National Press Corps
Director: Sam Zeidman
© 2008 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA)
This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model
Congress 2008. Use for other purposes is not permitted
without the express written consent of IDIA. For more
information, please write us at [email protected]
Background _________________________________________________________________ 2
History of News Media _____________________________________________________________ 3
Theories and Models of Mass Media Political Communication ____________________________ 6
Hypodermic Needle (the “Magic Bullet”) Model ________________________________________________6
Figure 1: Hypodermic Needle Model _________________________________________________________7
Two-Step Flow Model ____________________________________________________________________7
Figure 2: Two-Step Flow Model_____________________________________________________________8
Multi-Step Flow Model____________________________________________________________________8
Figure 3: Multi-Step Flow Model ___________________________________________________________10
Theory of Media Dependence ______________________________________________________________10
Figure 4: Theory of Media Dependence ______________________________________________________11
Political Communication__________________________________________________________________12
Foreign Policy ___________________________________________________________________ 12
Three Perspectives on Media Influence ______________________________________________________13
Media and International Conflicts___________________________________________________________14
Summary___________________________________________________________________ 16
Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 17
Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 18
Works Referenced ___________________________________________________________ 20
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Introduction
Author John Baker once stated that, “The world is forever changing.”1 This
statement is especially true with respect to the rapid advancements of technology, media
and the influence that it has in shaping government policies on both the domestic and
international level. From the dawn of the 21st Century the media, in all of its forms, has
played a dominant role influencing government decisions in every country around the
world. Today, mass media, defined as the means of communication that can reach the
general population through mediums such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television,
films, recordings, and electronic communications, is used for many purposes, ranging
from small issues in a rural town to vital international matters.2 This significant sphere of
influence is due to the sudden growth of the twenty-four hour news networks such as the
Cable News Network (CNN), the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), and
International Television News (ITVN), the development of high speed and worldwide
access of broadcasting companies, and through the rapid innovations of technology
through transmission and communication satellites. For instance, by the late 1970s, a
host of communication satellites had been launched into the Earth’s orbit and were in full
use, broadcasting televised events around the world.3 With the introduction of these
satellites as the primary method of communication, the vast expansion of the media’s
influence worldwide was inevitable.
As time passed, communications technology was not the only thing that
developed. With the introduction of the Internet as a medium of communication used by
broadcasting companies, individuals, and governments, the interdependence of nations
also took hold, and steadily grew stronger. In today’s world, there are few pieces of
information that go unreported by news agencies that are spread across the globe. These
include reports ranging from terrorist attacks in the Americas, Europe and the Middle
1
7 Tips for Success: http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/text6-23-2004-55802.asp
Glossary of American Government Terms: <http://other.cerrocoso.edu/studenthelp/links/glossosaurus.htm#sectM>
Date Accessed: 7 December 2004
3
“Communication Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible”, accessed 19 August 2004
<http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html>
2
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East to the starving families in Africa, to the floods and typhoons in Asia. However, with
the growing influence of the news media around the world, governments are being put
under pressure to make certain decisions that have sometimes widespread repercussions,
even if their decisions may not be in the best interest of the country at that time. This
pressure stemmed from the fact that the mass audience of the country would be able to
make knowledgeable decisions based on what they have learned from the news that they
were provided by corporations such as CNN and BBC. This sort of access to government
and decision-making calls into question the extent to which the media should have
influence over operations of government. Before addressing this concern, it is important
to not only understand who and what are behind mass media, but also how much
influence the media really has over political events.
Background
The 21st Century has seen rapid development with respect to the communication
field. Over the last hundred years, the media has evolved from the penny press to the
radio and television to most recently, the Internet. During this evolution, the spread of
the media and its influence has grown exponentially, especially in the international
community. Prior to the era of mass communication, relations between nations were
carried out behind closed doors, with appropriately heavy reliance on secret diplomacy in
order to ensure that vital information to a nation’s strategic plan, economically or
militarily, were not leaked out to the “enemy.”4 However, as time progressed and newer
forms of the media were introduced, the influence of the news media reached the point in
which governments were forced to conduct their meetings in the open and face public
scrutiny over their decisions. This move forced politicians to be accountable for their
actions because there was now a real-time manner in which the population could respond
to important decisions. No longer could these decisions be kept secret or not widely
published. Even before the age of CNN and BBC, the news media has had a long history
4
McNair, Brian, An Introduction to Political Communication, (London, Routledge, 2003), 187
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with regard to its relationship with the government and international issues, especially in
the United States.
