة ٌفتبسی و‪ ٝ‬دس صٔش‪ٔ ٜ‬ـتمّبت ٔز‪ٞ‬جی ‪ِٚ‬ىٗ ثی ث‪ٟ‬ش‪ ،ٜ‬اص ‪ٞ‬ش ٌ‪ ٝ٘ٛ‬و‪ٙ‬تشَ ٘‪ٟ‬بدی‬
‫ثـٕبس ٔی آی‪ٙ‬ذ سا‪ ،‬اسائ‪ ٝ‬داؿت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ‪ .‬آییٗ ك‪ٛ‬فی دس پی و‪ٙ‬بس‪ٌ ٜ‬یشی اص ٔبدّی ٌشایبٖ اػالٔی و‪ٝ‬‬
‫ث‪ٙ‬یبٖ تدُّٕ ٌشایی داؿت‪ ٚ ٝ‬ثب ث‪ٙ‬بی ٔؼبخذ ِٓیٓ ‪ ٚ‬ثبؿى‪ ،ٜٛ‬تدّّی ػبصثش‪ٚ‬ت ٓجبدت و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ٜ‬‬
‫ٌب٘ـبٖ ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ،‬اػت‪ .‬اص ًشفی ثىتی ٘یض دس كذد ٔف‪ ْٟٛ‬ثخـیذٖ ‪ ٚ‬اكالح ٌشایی دس ٔز‪ٞ‬ت‬
‫‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٌ ،ٚ‬بْ ثشداؿت‪ ٝ‬اػت‪ .‬ث‪ٙ‬بثشایٗ ٔیت‪ٛ‬اٖ ٘تید‪ٌ ٝ‬شفت و‪ ٝ‬ایٗ د‪ ٚ‬آییٗ‪ ،‬آصادی ثخؾ ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت‬
‫خ‪ٛ‬یؾ‪ ،‬اص چ‪ٍٙ‬بَ خ‪ ٚ ُٟ‬خشافبت‪ ،‬تجٔین ًجمبتی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪.‬‬
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‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫نظزیّه صوفی وعمل به شعائز دینی‬
‫دوتش پشیٕب و‪ٔٛ‬بس‬
‫*‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ :ٜ‬ثشخی اص ٘‪ٛ‬یؼ‪ٙ‬ذٌبٖ ٔ‪ٙ‬تمذ ثش ایٗ ثب‪ٚ‬سث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ و‪ ٝ‬اوثش ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ٘‪ ٝ‬اص ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ‪ٚ‬ل‪ٛ‬آذ‬
‫اػالْ ػشسؿت‪ ٝ‬ای داؿت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ ‪ ٝ٘ٚ‬دسن دسػتی اص آٖ ‪ .‬ثشای آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ص٘ذٌی‪ ،‬ث‪ ٝ‬ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ؿشیٔت ٔحذ‪ٚ‬د‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٚ ٜ‬ح‪ ٚ َٛ‬ح‪ٛ‬ؽ یىؼشی آئیٗ ‪ٞ‬ب ‪ ٚ‬ؿٔبئش ٔثُ ٔؼدذ‪ ،‬ححّ‪ ،‬س‪ٚ‬ص‪ ،ٜ‬كذل‪ ٚ ٝ‬دٓب ‪ ٚ‬ث‪ٙ‬ب‬
‫خالك‪ٔ ٝ‬ی ؿذ‪ ٜ‬و‪ ٝ‬اِجتّ‪ ٝ‬اص ِ٘ش ّٕٓب ایٗ ٔؼئّ‪ ٝ‬ثیـتشدس ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ غیشٓشة ثب پیـی‪ ٝٙ‬فش‪ٍٙٞ‬ی‬
‫ٔتفب‪ٚ‬ت‪ ،‬لبثُ ٔـب‪ٞ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ،ٜ‬داَّ ثشٓذْ آٌب‪ٞ‬ی ‪ٔٔ ٚ‬شفت اػالٔی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ٜ‬اػت‪ِ .‬زا آ٘‪ٟ‬ب دس‬
‫خؼتد‪ٛ‬ی ٔز‪ٞ‬جی احؼبػی تش‪ ،‬و‪ ٝ‬دس آٖ خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ٘مؾ یه تإٔیٗ و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬أ‪ٙ‬یّت ‪ ٚ‬حبٔیی د‪ٚ‬ػت‬
‫داؿت‪ٙ‬ی و‪ ٝ‬ثب تٔشیف ا٘تضآی ‪ٔٚ‬ب‪ٞ‬یتّی ٘بٔـخق ‪٘ٚ‬بٔتٕبیض‪ٚ‬غیش لبثُ دسن ثب یىؼشی فشأیٗ ٘ف‪ٛ‬ر‬
‫٘بپزیش غیش ٔ‪ٌٙ‬می دس ت‪ٙ‬بلن ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬ثشای ٘دبت اص ایٗ وـٕىؾ ‪ٞ‬بی دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪٘ٚ‬یض فش‪٘ٚ‬ـب٘ذٖ‬
‫ٌٓؾ خ‪ٛ‬یؾ دس سا‪ ٜ‬یبفتٗ خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬ثذػت آ‪ٚ‬سدٖ تم‪ٛ‬ا ثیؾ اص ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ‪ ٚ‬ل‪ٛ‬ا٘ی‪ٙ‬ؾ‪ ،‬ث‪ٓ ٝ‬شفبٖ‬
‫س‪ٚ‬ی آ‪ٚ‬سد٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫تبسیخ اػالْ پغ اص لشٖ ‪ٞ 63‬دشی ث‪ٚ ٝ‬یظ‪ ٜ‬دس ٔ‪ٙ‬بًمی و‪ ٝ‬تحت ػٌّ‪ ٝ‬خّفبی تشن ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ٔغ‪ َٛ‬ث‪ٛ‬د ت‪ٛ‬ػي خ‪ٙ‬جؾ ٓشفب٘ی ‪ ٚ‬ا‪ٞ‬تٕبْ ّٕٓبیی و‪ ٝ‬ػٔی ثش ٍ٘ب‪ ٜ‬داؿتٗ ایٗ خ‪ٙ‬جؾ دس چبس‬
‫چ‪ٛ‬ة ٔز‪ٞ‬ت داؿت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ،‬تحت اِـٔبّ لشاس ٌشفت‪ .‬تل‪ّٛ‬ف دس ٔحُ تاللی د‪ ٚ‬خشیبٖ فىشی اػالْ‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*دپبستٕبٖ فّؼف‪– ٝ‬دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬آ٘ذسا‪ٙٞ-‬ذ‬
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‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫و‪ٓ ٝ‬جبست اص ٓجبدت ‪ ٚ‬ص‪ٞ‬ذ ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٚ ،‬الْ ث‪ٛ‬د ‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ ٝ‬دس لشٖ د‪ٞ ْٚ‬دشی ٓجبدت ك‪ٛ‬فیب٘‪ٝ‬‬
‫ثشخ‪ٛ‬ف اص س‪ٚ‬ص للبف چیش‪ ٜ‬ؿذ‪ .‬حؼٗ ثلشی (‪ٔ )643-738‬ی ٌ‪ٛ‬یذ‪:‬‬
‫" ٔٗ خذا سا اص خ‪ٛ‬ف خ‪ٚ ّٟٓٙ‬یب ث‪ٓ ٝ‬ـك ث‪ٟ‬ـت ٓجبدت ٕ٘ی و‪ ٓٙ‬ثّى‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ا‪ٓ ٚ‬ـك ٔی ‪ٚ‬سصْ"‪.‬‬
‫اِجت‪ ٝ‬پیؾ اص اتٕبْ لشٖ د‪ٞ ْٚ‬دشی ك‪ٛ‬فیبٖ س‪ٚ‬ؿ‪ٟ‬بی دػتیبثی ث‪ٔٔ ٝ‬شفت ‪ٚ ٚ‬كبَ سا آصٔ‪ٛ‬د‪ٜ‬‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫ٓبسف ‪ٚ‬الٔی وؼی اػت و‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬د سا اص ‪ٚ‬اثؼتٍی ‪ٞ‬بی د٘ی‪ٛ‬ی س‪ٞ‬ب ػبخت‪ٚ ٝ‬غشق ٓـك ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ٔٔشفت خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت‪ِ .‬زا صثبٖ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬بی ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ دس ًیّ ‪ ٚ‬یبپغ اص تدشث‪ٚ ٝ‬االی‬
‫ٓشفب٘ی‪ ،‬اغّت اص٘‪ٓٛ‬ی ٔحب‪ٚ‬س‪ ّّٕٛٔ ٜ‬اص ٔؼتی ‪ٓ ٚ‬ـمی ثی ا٘ت‪ٟ‬ب ٔ‪ٙ‬ـبء ٌشفت‪ ٝ‬ث‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ص٘ذٌی س‪ٚ‬حب٘ی و‪ ٝ‬حبكُ چ‪ٙ‬یٗ ٓـك ثی لیذ‪ٚ‬ؿشًی ٘ؼجت ث‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ اػت‪ ،‬ث‪ ٝ‬ػیشی‬
‫دس ٔمبًْ ٌ‪٘ٛ‬بٌ‪ ٖٛ‬س‪ٚ‬حب٘ی تـجی‪ ٝ‬ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت ‪ ٕٝ٘ٛ٘ .‬ای اص چ‪ٙ‬یٗ ػیش ٓبسفب٘‪ ٝ‬ای ؿبُٔ ‪ٔ 7‬شحّ‪ٝ‬‬
‫اػت‪ :.‬ت‪ٛ‬ث‪ ،ٝ‬سیبهت‪ ،‬ا٘ض‪ٚ‬ا‪ ،‬فمش‪ ،‬ؿىیجبیی‪ ،‬آتٕبد ث‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ‪ ،‬سهبیتٕ‪ٙ‬ذی‪ٚ .‬ی ت‪ٟٙ‬ب پغ اص‬
‫ٌزسا٘ذٖ ایٗ ٔمبًْ ث‪ٔٔ ٝ‬شفت ‪ٚ ٚ‬كبَ دػت ٔی یبثذ‪ .‬ت‪ٛ‬ث‪ٛٞ ،ٝ‬ؿیبسی س‪ٚ‬ح اص خ‪ٛ‬اة ٌ‪ٙ‬ب‪ٜ‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬غفّت اػت‪ .‬سیبهت ‪ٚ‬ا٘ض‪ٚ‬ا‪ ،‬س‪ٚ‬ی ثشٌشدا٘ذٖ اص ِزّات د٘ی‪ٛ‬ی ‪ ٚ‬آسص‪ٞٚ‬بػت‪ .‬فمش ث‪ٙٔٔ ٝ‬ی د‪ٚ‬سی‬
‫اص ‪ٞ‬شٌ‪ ٝ٘ٛ‬آسص‪ٞٚ‬بیی و‪ ٝ‬افىبس ا٘ؼبٖ سا اص فىش خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ غبفُ ٔی ػبصد ‪ٚ‬ؿىیجبیی ث‪ٙٔٔ ٝ‬ی‬
‫كجش‪ٚ‬ثشدثبسی دس ٔمبثُ ٔلبئت ‪٘ٚ‬یض خ‪ٛ‬دداسی اص ‪ٞ‬ش آ٘چ‪ ٝ‬و‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ثشای ثـش ٔ‪ٕٛ٘ ْٙ‬د‪ٚ ٜ‬‬
‫دس٘‪ٟ‬بیت آتٕبد ثش فوُ خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬سهبیت ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ـیّت اِ‪ٟ‬ی اػت‪ .‬دس یه والْ ٓشفبٖ تإدیت ٘فغ‬
‫اػت‪ .‬دس ‪ٚ‬الْ ٘‪ٛ‬س اِ‪ٟ‬ی دس لبِت ثلیشت دس لّت ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٚ‬اسد ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ٔمبْ ‪ٚ‬االی ف‪ٙ‬ب‪ ،‬دػتب‪ٚ‬سد تح‪ َّٛ‬س‪ٚ‬ح اص ًشیك ا٘مشام ٌّٔك ‪ ٕٝٞ‬خ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ـ‪ٟ‬ب ‪ٚ‬تٕبیالت‪،‬‬
‫تإُّٔ دس كفبت اِ‪ٟ‬ی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ت‪ٛ‬لّف ػبختٗ ‪ ٕٝٞ‬تفىّشات آٌب‪ٞ‬ب٘‪ ٝ‬اػت‪.‬‬
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‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬اص ایٗ خبث‪ ٝ‬ثٔذ ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬ثمبء آغبص ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬ثمبء اص ًشیك یىی اص ػ‪ً ٝ‬شیك یب ٔدٕ‪ٝٓٛ‬‬
‫ػ‪ً ٝ‬شیك روش ؿذ‪ ٜ‬دس ریُ حبكُ ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪:‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حذت ثب یىی اص فٔبِیّت ‪ٞ‬بیی و‪ٕٛ٘ ٝ‬داسی اص اػبٔی حؼ‪ ٝٙ‬اػت‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حذت ثبیىی اص ا‪ٚ‬كبف خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حذت ثب رات اِ‪ٟ‬ی‬
‫غضاِی یىی اص خشدٔ‪ٙ‬ذتشیٗ ٓبسفبٖ‪ ،‬ثیبٖ سا اص ‪ٚ‬كف چ‪ٙ‬یٗ تدشث‪ ٝ‬ای لبكش ٔی یبثذ‪.‬‬
‫دیٍشاٖ ٔحذ‪ٚ‬دیّت ‪ٞ‬بی صثب٘ی سا ٘بدیذ‪ٌ ٜ‬شفت‪ ّٓٞٚ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬د سا ثش ثیبٖ آ٘چ‪ ٝ‬تدؼّٓ وشد‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٛ‬د٘ذ‪،‬‬
‫ٌزاسد٘ذ و‪ ٝ‬اِجتّ‪ ٝ‬اص ِ٘ش استذوؼ‪ٟ‬ب ت‪ٕٟ‬ت ٘بس‪ٚ‬ا صدٖ ث‪ ٝ‬اكُ دیٗ اػالْ اػت‪ .‬دس هٕٗ‪ ،‬ایٗ خٌش‬
‫‪ ٓٞ‬احؼبع ٔی ؿذ و‪ ٝ‬ؿبیذ ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ب اص پیش‪ٚ‬ی ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ؿشٓی ػشثبص ص٘‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٌ .‬ب‪ٞ‬ی ٘یض ثیب٘بت‬
‫ٓشفب ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ٛ‬فیبٖ ثشای استذوؼ‪ٟ‬بی ٔز‪ٞ‬جی لبثُ ‪ٞ‬وٓ ‪ٚ‬دسن ٘ج‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ٚ ٝ‬یلیتی اخشای إٓبَ‬
‫آیی‪ٙ‬ی سا ثذٓت خ‪ٛ‬ا٘ذ‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬دسٔیبٖ ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ دس ‪ٚ‬خ‪ٓ ٝ‬ذْ پیش‪ٚ‬ی خشدٌشایبٖ اص تٔلّجبت‬