History of News Media
Since the 1790s, the mass media has had a tenuous relationship with governments
around the world, especially in the case of the United States. Over the last two hundred
years, the media and its influence can be categorized into five different eras. The first
time period occurred between 1790 and 1840, and can be called the Partisan Media Era
because during this time, the media, for the most part, was nothing more than just a
support system for the different political parties.
However, because the price of
newspapers was so high, only the people that were directly affected by political discourse
would read it, therefore severely limiting the influence to the mass audience.5 The
second era, the Commercial Media Era, lasted from 1840 to 1920. This was a period in
which the media’s influence started to grow due to the increased circulation of the
newspaper as a result of a
significant
This
time
decrease
also
in
saw
price.
the
introduction of the telegraph and
the increased coverage of both the
American Civil War and the
Yellow Journalism:
Newspapers published by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph
Pulitzer freely engaged in "yellow journalism," exaggerating
Spanish military operations against Cuban rebels. Sensational
coverage biased the American public against Spain, and vastly
expanded the newspapers' daily circulations.
Source:
occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/martin_awl/me
dialib/glossary/gloss_20.html
Spanish-American War. During this period, award-winning journalists Joseph Pulitzer
and William Randolph Hearst pushed the commercial media to its limits by engaging in
cutthroat, sensationalistic media coverage.
This strategy is now known as “yellow
journalism.” This approach was exemplified during the Spanish-American War in which
the media encouraged Americans to go to war to assert their national pride.6 The true
5
West, Darrel M. “The Rise and Fall of the Media Establishment”,
< http://web.syr.edu/~csbell/risefall.html> Date Accessed: 7 December 2004
6
Ibid.
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power and influence of the media started to become prevalent in the American political
and social systems.7
The rise in ability to report to an entire nation at once eventually led to the
professionalism of the media industry. As one of his last few acts as a prominent
member in the industry before retirement, Joseph Pulitzer started the first journalism
school at Columbia University, eventually giving rise to the Objective Media Era (19201970).8 Prior to this time period, most of the power resided in the publishers and editors
of each newspaper. However, there began a power shift from the publishers and editors
to the reporters who argued that the American public had the right to be given fair,
unbiased and untainted news reports, especially when it came to war, and government
activity. Nevertheless, objectivity in reporting the news did not last very long because
during the 1970s and 1980s, this balanced effort of reporting gave way to the
Interpretative Media Era. During this time, reporters felt that it was not enough to just
“report the news as it was,” but to understand the events and how they related back to the
deeply rooted structures of the government and society. This interpretative stance of
reporters gave rise to the emergence of political and social pundits. Journalists sought to
become experts in the fields in which they were reporting, instead of objective purveyors
of information.9 While this resulted in an expanded coverage of news and opinions on
important matters, it also led to a decline in the public trust and respect of the news
industry. “[I]f media credibility reached the high point in the objective media stage, then
the interpretative phase saw the start of a slow, but steady decline of public trust and
confidence in the media.”10
As the 20th Century came to a close and 21st Century technology drove newer
forms of media, the fifth phase of the media evolution took shape. The rise of the
Internet and tabloid press, the increase in talk radio and satellite technology, the horde of
7
Ibid
Ibid.
9
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=pundits
10
West, Darrel M. “The Rise and Fall of the Media Establishment”,
< http://web.syr.edu/~csbell/risefall.html> Date Accessed: 7 December 2004.
8
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newspapers for cheap prices, and the countless independent websites, gave way to the
Fragmented Media Era (1990 - present).11 This phase of the process led to the creation of
a support system in which any school of thought can easily be accessed by the reader.
Not only can news be targeted to specific ideologies, but consumers of news can read the
news sources that they feel most comfortable reviewing. For the first time, individuals
could read any news source worldwide, instead of being limited to their local or state
newspaper. The Fragmented Media Era has also led to the obsession of focusing on
individual events that occur in everyday life to a seemingly unhealthy level. Instead of
reading about a story and understanding it in the context of the rest of the events of the
day or year, people have begun to seemingly obsess over the impact of a singular event,
like a high-profile kidnapping, murder, or court case. It is estimated that before this
phase is over, the downfall of the media fair and meaningful provider of objective
information is inevitable.12
Although there is a growing distrust among the mass audience and declining
public opinion with respect to the type of coverage news companies such as CNN and
BBC provide. There can be no doubt that the reporting of important events on both the
domestic and international levels has a real influence over government policies. For the
most part, while the media has evolved through the ages, it has never fully left the ideals
that brought it about in the first place. During the period of 1790 until 1840, the media
was used as a tool of the political parties to build and set their agendas to the public. This
concept is no different in today’s society. On both the domestic and international levels,
the media has been used to push political agendas through the process by which the
media establishes priorities in order to shape the public’s opinion.13 In other words, the
McCombs and Shaw Theory, a popular idea used by experts in the field, suggests that the
media tells its readers and viewers not “what to think” but instead, “what to think about”
by telling the general public what issues are important instead of letting the audience
11
Ibid.