‫ٔز‪ٞ‬جی‪ ،‬اختالف ِ٘شاتی ‪ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬د داسد‪ .‬اثٗ ػی‪ٙ‬ب‪ ،‬اثٗ سؿذ ‪ٚ‬غضاِی اص ًشفی دس ٔتحّذوشدٖ ؿشّ‬
‫‪ٚ‬ت‪ٙ‬ذس‪ٞٚ‬ب ا‪ٞ‬تٕبْ ‪ٚ‬سصیذ٘ذ‪ .‬پش ‪ٚ‬اهح اػت و‪٘ ٝ‬تید‪ٓ ٝ‬جبدت ٓشفب٘ی دس ٓ‪ٛ‬أّی ٔثُ اك‪َٛ‬‬
‫آتمبدی ‪ ،‬خّ‪ٛ‬ف دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ٓ ،‬جبدت دس‪٘ٚ‬ی‪ ،‬ححّ دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ ..ٚ‬خالك‪ٔ ٝ‬ی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬اٌش ٔمبیؼ‪ ٝ‬ای ثیٗ‬
‫اك‪ َٛ‬ك‪ٛ‬فی ‪ٚ‬اك‪ٔ َٛ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی ٔز‪ٞ‬جیّ ‪ ٖٛ‬ا٘دبْ ٌیشد‪ٔ ،‬ی ثجی‪ٙ‬یٓ و‪ ٝ‬ایٗ د‪ ٚ‬دس‪ٚ‬الْ یىی ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ .‬ثٌ‪ٛ‬س‬
‫ٔثبَ ٓبسف و‪ ٝ‬ثدض ‪ٚ‬كبَ حك ث‪ٞ ٝ‬یچ چیض دیٍش ٕ٘ی ا٘ذیـذ دسٓبِٓ ‪ٚ‬كُ‪ ،‬ث‪ ٝ‬آسأؾ دس‪٘ٚ‬ی‬
‫دػت ٔی یبثذ ‪ٕٞ .‬یٗ آسأؾ دس دیٗ اػالْ ٘یض اص ٔف‪ٟٔٛ‬ی ٕٓیك ثشخ‪ٛ‬سداس اػت‪ .‬آسأؾ دس‪٘ٚ‬ی‬
‫ٓبسف ٔ‪ٔٙ‬ىغ و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ ،ٜ‬ایٕبٖ اػت‪ٛ‬اس ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
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‫عزفان و اخالق پزشکی‬
‫دوتش ٔ‪ٟ‬ذی اثشا‪ٞ‬یٕی‬
‫*‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ :ٜ‬اخالق سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ سفتبس ا٘ؼبٖ و‪ ٝ‬حبكّی اص غبِت ‪ٚ‬یظ‪ٌ ٜ‬ی ‪ٞ‬بی دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ٚ‬اكُ‬
‫ؿ‪ٙ‬بخت اػت‪ ،‬تٔشیف وشد‪ٓ .‬شفبٖ ثب ؿ‪ٙ‬بخت دس‪٘ٚ‬ی س‪ٚ‬ح ػش‪ٚ‬وبس داسد‪ .‬تئ‪ٛ‬سی اسائ‪ ٝ‬ؿذ‪ ٜ‬دس ایٗ‬
‫ٔمبِ‪ ،ٝ‬ثیبٍ٘ش أىبٖ ایدبد یه ػبختبس خذیذ ثشای اخالق پضؿىی‪ٔ ،‬ج‪ٙ‬ی ثش اك‪ٓ َٛ‬شفب٘ی اػت‪.‬‬
‫ثشخ‪ٛ‬سداسی اص دیذٌب‪ٞ‬ی صیجب ث‪ ٝ‬ػ‪ٛ‬ی خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ‪٘ ،‬بوبُٔ دس ِ٘شٌشفتٗ خ‪ٛ‬یؾ دسٔمبثُ‬
‫خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬ایذ‪ ٜ‬اػشاس آٔیض ث‪ٛ‬دٖ خ‪ٟ‬بٖ‪ ،‬ػ‪ٛٔ ٝ‬هْ ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ثحث ثشای سػیذٖ ث‪ ٝ‬ایٗ ‪ٞ‬ذف‬
‫دسِ٘شٌشفت‪ ٝ‬ؿذ‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪ .‬ثب ت‪ٛ‬خ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ایٗ ػ‪ ٝ‬آٔ‪ٛ‬ص‪ ،ٜ‬ثشخی اص سا‪ٞ ٜ‬بی دػتیبثی ث‪ ٝ‬اخالق خذیذ‬
‫پضؿىی و‪ ٝ‬اص آٖ ٔیبٖ ‪ٚ‬اٌزاسی أ‪ٛ‬س ث‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ا‪ ،ٚ‬إًی‪ٙ‬بٖ لّجی ‪ٚ‬تفىّشی ٔثجت‬
‫ثشٔـیّت اِ‪ٟ‬ی ‪ ٚ‬كجش‪ٚ‬ؿىیجبیی سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ٘بْ ثشد ‪ ٚ‬پیش‪ٚ‬ی اص ایٗ ٔ‪ٛ‬اسد ثبٓث تحّ‪ َٛ‬س‪ٚ‬یىشد ‪ٞ‬ب‬
‫دس ٔمبثُ ثیٕبسی ‪ٞ‬ب ‪ٚ‬ث‪ٟ‬ذاؿت ‪٘ٚ‬یض اكالحبت سفتبس اخاللی ٔی ؿ‪٘ٛ‬ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٙ‬بثشایٗ اخالق پضؿىی‬
‫ثشاػبع ٓشفبٖ‪ ،‬دػتب‪ٚ‬سدی ػ‪ٛ‬دٔ‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬پبیذاس ساث‪ ٝ‬خبٔٔ‪ ٝ‬ثـشیّت ٓشه‪ٔ ٝ‬ی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫اخالق ّٕٓی اػت و‪ ٝ‬سفتبس ا٘ؼبٖ ساتدضی‪ ٚ ٝ‬تحّیُ وشد‪ ٚ ٜ‬س‪ٚ‬ؽ ‪ٞ‬بی ایدبد دٌشٌ‪٘ٛ‬ی‬
‫اص ًشیك تحّ‪ٛ‬التی دس ‪ٚ‬یظ‪ٌ ٜ‬ی ‪ٞ‬ب ‪ٚ‬یب لّٕش‪ ٚ‬پذیذ‪ ٜ‬خ‪ٛ‬دپؼ‪ٙ‬ذی ا٘ؼبٖ سا ٔ‪ٛ‬سد ثشسػی لشاس ٔی‬
‫د‪ٞ‬ذ ‪.‬ایٗ ؿبخ‪ ٝ‬اص ّٓٓ ث‪ ٝ‬لوب‪ٚ‬ت ث‪٘ ٝ‬یىی ‪ٚ‬ثذی دس ‪ٕٞ‬بٖ ساػتبیی و‪ ٝ‬سفتبس‪ٞ‬ب ث‪ ٝ‬آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ٔ‪ٙ‬ت‪ٟ‬ی ٔی‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*اػتبدیبس دا٘ـٍب‪ ّْٛٓ ٜ‬پضؿىی ٔـ‪ٟ‬ذ‬
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‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ٔ ،‬ی پشداصد ‪ٚ‬سفتبس اخاللی ساث‪ٚ ٝ‬یظ‪ٌ ٜ‬ی ‪ٞ‬بی ر‪ٙٞ‬ی ا٘ؼبٖ ٔشتجي ٔی دا٘ذ‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ ٝ‬اٌش‬
‫ٔج‪ٙ‬بی ٓشفبٖ ثشدا٘ؾ دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ٌزاسد‪ ٜ‬ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ ،‬تٕبْ اكالحبت ‪ ٚ‬دٌشٌ‪٘ٛ‬ی‪ٟ‬ب ‪،‬ث‪ٙ‬یبدی ‪ ٚ‬دائٕی ‪ٔٚ‬ب٘ذٌبس‬
‫خ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٙٞ‬ذ ث‪ٛ‬د‪ِ .‬زا ثشای دػتیبثی ث‪ ٝ‬دا٘ؾ دس‪٘ٚ‬ی‪ ،‬پزیشفتٗ یه ػشی اك‪ َٛ‬خبف ٔثُ ٔثجت‬
‫ٍ٘شی دسثبس‪ ٜ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ‪ ،‬آتشاف ث‪٘ ٝ‬بلق ‪٘ٚ‬بوبُٔ ث‪ٛ‬دٖ دس ثشاثش خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ ٚ‬اػشاس آٔیض ث‪ٛ‬دٖ خ‪ٟ‬بٖ‪،‬‬
‫غیش لبثُ اخت‪ٙ‬بة ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫دس ٍ٘شؽ ٔثجت ث‪ ٝ‬ػ‪ٛ‬ی خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ‪ ،‬خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ِٔ‪ٟ‬ش اِ‪ٟ‬ی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ِٚ ٜ‬زا صیجب ٔی ثبؿذ ‪ٚ‬ؿیٌبٖ‬
‫ِٔ‪ٟ‬ش ثذی ‪ٞ‬ب ‪ٚ‬صؿتی ‪ٞ‬ب و‪ ٝ‬دس ٘تید‪ ٝ‬آٖ اختالفبت ثیٗ ا٘ؼب٘‪ٟ‬ب ٔت‪ِّٛ‬ذ ٔی ؿ‪٘ٛ‬ذ‪ .‬تب صٔب٘یى‪ ٝ‬ا٘ؼبٖ‬
‫دسٌیش خ‪ٍٟٙ‬بی دس‪٘ٚ‬ی اػت‪ٕ٘ ،‬ی ت‪ٛ‬ا٘ذ صیجبیی خ‪ٟ‬بٖ سا دسن ‪ٔ ٚ‬ـب‪ٞ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬و‪ٙ‬ذ ‪.‬ثشای سػیذٖ ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫ؿ‪ٙ‬بخت دس‪٘ٚ‬ی اٌش ا٘ؼبٖ خ‪ٛ‬د سا وبُٔ فشم و‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ،‬دس ا‪ِٚ‬یٗ ٌبْ حبئُ ‪ٞ‬بیی سا ایدبد ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ٝ‬‬
‫ؿ‪ٙ‬بخت (خ‪ٛ‬د) سا ٘بٕٔىٗ ٔی ػبص٘ذ‪.‬خ‪ٟ‬بٖ داسای خ‪ٙ‬ج‪ ٝ‬دس‪٘ٚ‬ی (اػشاس آٔیض) ‪٘ ٚ‬یض خ‪ٙ‬ج‪ ٝ‬ثش‪٘ٚ‬ی‬
‫(لبثُ ف‪ٛٓ ٟٓ‬اْ)ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬دسن اثٔبد ثش‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ٚ‬ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ثبل‪ ٜٛ‬تفىّش ‪ ٚ‬تٔمُّ ٕٔىٗ ٔی ثبؿذ دسحبِیى‪ٝ‬‬
‫اػشاس ‪ٕٞ‬یـ‪ ٝ‬ثب تفىّش ‪ ٚ‬اػتذالَ لبثُ دسن ‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪ٙ‬بخت ٘یؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫ساص ٔٔ‪ٛٙ‬ی سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ث‪ ٝ‬ثیٕبسی تـجی‪ ٝ‬وشد‪ٚ‬ثب دس ِ٘شٌشفتٗ ت‪ٛ‬هیحبت ثیبٖ ؿذ‪،ٜ‬‬
‫ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬پضؿه ‪ ٚ‬ثیٕبس‪ ،‬لبثّیّت دٌشٌ‪٘ٛ‬ی ٔی یبثذ‪ِ .‬زا اك‪ٓ َٛ‬شفب٘ی ث‪ٙٔ ٝ‬ضِ‪ ٝ‬ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ثیٕبس ‪ ٚ‬پضؿه‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٚ ٜ‬دس ٘تید‪ ٝ‬دس ٔٔیبس ٔمبیؼ‪ ،ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬دسن ٔ‪ٛ‬ه‪ ّٛ‬یبسی ٔی ٕ٘بی‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫دس ت‪ٛ‬هیح ‪ٚ‬تـشیح ٔ‪ٛ‬ه‪ٚ ،ّٛ‬اٌزاسی أ‪ٛ‬س ث‪ ٝ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ‪ ٚ‬دسن ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ ا‪ٔ ،ٚ‬ی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫ایٗ ٔ‪ ّٟٓ‬سخ‪ ّٛ‬وشد و‪ ٝ‬اساد‪ ٜ‬ا٘ؼبٖ صٔی‪ٔ ٝٙ‬ؼبٓذی ثشای ث‪ٟ‬ج‪ٛ‬د اخالق اػت‪ .‬اِجتّ‪ ٝ‬صٔب٘ی و‪ ٝ‬خجش‬
‫ًجیٔی غبِت ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ٛٔ ،‬ه‪ ّٛ‬اخالق ٔ‪ ُٕٟ‬ث‪ِ٘ ٝ‬ش ٔی آیذ‪ .‬ث‪ًٛ ٝ‬س ٔثبَ ّٓی سغٓ ‪ّٛ٘ ٕٝٞ‬‬
‫ٔشالجت ‪ٞ‬بی ث‪ٟ‬ذاؿتی ‪ ٚ‬ػالٔتی‪ ،‬ثبص‪ ٓٞ‬ا٘ؼبٖ ثیٕبس ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د و‪ ٝ‬دس‪ٚ‬الْ پذیذ‪ً ٜ‬جیٔی اػت‪ .‬دس‬
‫احبدیث اػالٔی آٔذ‪ ٜ‬اػت و‪ ٝ‬پبس‪ ٜ‬ای اص ٌ‪ٙ‬ب‪ٞ‬بٖ ثیٕبس ث‪ ٝ‬ػجت س٘ح ٘بؿی اص ثیٕبسی آٔشصیذ‪ٔ ٜ‬ی‬
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‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫ؿ‪٘ٛ‬ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٙ‬بثشایٗ س٘ح‪ ،‬خجشاٖ ٔىبفبت اػت ‪ ٚ‬ثب ایٗ ٔ‪ٌٙ‬ك و‪ ٝ‬حتّی س٘ح ‪ٞ‬بی ٔمذّس ؿذ‪ ٜ‬ثشای ا٘ؼبٖ‬
‫ث‪ِٛٙٔ ٝ‬سی خبف ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٔٚ ٜ‬ملذی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ف‪ٟٔٛ‬ی د٘جبَ ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د ‪ ٚ‬ث‪ ٝ‬دِیُ وٕج‪ٛ‬د خشد ‪ ٚ‬ثلیشت‪،‬‬
‫ا٘ؼبٖ اص دسن آ٘‪ٟ‬ب ٓبخض ٔی ٔب٘ذ‪ .‬اص ٘مٌ‪ِ٘ ٝ‬ش اػالْ ا٘ؼبٖ ثبیؼتی سهبیت ‪ٚ‬خـ‪ٛٙ‬دی خ‪ٛ‬یؾ‬
‫سا دس سهبیت ٔٔج‪ٛ‬د ثپ‪ٛ‬یذ‪ .‬ا٘ؼبٖ صا‪ٞ‬ذ ‪ٔٚ‬ؤٔٗ ثب تم‪ٛ‬ای خ‪ٛ‬یؾ حتّی ثیٕبسی سا ٘یض ثبصتبثی اص‬
‫ٕ٘ٔت ‪ٞ‬بی اِ‪ٟ‬ی ٔی دا٘ذ‪ .‬دس حذیثی ث‪٘ ٝ‬مُ ل‪ َٛ‬اص حوشت ٔحّٕذ(ف) آٔذ‪ ٜ‬اػت ‪":‬حتّی فبخٔ‪ٝ‬‬
‫‪ٔٚ‬ىبفبت ثشای فشد ٔؤٔٗ‪ ،‬ثٕ‪ٙ‬ضِ‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬سد٘ی ‪ٞ‬بی تبص‪ ٜ‬فلُ اػت و‪ ٝ‬ثشای خب٘‪ٛ‬اد‪ ٜ‬اؽ ٔی آ‪ٚ‬سد"‬
‫و‪ ٝ‬اِجتّ‪ ٝ‬اؿبس‪ ٜ‬ای ث‪ ٝ‬آتٕبد ث‪ ٝ‬فوُ خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
‫كجش ‪ ٚ‬ثشدثبسی یىی دیٍش اص ٔفب‪ٞ‬یٓ اكّی‪ ،‬اك‪ٓ َٛ‬شفب٘ی دساخالق پضؿىی ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