Ibid.
13
“Media Influence”, <www.csupomona.edu/~jrballinger/ com270/270lectures/effects.ppt>, Date Accessed: 7
December 2004
12
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determine what should and should not be discussed.14 Some clear examples of this case
include the Watergate Scandal, Vietnam War, Korean War, Cold War and the Election
coverage of 2000. Perhaps of equal importance is the time in history when the media
determines that an issue has reached the point that it needs to be covered. Many argue
that the genocides in Rwanda, the Balkans, the Darfur Region of the Sudan could have
been thwarted had only people been paying attention earlier. While the media cannot be
blamed for the loss of like, it is not unreasonable to suggest that they could have
drastically limited the effect of these crises. All of these cases are examples of the idea of
agenda building, which is the long-term process in which the media builds interest in
particular stories or issues.15
Theories and Models of Mass Media Political Communication
There is little room for argument in the debate over extent of influence the media
has on today’s society. In accordance with this concept, there are several theories and
models that show how the media has such a great influence on American society. These
models include the “Magic Bullet” or Hypodermic Needle Model, Two-Step Flow
Model, the Multi-Step Flow (Diffusion) Model and the theories of political
communication and media dependence in today’s world.
Hypodermic Needle (the “Magic Bullet”) Model
The Hypodermic Needle model is one of the basic models that deals with the
media and its influence on society.
The premise of the strategy is based on the
assumption that the media influences a very large group of people though ‘injecting’ or
‘shooting’ them with images and messages in order to obtain a certain desired response.16
In this model, the message is a bullet, which is fired from the ‘media needle’ into the
14
“Mass Media Contexts”, <www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ringoma/lectures/2310ch11&12.ppt>, Date Accessed 12 December
2004
15
www.csupomona.edu/~jrballinger/ com270/270lectures/effects.ppt
“Hypodermic Needle Model”,
<http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/Hypodermic_Needle_Theory.d
oc/index.html>, Date Accessed: 10 December 2004
16
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viewer’s head. The target of these ‘injections’ usually ends up being a passive audience
because they tend to believe what they are told and not to question the source.17 Below is
a graphical representation of the process of the Hypodermic Needle Model.18 As you can
see, the media in this case, directly affects the isolated individual.
Figure 1: Hypodermic Needle Model
Two-Step Flow Model
As time passed, the Hypodermic Needle Theory soon became outdated and was
unable to describe the influence of the media on society. In 1944, The People’s Choice
study was conducted by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet. The focus
of the study was to examine the decision-making process during the presidential election
of the 1944.19 After careful analysis, the result was the introduction of a new theory to
describe the media’s influence on the mass audience.
The Two-Step Flow Model
suggested that the media moves in two stages to get their message across. The first stage
is that the individuals who pay close attention to the media and its messages will receive
the information and try to understand the focus of the message. The second stage is that
these individuals, known as opinion leaders, will then take this information and pass it on
17
Ibid.
Ibid.
19
“Two-Step Flow Theory”,
<http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/Two_Step_Flow_Theory1.doc/> , Date Accessed: 10 December 2004
18
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to the general public using their interpretation and ideas in conjunction with the actual
content of the media.20 The study showed that these opinion leaders were very effective
and quite influential in being able to influence the public to change their attitudes and
behaviors about any subject.
These opinion leaders were considered to be trusted
members of society, and therefore there was little reason to question potential motives.
When compared with the previous model, instead of the media trying to influence the
decisions and thought processes of the general public on an individual basis, this model
uses and intermediary to achieve the same goal, thus making it easier and much more
influential than before.21
Figure 2: Two-Step Flow Model
Multi-Step Flow Model
The Two-Step Flow Model eventually gave way to a newer and more innovative
theory about mass media communication and its influence on the general public.
Advancing upon the research of French sociologist Gabriel Tarde who was the first to
state that “most innovations have an S-shaped rate of adoption,” the Multi-Step Flow
Model was introduced.22 The focus of this model centered on the fact that there are
certain conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that new innovations,
20
Ibid.
Ibid.