‫كجش ‪ٕٞ‬بٖ ؿىیجبیی اػت و‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٛ‬ست ت‪ٛ‬ؿ‪ ٝ‬سا‪ٕٞ ،ٜ‬شا‪ ٜ‬ا٘ؼبٖ ٔی ثبؿذ ‪ٚ‬تب دػتشػی ث‪ٞ ٝ‬ذف‬
‫٘‪ٟ‬بی ی ث‪ ٝ‬ا٘ؼبٖ چ‪ٙ‬بٖ ٔمب‪ٔٚ‬ت ‪ ٚ‬ثشدثبسی سا ا‪ٞ‬ذا ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬ا٘ؼبٖ ت‪ٛ‬ا٘بئی ‪ٞ‬بیی خذیذ سا‬
‫دس‪ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬د خ‪ٛ‬د وـف ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬دسػ‪ّٙ‬ت ‪ٞ‬بی اػالٔی كجش‪ ،‬یىی اص فوبئُ ا٘ؼب٘ی ث‪ ٝ‬ؿٕبس آٔذ‪ٜ‬‬
‫اػت‪ .‬فّؼف‪ ٝ‬ی خیشخ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ی خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ تحت ‪ٞ‬شؿشایٌی‪ ،‬ثبٓث ث‪ٟ‬ج‪ٛ‬د ت‪ٛ‬ا٘بیی ‪ٞ‬ب ‪٘ٚ‬یض فض‪ ٖٚ‬لذست‬
‫ا٘ؼبٖ ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت‪.‬‬
‫ایٗ آتمبدات ٔحىٓ ٔ‪ٛ‬خت ؿذ‪ ،ٜ‬ا٘ؼبٖ ‪ٞ‬شٌض ٘ب أیذ ٘ـ‪ٛ‬د ‪ٕٛٞ ٚ‬اس‪ ٜ‬ثب أیذ ث‪ ٝ‬ؿفبی‬
‫اِ‪ٟ‬ی ‪ ٚ‬آتٕبد ث‪ ٝ‬سحٕت ا‪ ٚ‬حتّی ثیٕبسی سا ٘یض ثخـی اص ٓ‪ٙ‬بیبت ا‪ٚ‬ثذا٘ذ‪ .‬ایٗ آتمبد ل‪ٛ‬ی ثبٓث‬
‫ؿفبی ‪ٞ‬شچ‪ ٝ‬ػشیْ تش ثیٕبس ٔی ثبؿذ‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ ٝ‬حوشت ٔحّٕذ(ف) ٔی فشٔبی‪ٙ‬ذ‪ :‬دس‪ٍٙٞ‬بْ ٓیبدت‬
‫اص ثیٕبس ا‪ٚ‬سا أیذ‪ٚ‬اس و‪ٙ‬یذ ‪ٞ‬شچ‪ٙ‬ذ ٕٔىٗ اػت ایٗ ٔـیّت اِ‪ٟ‬ی سا تحت تبثیش لشاس ٘ذ‪ٞ‬ذ ‪ِٚ‬ی ثیٕبس‬
‫سا أیذ‪ٚ‬اس‪ ٚ‬خـ‪ٛٙ‬د ٔی ػبصد"‬
‫‪ٓٚ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٟ‬ج‪ٛ‬د‪ ،‬لذست ‪ ٚ‬اػتمبٔت سا دس ا٘ؼبٖ افضایؾ ٔی د‪ٞ‬ذ‪ .‬ث‪ٙ‬بثش ایٗ ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ٌفت و‪ٝ‬‬
‫اخاللیبّت پضؿىی و‪ ٝ‬ثش اػبع اك‪ٓ َٛ‬شفب٘ی پبی‪ٌ ٝ‬زاسی ؿذ‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪ ،‬تغییش ٘بپزیش ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ٚ‬صٔب٘ی‬
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‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫فشاخ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ذ سػیذ و‪ ٝ‬خبٔٔ‪ ٝ‬پضؿىی ساتحت اِـٔبّ لشاس د‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ .‬اك‪ٓ َٛ‬شفب٘ی ٔ‪ٙ‬دشث‪ ٝ‬ثجبت اخاللی‬
‫ؿذ‪ ،ٜ‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ سا حبٔی سفتبس ا٘ؼبٖ ٔی ٕ٘بیذ ‪٘ٚ‬یض ثبٓث آسأؾ س‪ٚ‬حی ‪ٚ‬س‪ٚ‬ا٘ی دس ثیٕبس ‪ٚ‬پضؿه‬
‫ٔی ؿ‪٘ٛ‬ذ‪.‬‬
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‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫اسالم و تحمّل‬
‫*‬
‫دوتشلشثبٖ ّٕٓی‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ : ٜ‬ثـش‪ ،‬أش‪ٚ‬ص‪ ٜ‬دس یه د‪ٞ‬ىذ‪ ٜ‬خ‪ٟ‬ب٘ی ص٘ذٌی ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪ .‬خبیی و‪ ٝ‬ا٘ؼبٖ ٕ٘ی ت‪ٛ‬ا٘ذ‬
‫دس ا٘ض‪ٚ‬ا ص٘ذٌی و‪ٙ‬ذ ‪٘ ٚ‬ؼجت ث‪ ٝ‬آ٘چ‪ ٝ‬و‪ ٝ‬دس اًشافؾ ٔی ٌزسد ثی آت‪ٙ‬ب ثبؿذ‪ .‬د٘یبی ٔب د٘یبیی ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫‪ ٓٞ‬پی‪ٛ‬ػت‪ ٝ‬اػت تب خبیی و‪ٕٞ ٝ‬ضیؼتی كّح آٔیض ثشای ‪ ٕٝٞ‬ی ٔب ‪ٚ‬اخت ‪ ٚ‬هش‪ٚ‬سی اػت‪ .‬دس‬
‫لشآٖ ‪ ٚ‬ػ‪ّٙ‬ت پیبٔجش(ف) ث‪ًٛ ٝ‬س ٔفلُّ دس ٔ‪ٛ‬سد حفَ س‪ٚ‬اثي ٔ‪ٙ‬بػت ‪ ٚ‬كحیح ثب ٔشدْ دیٍش‬
‫ادیبٖ‪ ،‬فش‪ٞ ًٙٞ‬ب ‪ ُّٔ ٚ‬ثحث ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت‪.‬‬
‫پیش‪ٚ‬اٖ ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت تمشیجب ثیـتشیٗ خٕٔیّت خ‪ٟ‬بٖ سا تـىیُ ٔی د‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٔ .‬ب‪ٞ‬یّت ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ثیٗ آ٘‪ٟ‬ب‬
‫ا‪ٕٞ‬یّت صیبدی ثشای آػبیؾ وُ خب٘‪ٛ‬اد‪ ٜ‬ثـش داسد‪ .‬حمبیك ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت ‪ٙٔ ٓٞ‬ـإ ٓـك ‪ٙٔ ٓٞ ٚ‬ـإ‬
‫دسٌیشی ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٞ .‬ب٘غ و‪ ً٘ٛ‬ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ب ‪ٞ‬ـذاس داد‪ ٜ‬اػت و‪ٞ" ٝ‬یچ ٌب‪ ٜ‬كّح دس خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ثشلشاس ٕ٘ی‬
‫ؿ‪ٛ‬د ٍٔش ای‪ٙ‬ى‪ ٝ‬ثیٗ ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت كّح ایدبد ؿ‪ٛ‬د"‪ .‬تٕبْ ٔزا‪ٞ‬ت ثضسي خ‪ٟ‬بٖ خ‪ٛ‬اػتبس كّح‪ٓ ،‬ـك‪،‬‬
‫ػبصٌبسی‪ ،‬سحٓ‪ٓ ،‬ذاِت‪ ،‬ثخـؾ‪ ّٛ٘ ،‬د‪ٚ‬ػتی ‪ٌٛٓ ٚ‬فت ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫ٔؼئّ‪ٓ ٝ‬ذْ تحُّٕ یب تؼب‪ ُٞ‬یىی اص ثضسٌتشیٗ ‪ ٚ‬پی‪ٛ‬ػت‪ ٝ‬تشیٗ ٔٔوالت دس تبسیخ‬