22
“Diffusion of Innovation Theory”,
http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20and%20Information%20Tec
hnology/Diffusion_of_Innovations_Theory.doc/index.html>, Date Accessed: 11 December 2004
21
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products and practices will be adopted by members of a given culture.23 Furthermore,
this focus paved the way for the theory to predict that the media, as well as interpersonal
connections, such as opinion leaders, provide information and influence the judgment and
opinions of the public.24
In order for such a prediction to be accurate, the model was able to demonstrate
how information can flow through intermediaries such as gatekeepers, opinion leaders,
and change agents, as well as through networks such as mass media groups.25 This
prediction was accomplished through the explanation of some of the variables that have a
significant impact on the opinions of the general public. For instance, Everett Rogers,
who was one of the pioneers in this field of study, developed five characteristics that are
present in the diffusion of innovations into the general audience. The five characteristics
contained the following types of people that had the most influence; innovators, early
adaptors, the early majority, the late majority and the laggards.26 Like the product life
cycle in business, this model explained when people would become interested in a new
development.
These characteristics play an important role in how the media goes about trying to
influence its audience because at each point of this process, the media can use its
intermediaries such as the opinion leaders and gatekeepers to sway opinions and
judgments. For example, the use of these two types of people is heavily put into practice
in the second part of the process, during the early adopter stage to influence the decision
making thought processes of people.27 Below is the conceptual model of how this multistep flow works through the system of the media and its audience.28
23
Ibid.
Ibid.
25
www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ringoma/lectures/2310ch11&12.ppt
26
“Diffusion of Innovation Theory”, <
http://www.ciadvertising.org/studies/student/98_fall/theory/hornor/paper1.html> , Date Accessed: 11 December
2004
27
”Diffusion of Innovation Theory”,
http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20and%20Information%20Tec
hnology/Diffusion_of_Innovations_Theory.doc/index.html>, Date Accessed: 11 December 2004
28
Ibid.
24
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Figure 3: Multi-Step Flow Model
Although seemingly complicated, the process is quite simple.
The above graph
demonstrates, from beginning to end, how the information will diffuse from the receiver
and the social system variables to the end result or consequence. For the most part, this
process is how mass media operates today.
Theory of Media Dependence
One of the most prominent theories that describes the media and its role with the
audience is that of media dependence. First proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and
Melvin DeFleur in 1976, this theory integrates several perspectives from psychology to
social principles. It also proposed an integral relationship between audiences, the media,
and the larger social system. The Media Dependence Theory predicts that the audience
will depend on media information to achieve certain needs and goals, such as
gratification, however, the dependence on all types of media are not equal.29
29
“Dependence Theory”,
http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/Dependency%20Theory.doc/>,
Date Accessed: 12 December 2004
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To explain this further, there are two primary factors that influence the degree to
which the audience will depend on the media for information. The first level deals with
the fact, for the most part, people will depend more on the type of media that will fulfill
more of their needs and wants than just a few. Secondly, the audience’s dependency
relies heavily on the social culture and stability at that particular time period. For
example, when social change and conflict are high, established institutions and beliefs are
challenged, thus increasing the dependence on the news media. However, when there is
little social change and conflict, the dependence and reliance will decrease significantly.30
This dependency theory is demonstrated through the graphical representation below. As
it can be seen, there are four steps in how this process works. At each step, if one of the
criteria is found to be true, then it will eventually lead to a significant dependence on the
media, which from the viewpoint of news organizations such as CNN and BBC, is the
goal that they are striving to achieve.31
Figure 4: Theory of Media Dependence
30
31
Ibid.
Ibid.
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Political Communication
Political communication is a term that has been difficult to concisely define; yet, it
is still a very important concept with regard to the influence of the media on foreign and
domestic policies. While there are many definitions and perspectives of this theory, the
one that most closely relates to the media was offered by Robert Denton and Gary
Woodward, two well-known experts in the field. According to their research, political
communication is defined as the “pure discussion about the allocation of public resources
(revenues), official authority (who is given the power to make legal, legislative and
executive decisions), and official sanctions (what the state rewards or punishes).”32
Simply put, political communication is the purposeful communication about politics,
which includes all forms of communication undertaken by politicians and other political
actors, for the purpose of achieving certain objectives; communication addressed to these
political actors by non-politicians such as voters; and communication about these actors
and their activities, for instance through news reports, editorials, and other forms of
discussion of politics.33
In order for any type of communication to take place, there must be some sort of
political actor present. To this point, there are three groups which have an extremely
influential role in this type of communication: political organizations, which include
political parties, terrorist organizations, public organizations, pressure groups, and
governments; the media; and finally the audience or citizens.34
Foreign Policy
Over the past few decades, the relationship between mass media and the process
by which foreign policy is made has become very significant, in the sense that news
media have much more access to individuals than ever before.35 There are several
reasons and functions as to why early scholars such as Douglass and Bomer believed that
32
McNair, Brain, “An Introduction to Political Communication: Third Edition,” 3.