‫ثـشی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ٜ‬اػت ‪ ٚ‬أش‪ٚ‬ص‪ٕٞ ،ٓٞ ٜ‬چ‪ٙ‬بٖ ٔـىُ آفشیٗ اػت‪.‬‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*ٔذیش ٌش‪ ٜٚ‬ادیبٖ ‪ٓ ٚ‬شفبٖ دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬ت‪ٟ‬شاٖ‬
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‫تحُّٕ ث‪ٛٙٓ ٝ‬اٖ یه ٔف‪ٔ ْٟٛ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی‪ ،‬ػیبػی ‪ ٚ‬فّؼفی و‪ ٓٞ ٝ‬دس ػ‪ ٗٙ‬غشثی ‪ٓٞ ٚ‬‬
‫اػالٔی پیذا ؿذ‪ .‬ث‪٘ ٝ‬ذست ٔ‪ٛ‬سد اػتفبد‪ ٜ‬كحیح لشاس ٔی ٌشفت ‪ٕٞ ٚ‬یـ‪ ٝ‬تحت أش تبسیخ ث‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ثشای ای‪ٙ‬ى‪ٕٞ ٝ‬ضیؼتی اتّفبق ثیبفتذ‪ ،‬تحّیُ ٓبلال٘‪ ٝ‬ای اص خب ‪ٔ ٚ‬ىبٖ تؼب‪ٓ ٚ ُٞ‬ذْ تؼب‪ ،ُٞ‬ثبیذ‬
‫ك‪ٛ‬ست ٌیشد‪.‬‬
‫سا‪ ٜ‬حّی ٔب٘ذٌبس ثشای دسن ث‪ٟ‬تش تؼب‪ ٚ ُٞ‬تحُّٕ دس د٘یبی ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ سا ٕ٘ی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ دس‬
‫ػبختبس‪ٞ‬بی غشثی ‪ٕٞ‬چ‪ِ ٖٛ‬یجشاِیؼٓ ‪ ٚ‬ػى‪ٛ‬السیضْ پیذا وشد‪ .‬ثّى‪ ٝ‬ثبیذ دس سیـ‪ٔ ٚ ٝ‬تٗ خ‪ٛ‬د‬
‫اػالْ‪ ،‬دس پی ایٗ سا‪ ٜ‬حُ ث‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ثبخ‪ٛ‬ا٘ذٖ ٔتٗ لشآٖ ‪،‬ایٗ اكُ اخاللی ٘‪ٟ‬بدی‪ ٝٙ‬ؿذ‪ ،ٜ‬ثشای ا٘ؼبٖ ثب تم‪ٛ‬ا آؿىبس ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫ث‪ًٛ ٝ‬س ٔثبَ خبِذاث‪ٛ‬اِفوُ ث‪٘ ٝ‬مُ اص لشآٖ ٔی ٘‪ٛ‬یؼذ "اٌش خذای ؿٕب ٔی خ‪ٛ‬اػت‪ ،‬تٕبْ ثـش سا‬
‫یه ّّٔت ٔی آفشیذ ‪ِ ٚ‬ىٗ دائٓ ثب ‪ ٓٞ‬دس اختالف خ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٙٞ‬ذ ث‪ٛ‬د" (‪ .)66:668-9‬دس ای‪ٙ‬دب ٔی‬
‫ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ؿب‪ٞ‬ذ ایٗ أش اِ‪ٟ‬ی تحُّٕ‪ٚ ،‬خ‪ٛ‬د اختالف ثـشث‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٛ‬ست ٔ‪ٛ‬لّت ث‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪ ٚ‬دس آی‪ ٝ‬ی دیٍشی اص لشآٖ ثیبٖ ؿذ‪" ٜ‬وبس دیٗ ثب اخجبس ٘یؼت" (‪ ،)3:356‬و‪ ٝ‬ؿبیذ‬
‫س‪ٚ‬ؿٗ تشیٗ ثیبٖ لشآ٘ی ثشای تحُّٕ ٔز‪ٞ‬جی ث‪ ٝ‬خبًش آصادی‪ ٓٞ ،‬ثشای ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ ‪ ٓٞ ٚ‬ثشای غیش‬
‫ٔؼّٕب٘بٖ اػت‪ٔ .‬ؼّٕب٘بٖ ٔی آٔ‪ٛ‬ص٘ذ "وؼی و‪ٔ ٝ‬بْ٘ تؼب‪ٔ ُٞ‬ی ؿ‪ٛ‬د دس‪ٞ‬ب سا ث‪ ٝ‬س‪ٚ‬ی تٕبْ‬
‫خ‪ٛ‬ثی ‪ٞ‬ب ٔی ث‪ٙ‬ذد" ‪" ٚ‬ثب ػبو‪ٙ‬بٖ صٔیٗ ٔ‪ٟ‬شثبٖ ‪ ٚ‬ثضسٌ‪ٛ‬اس ثبؿیذ تب آ٘ى‪ ٝ‬دس آػٕبٖ ‪ٞ‬بػت‪ ،‬ثب ؿٕب‬
‫ٔ‪ٟ‬شثبٖ ثبؿذ"‪ .‬حوشت ٔحّٕذ (ف) ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ؼّٕب٘بٖ ٔی آٔ‪ٛ‬صد‪ ،‬ثخـؾ ثش ‪ٞ‬یچ وغ ٘بس‪ٚ‬ا ٘یؼت‬
‫ٍٔش ثش وؼی و‪ ٝ‬ثش دیٍشاٖ ُّٓ ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ٚ .‬ثبص آٖ حوشت ٔی فشٔبیذ "وؼی و‪ ٝ‬سحٓ ٘ى‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ،‬خذا‬
‫ثش ا‪ ٚ‬سحٓ ٕ٘ی و‪ٙ‬ذ"‪.‬‬
‫لّت اػالْ یٔ‪ٙ‬ی تؼّیٓ ؿذٖ ث‪ ٝ‬خذا ‪ ٚ‬آٌب‪ٞ‬ی اص ص٘ذٌی پیبٔجش‪ٔ -‬ؼّٕب٘ی و‪ ٝ‬تٕبْ‬
‫ٔؤٔ‪ٙ‬بٖ ثبیذ آٖ سا اٍِ‪ٛ‬ی خ‪ٛ‬د لشاس د‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪.‬‬
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‫س‪ٚ‬ح خ‪ٛ‬إ٘شدی‪ ،‬والْ خ‪ٛ‬ؿبی‪ٙ‬ذ ‪ ٚ‬اػت‪ٛ‬اسی دس٘بٔالیٕبت ػ‪ ٝ‬ثبة اص وشداس خ‪ٛ‬ة‬
‫‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ‪ .‬اص ِ٘ش خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ ا٘ؼبٖ ثخـ‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬ثی دا٘ؾ اسصؿٕ‪ٙ‬ذتش اص ا٘ؼبٖ ثبػ‪ٛ‬اد ت‪ِ٘ ًٙ‬شاػت‪.‬‬
‫ٔ‪ٟ‬شثب٘ی‪ ،‬ثخـ‪ٙ‬ذٌی‪ ،‬والْ خیشخ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ب٘‪ ٚ ٝ‬كجش ‪ ٚ‬پبیذاسی ‪ٕٞ‬بٌ٘‪ٛ‬س و‪ ٝ‬پیؾ تش ٌفت‪ ٝ‬ؿذ (ٔٔب٘ی‬
‫تحُّٕ)‪ ،‬پیؾ ٘یبصی ثشای ‪ٕٞ‬ضیؼتی ‪ٞ‬ؼت‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬ادِّ‪ٔ ٝ‬حىٕی دس اػالْ داسد‪.‬‬
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‫روش تحقیق در معماری اسالمی‬
‫ٔ‪ٟٙ‬ذع حؼٗ ر‪ٚ‬اِفمبس صاد‪ٜ‬‬
‫*‬
‫چىیــــــذ‪ٔ :ٜ‬حممّبٖ ‪ ٚ‬خب‪ٚ‬سؿ‪ٙ‬بػبٖ دس پظ‪ٞٚ‬ؾ ‪ٞ‬بی خ‪ٛ‬د دس ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ثب ٕٔٔبسی اػالٔی‪ ،‬ا٘‪ٛ‬اّ‬
‫‪ ٚ‬الؼبْ س‪ٚ‬ؿ‪ٟ‬ب سا اتخبّر وشد‪ ٜ‬ا٘ذ‪ .‬ثٔوی ‪ٞ‬ب ٔب٘‪ٙ‬ذ ٌش‪ٚ‬ح)‪ٞ ،(Grope‬شرفّذ)‪ٚ (Herzfeld‬‬
‫پ‪ٛ‬ح)‪ (Pope‬ث‪ ٝ‬پذیذاس ؿ‪ٙ‬بػی ت‪ٛ‬كیفی یب تدضی‪ٚ ٝ‬تحّیُ خذاٌب٘‪ٞ ٝ‬شاثش ٕٔٔبسی سا خذا اص‬
‫تبثیش پذیذ‪ٞ ٜ‬بی دیٍش ‪ٔٚ‬ج‪ٙ‬ی ثش ؿ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ذ تبسیخی دس ِ٘ش ٌشفت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ‪ .‬ثٔوی دیٍش ٔب٘‪ٙ‬ذ ٌی‪ٖٛٙ‬‬
‫)‪ ،(Guenon‬وبساػ‪ٔٛ‬ی )‪ ،(Karasumi‬ؿ‪ ،(Schoun) ٖٛ‬ث‪ٛ‬سخبست )‪،(Bourkhart‬‬
‫‪ٞ‬ب‪ٚ‬صٖ)‪٘ ،(Hawzen‬لش‪ ٚ‬غیش‪ ٜ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ایٗ لویّ‪ ٝ‬ثب ت‪ٛ‬خ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ػ‪ ٚ ٗٙ‬سػ‪ ْٛ‬اص دیذٌب‪ ٜ‬ثحثی اك‪ِٛ‬ی‬
‫‪ ٚ‬ث‪ٙ‬یب٘ی و‪ ٝ‬اص ػبِ‪ٟ‬بی ‪ٔ 6951‬یالدی آغبص ؿذ‪ ،ٜ‬پشداخت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حبَ آ٘ى‪ ٝ‬دػت‪ ٝ‬ای ث‪ ٝ‬ایٗ ٔ‪ٛ‬ه‪ ّٛ‬ثٌ‪ٛ‬س خبْٔ پشداخت‪ٚ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬تشویجی اص ٓ‪ٛ‬أُ ٔ‪ٛ‬ثّش ثش‬
‫ٕٔٔبسی اؿبس‪ ٜ‬داؿت‪ ٝ‬ا٘ذ و‪ ٝ‬اِجتّ‪ٍ٘ ٝ‬شؿی ػیؼتٕی ‪ ٚ‬ث‪ٙ‬یبدیٗ ٔی ثبؿذ‪ .‬ایٗ ٍ٘شؽ اخیش ثخؾ‬
‫آِٓ ایٗ ٔمبِ‪ ٝ‬سا ثخ‪ٛ‬د اختلبف داد‪ ٜ‬اػت‪.‬‬
‫ًجك ت‪ٛ‬هیحبت روش ؿذ‪ٕٔٔ ،ٜ‬بسی اػالٔی سا ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ دس ػ‪ٔ ٝ‬شحّ‪ ٝ‬ثشسػی ‪ ٚ‬ت‪ٛ‬كیف‬
‫ٕ٘‪ٛ‬د‪:‬‬
‫___________________________‬
‫*سِئیغ دا٘ـىذ‪ٕٔٔ ٜ‬بسی‪ -‬دا٘ـٍب‪ ٜ‬ثیٗ إِّّی أبْ خٕی‪ٙ‬ی‪ ،‬لض‪ٚ‬یٗ‬
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‫ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬ا‪:َٚ‬‬
‫اص دیذٌب‪ ٜ‬اػالٔی ‪ٕٔٔ ،‬بسی خّ‪ ٜٛ‬ای اختٕبٓی دس پشت‪ ٛ‬ػیبػت‪ ،‬فش‪ ٚ ًٙٞ‬التلبد دس خبٔٔ‪ٝ‬‬
‫اػالٔی اػت‪.‬‬
‫ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬د‪:ْٚ‬‬
‫ایٗ ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ثشسػی ٓ‪ٛ‬أُ داخّی ٕٔٔبسی اػالٔی اص خّٕ‪ٔ ٝ‬م‪ٞ ِٝٛ‬بی صیجبیی‪،‬‬
‫خّمت ‪ ٚ‬حىٕت ثؼ‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٔ ٜ‬ی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٔ .‬م‪ٔ ِٝٛ‬زو‪ٛ‬س اص اػٕبء اِ‪ٟ‬ی ‪ٚ ٚ‬یظ‪ٌ ٜ‬ی‪ٟ‬بی راتی ػشچـٕ‪ٌ ٝ‬شفت‪،ٝ‬‬
‫دس ٔدٕ‪ ّٛ‬ث‪ٕٞ ٝ‬شا‪ ٜ‬پذیذ‪ٞ ٜ‬بی ُب‪ٞ‬شی ‪ ،‬خشد ‪ ٚ‬تخیُّ‪ً ،‬شح ‪ٔ ٚ‬ذِی سا خّك ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬ػ‪:ْٛ‬‬
‫ایٗ ٔشحّ‪ ٝ‬دس ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ثب ت‪ٛ‬ػٔ‪ ٝ‬دأ‪ٕٔٔ ٝٙ‬بسی ثب اػتفبد‪ ٜ‬اص اِ‪ٟ‬بْ اص خبِك خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ٔی ثبؿذ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٕٞ‬بٍ٘‪ ٝ٘ٛ‬و‪ ٝ‬خبِك فوبی ص٘ذٌی سا ًشاّحی وشد‪ٕ٘ ، ٜ‬بی‪ٙ‬ذ‪ ٜ‬ا‪٘ ٚ‬یض ثشای استمبء فوبی‬
‫ص٘ذٌی دس أتذاد ‪ٕٞ‬بٖ دیذٌب‪ٌ ،ٜ‬بْ ثش ٔی داسد‪.‬‬
‫دیٗ ٔب٘‪ٙ‬ذ ٌ‪ٞٛ‬شی ٔمذّع‪ٔ ،‬ل‪ ٖٛ‬اص خٌب ‪ ٚ‬اخت‪ٙ‬بة ٘بپزیش اػت‪ ،‬دس حبِیى‪ ٝ‬ثی‪ٙ‬ؾ‬
‫دی‪ٙ‬ی ٓبّٔی تغییش پزیش ث‪ٛ‬د‪ ٚ ٜ‬ثتذسیح ث‪ٟ‬ج‪ٛ‬د ٔی یبثذ ‪ ،‬چشاو‪ ٝ‬ا٘ؼبٖ پذیذ‪ ٜ‬ای ٌّٔك ٕ٘ی ثبؿذ‪ .‬اص‬
‫دیذٌب‪ٔ ٜ‬ز‪ٞ‬جی ٔدٕ‪ ّٛ‬آٔ‪ٛ‬ص‪ٞ ٜ‬بی اػالٔی دس ػ‪ ٝ‬ثخؾ لشاس ٔی ٌیش٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬ثخؾ آتمبدات ‪ ٚ‬ل‪ٛ‬ائذ ‪ٛٔ ٚ‬ه‪ٓٛ‬بت ثبیؼت‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ٙ‬بختی ‪ ٚ‬آتمبدی چ‪ ٖٛ‬ت‪ٛ‬حیذ‪ ،‬كفبت اِ‪ٟ‬ی‪،‬‬
‫٘ج‪ّٛ‬ت ٕٓ‪ٔٛ‬ی ‪ٚ‬اختلبكی (اِ‪ٟ‬یبّت)‬
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‫‪ .3‬ثخؾ اخاللی‪ ،‬یٔ‪ٙ‬ی ٔؼبئُ ‪ٚ‬دػت‪ٛ‬سإُِٔ ‪ٞ‬بی دس ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬ثب سفتبس ثـش دس صٔی‪ٚ ٝٙ‬یظ‪ٌ ٜ‬ی‪ٟ‬بی‬
‫ٔٔ‪ٛٙ‬ی ‪ٚ‬خل‪ٛ‬كیّبت ‪ٚ‬یظ‪ٓ ،ٜ‬ذاِت‪ ،‬تم‪ٛ‬ا‪ ،‬آدبص‪ٓ ،‬فّت‪ ،‬حىٕت‪ ،‬اػتمبٔت‪ٚ ،‬فبداسی‪،‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬كذالت‬
‫‪ .3‬ثخؾ ل‪ٛ‬ائذ ‪ ٚ‬أ‪ٛ‬س ‪ٚ‬اثؼت‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬ویفیّت ا٘تخبة ٌضی‪ ٝٙ‬دس إٓبَ ‪ٚ ٚ‬اخجبت اص خّٕ‪ٕ٘ ٝ‬بص‪ ،‬ححّ‪،‬‬
‫خ‪ٟ‬بد‪ ،‬فم‪ ٝ‬اػالٔی‪ ،‬وٕیّت ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ اِ‪ٟ‬ی‪ ،‬حبوٕیّت ‪ٞ‬ش٘یىی ‪ٚ‬صیجبئی ‪٘ٚ‬فی ‪ٞ‬ش٘‪ ّٛ‬ت‪ٙ‬ذی‬
‫‪ٚ‬ص٘‪ٙ‬ذٌی ‪ٚ‬صؿتی ٔتٕبیض و‪ٙٙ‬ذ‪ ،ٜ‬خبٔٔ‪ ٝ‬ثـشی ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪ٕٔٔ .‬بساٖ ثب اػتفبد‪ ٜ‬اص ٔ‪ٛ‬اسد روشؿذ‪ٜ‬‬
‫دس كٔ‪ٛ‬د ثؼ‪ٛ‬ی ؿبدی ‪ٚ‬تدّیُ ‪ ٚ‬وٕبَ ٌبْ ثشٔی داس٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫آتمبدات ‪ٕٔٔ ٚ‬بسی‪:‬‬
‫ث‪ٛٙٓ ٝ‬اٖ صیشث‪ٙ‬بیی حبٔی‪ ،‬خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ثی‪ٙ‬ی ت‪ٛ‬حیذی ٔ‪ٛ‬خت تغییش ٍ٘شؽ ٘ؼجت ث‪ٝ‬‬
‫‪ٙٞ‬شٕٔٔبسی ؿذ‪ ٜ‬اػت ‪.‬ت‪ٛ‬حیذ پبی‪ٚ ٝ‬اػبع دیٗ اػت و‪ ٝ‬یه حغّ ٕٓ‪ٔٛ‬ی اػت‪ .‬اتحبّد ‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حذت اص یه سیـ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٚ ٜ‬اص یه ٔجذؤ ػشچـٕ‪ٔ ٝ‬ی ٌیش٘ذ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬حذت فوب‪ٚ ،‬حذت ٕٔٔبسی‪ٙٔٔ ،‬ب ‪ٔ ٚ‬ف‪ٚ ْٟٛ‬حذت ‪ٚ‬فوبی ‪ٚ‬احذ ‪ٕٞ‬شا‪ٔ ٜ‬ذاسن‬
‫‪ٚ‬ؿ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬ذ ثی ؿٕبسی دس ٕٔٔبسی اػالٔی ٘یضاص ٔـتمّبت ‪ٚ‬حذت ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
‫اص ًشفی دس ٍ٘شؽ د٘یبی ٔذسٖ‪ ،‬ا٘ؼبٖ ٔتىّی ث‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬یؾ ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٚ ٜ‬اص دیٍش اخضا ٔؼتمُّ‬
‫‪ٚ‬دس وُ ٔی ت‪ٛ‬ا٘ذ حبوٓ ثبؿذ‪ .‬ا‪ٔٚ‬ح‪ٛ‬س ‪ٕٝٞ‬ی أ‪ٛ‬س اػت‪ .‬دس خ‪ٛ‬أْ ػ‪ٙ‬تّی ػیش ٘ض‪ِٚ‬ی ٔز‪ٞ‬ت ‪ ٚ‬اص‬
‫ًشفی ٔیُ ‪ٚ‬افش ث‪ٔ ٝ‬ذس٘یض‪ ٜ‬ؿذٖ‪ٛٔ ،‬خت فمذاٖ ٔب‪ٞ‬یّت ٕٔٔبسی ‪٘ٚ‬یض ‪ٞ‬شج ‪ٔٚ‬شج اختٕبٓی ث‪ٛ‬د‪ٜ‬‬
‫اػت‪ .‬دس حبِیى‪٘ ٝ‬ج‪ّٛ‬ت یه اكُ ٓمیذتی ثب ٔٔب٘ی خبفّ ‪ٓٚ‬بْ ثـٕبس ٔی آیذ‪ .‬خذا‪٘ٚ‬ذ پیبٔجشاٖ‬
‫‪ ٚ‬وتت اِ‪ٟ‬ی سا ثشای ‪ٞ‬ذایت ثـشی ث‪ ٝ‬خ‪ٟ‬تی ٔٔیّٗ دس سا‪ ٜ‬ث‪ٟ‬ج‪ٛ‬د ‪ٚ‬وٕبَ‪٘ ،‬بصَ ػبخت‪.‬‬
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‫‪Summary of Articles in Persian‬‬
‫یىی اص اك‪ٓ َٛ‬میذتی دیٍش‪ ،‬آتمبد ث‪ ٝ‬س‪ٚ‬ص ٔٔبد ثب ٔف‪ٌ ْٟٛ‬ؼتشد‪ٕٔٛٓ ٚ ٜ‬ی ٘یض‪ٔ ،‬ف‪ْٟٛ‬‬
‫خبف آٖ ٔی ثبؿذ‪ٔ .‬مل‪ٛ‬د اكّی اص س‪ٚ‬ص لیبٔت ‪ٕٞ‬بٖ آتمبد ث‪ ٝ‬لوب‪ٚ‬ت ‪ ٚ‬اخشای ٓذاِت ٔی‬
‫ثبؿذ‪ .‬اِجتّ‪ ٝ‬دس ٔف‪ ْٟٛ‬وّی ٔٔبد ث‪ٙٔٔ ٝ‬بی ثبصٌـت یب ث‪ٓ ٝ‬جبستی ثبصٌـت ث‪ٛٞ ٝ‬یّت ‪ ٚ‬ػبختبس‬
‫دس‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ٚ‬ثش‪٘ٚ‬ی ( ٕٔٔبسی)‪ٞ ،‬ذفٕ‪ٙ‬ذی‪ ،‬فّؼف‪ٙٞٚ ٝ‬ش اػالٔی لبثُ ٌٔبثمت اػت‪ .‬اػبع ٕٔٔبسی‬
‫اػالٔی ثش پش‪ٞ‬یض اص پ‪ٛ‬چی‪ ،‬ثشتح‪ ٚ َّٛ‬فٔبِیّت لبئٓ اػت‪ .‬سٓبیت ت‪ٙ‬بػت ا٘ذاص‪ ٜ‬الصْ ‪ٚ‬وبفی ‪ٞ‬ش‬
‫ٓو‪ ٛ‬سا دس ثشٌشفت‪ ،ٝ‬اص ٘بٔ‪ٛ‬ص‪٘ٚ‬ی ‪ٚ‬خٌب‪ ،‬د‪ٚ‬سی ٔی ‪ٚ‬سصد‪ .‬ثشاثشی ‪ ٚ‬تؼب‪ٚ‬ی ‪ ٚ‬سفْ ‪ٞ‬شٌ‪ٝ٘ٛ‬‬
‫تجٔین‪ ،‬سٓبیت حم‪ٛ‬لی فشدی ‪ ٚ‬آٌبی حك ث‪ ٝ‬حمذاس (دس ٔمبثُ ُّٓ ‪ ٚ‬ػتٓ) ٔثُ پبیٕبَ وشدٖ‬
‫حك ‪ٚ‬تدب‪ٚ‬ص ث‪ ٝ‬حم‪ٛ‬ق دیٍشاٖ‪ ،‬سٓبیت ؿبیؼتٍی دس استمبءٔ‪ٛ‬خ‪ٛ‬دیّت ‪ ٚ‬ت‪ٛ‬خّ‪ ٝ‬ث‪ ٝ‬فوُ ‪ٕٔ٘ ٚ‬ت‬
‫و‪ ٝ‬ص٘ذٌی سا ث‪ ٝ‬حیٌ‪ٛٔ ٝ‬خ‪ٛ‬دیّت آ‪ٚ‬سد‪ ٜ‬اػت‪ ،‬چ‪ٟ‬بس اكُ ٔز‪ٞ‬ت اػالْ ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ و‪ ٝ‬اثش‬
‫ؿٍشفـبٖ ث‪ًٛ ٝ‬س ٔٔدض‪ ٜ‬آػبیی دس ٕٔٔبسی اػالٔی ّٕٔ‪ٛ‬ع اػت‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ ٝ‬ل‪ٛ‬ا٘یٗ آتذاَ‬
‫‪ٚ‬تؼب‪ٚ‬ی ‪ ،‬اػتحمبق ‪ ٚ‬ت‪ٙ‬بػت فوب‪ٞ‬ب ‪ ٓٞٚ‬آ‪ٍٙٞ‬ی ٔحفِ‪ٞ ٝ‬ب ‪ٚ‬فوب‪ٞ‬بی دس‪٘ٚ‬ی وُ فوبی اػتفبد‪ٜ‬‬
‫ؿذ‪ ،ٜ‬ثٌ‪ٛ‬س وُ سٓبیت ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ .‬دسایٗ ٘‪ٕٔٔ ّٛ‬بسی ٔٔیبس ػ‪ٙ‬دؾ ‪ٚ‬ػیّ‪ ٝ‬ای اػت ثشای ت‪ِٙ‬یٓ‬
‫اثٔبد ‪ٚ‬ا٘ذاص‪ٞ ٜ‬ب دس حبِیى‪ٙٞ ٝ‬ذػ‪ ٝ‬سا‪ٕٙٞ‬بی ٕٔٔبس دس حل‪ َٛ‬إًی‪ٙ‬بٖ اص ٘ؼجت‪ٟ‬ب ‪ٚ‬س‪ٚ‬اثي اخضای‬
‫ػبختٕبٖ اػت‪.‬‬
‫أبٔت یىی دیٍشاص اك‪ٓ َٛ‬میذتی اػالْ‪ ،‬دس ٕٔٔبسی تإثیش ؿٍشف داؿت‪ ٝ‬اػت‪ .‬أبٔت‬
‫ایفبی ٘مؾ س‪ٞ‬جشی ‪ٚ‬سا‪ٕٙٞ‬بیی ثب ٔف‪ ْٟٛ‬وّی ‪ٔ ٚ‬ـتمبّت اص خّٕ‪ ٝ‬اػتشاتظی‪ ،‬دسًشح ‪ٞ‬بی سایح‬
‫ٕٔٔبسی اػالٔی ٔثُ سا‪ٞ‬ش‪ ٓٞ ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬ا٘ی داسد‪ .‬چ‪ٙ‬ب٘چ‪ ٝ‬دس ٔذسػ‪ ٝ‬خبٖ ؿیشاص ‪ٚ‬خ‪ٛ‬د د‪ٚ‬اصد‪ ٜ‬سا‪ٞ‬ش‪ٚ‬‬
‫ث‪ ٝ‬أبٔت ‪ 63‬أبْ اؿبس‪ ٜ‬داسد‪.‬‬
‫دس ٕٔٔبسی یه ساثٌ‪ ٝ‬دائٕی ثب فوُ ٌّٔك خبِك ایدبد ٔی ؿ‪ٛ‬د‪ٕٔٔ .‬بس‪ٕٔٔ ٚ‬بسی اص‬
‫دیذٌب‪ ٜ‬خ‪ٟ‬بٖ ثی‪ٙ‬ی اػالٔی ثذ‪ٚ‬س اص فوُ اِ‪ٟ‬ی ٔب‪ٞ‬یّت خ‪ٛ‬د سا اص دػت ٔی د‪ٙٞ‬ذ‪ٕٔٔ .‬بس ث‪ ٝ‬فویّت‬
‫دػت ٔی یبثذ ‪ٚ‬فوب سا دس ً‪ َٛ‬د‪ٚ‬س‪ ٜ‬تىبُٔ تبسیخی ایدبد ٔی و‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
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‫‪International Journal of Religious Thoughts‬‬
‫‪Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2012‬‬
‫اص ٔیبٖ ٔم‪ٞ ِٝٛ‬بی فّؼفی ٔی ت‪ٛ‬اٖ ث‪ٚ ٝ‬حذت ‪ ٚ‬وثشت‪ ،‬صٔبٖ ‪ٔ ٚ‬ىبٖ ‪ ،‬ویفیّت ‪ ٚ‬وٕیّت‪،‬‬
‫اختیبس ‪ ٚ‬آٌب‪ٞ‬ی‪ ،‬استجبى ‪٘ٚ‬ؼجت ٔشاخٔ‪ ٝ‬وشد و‪ ٝ‬ثضسٌتشیٗ سا‪ٕٙٞ‬بی ٕٔٔبس دسپیىش ث‪ٙ‬ذی ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ت‪ِٙ‬یٕبت ٕٔٔبسی ٔی ثبؿ‪ٙ‬ذ‪.‬‬
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