Ibid. 4.
34
Ibid. 5,6.
35
“The Role of Mass Media in the U.S. Foreign Policy Making Process,”
http://www.prof.msu.ru/publ/omsk/45.htm>, Date Accessed: 20 December 2004
33
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the media was the “key factor in international relations.”36 For instance, the media had
an uncanny ability to define situations and give legitimacy to an event or person to the
general audience in such a fashion that if anything contrary to what was said by someone,
it would not have been accepted by society. This process became known as the agendasetting function.37 Another function that the mass media had control over was the fact
that it could serve as a catalyst to accelerate or impede a nation’s foreign policy process
and affairs. This is partly due to the fact that as time passed, society and the global
environment become more and more complicated, with an increasing number of people
wanting to know more about international politics, in turn making it easier for the media
to influence the general audience through the increasing number of ‘opinion leaders’ and
gatekeepers.38
Three Perspectives on Media Influence
While many believe that the media always plays an integral role in public affairs,
there are some that believe otherwise. Through all of the debate about the media and its
influence in the foreign policy decision-making process, the result was the categorization
of the different perspectives of media influence. The first category dealt with the fact that
the media played a highly active role in influencing foreign policy decisions. In this
category, the theory is that the media is viewed as having ‘the privilege of trying to find
out all it can about what is going on” in the government, which, in reality, portrays the
media as an all-powerful, authoritative body.39 The second category dealt with the fact
that the media took on the exact opposite of the first category, which was a passive voice
in the arena of international relations and foreign policy and acted as, “no more than a
pawn in the political game played by the powerful political authority in Washington” 40
Supporters of this viewpoint believed that the media, at least structurally served as no
more than an instrument in the actual implementation of foreign policies.
36
Malek, Abbas, “News Media and Foreign Relations,” Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1997, 5.
Ibid 39
38
“The Role of Mass Media in the U.S. Foreign Policy Making Process”
39
Malek, Abbas, “News Media and Foreign Relations,” Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1997, 5.
40
Ibid
37
This theory
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has been taken further to suggest that the media is only used as a propaganda tool by the
government.41 The third and final category is the fact that the media is actually a neutral
body. However, while this is the ‘middle ground’ for scholars, very few people take this
stance because for the most part, people either blame the media or the government for the
type of influence and say that the public has control over.42
Media and International Conflicts
While mass media has played an important role in the field of foreign policy, it has
played a similarly vital role during times of war and international crisis. The dependency
on the media to provide information about the events in the international community has
increased, especially for people who live in the United States.43 However, even though
the general public has become more dependent on the media to report every important
piece of information, the relationship between the media and international conflicts has
yet to be fully understood by a majority of the people.44 For instance, there are two
essential areas in which the media has played an important role in times of war and
conflict.
The first example of this is the relationship between the news media and the
military. Prior to any sort of news coverage during wartime, reports of victory or defeat
were written by participating soldiers as eyewitness accounts, allowing them to
emphasize victories, and minimize defeats.”45
However, the beginnings of military
censorship started to show when Howard Russell from The Times was sent to cover the
Crimean War (1853-6). For the next century and a half, relations between the military
and the media increased dramatically with each conflict that took place, including the
development of military accountability and increased democratization.46 An example of
this relationship is clearly shown in the Vietnam War, which was dubbed the
41
Ibid. 6
Ibid
43
Cottle, Simon, “News, Public Relations, and Power,” Sage Publisher’s Ltd, 2003, 63
44
Ibid
45
Ibid 65
46
Ibid
42
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“Uncensored War” because it was the first ‘television war’ in which the public could
witness a modern conflict. Even though the Vietnam War was the first ‘televised war’
and brought about a new age in reporting international conflicts, it also brought about
what is known as the “Vietnam Syndrome.” This phenomenon illustrates the crisis
through which the U.S. government struggled to be able to have some control over what
the media was able to report. The events of the Vietnam War and the development of the
Vietnam Syndrome led to the use of the Mobile Reporting Team (MRT) idea, which
embedded reporters with the troops on the ground during the fight.47
The second example deals with the media propaganda during wartime. Ever since
1914, governments around the world have attempted to resolve the problem of losing
popular support for military action. During the First World War, the media was kept far
away from actual conflict, and was fed information directly from the state.
Not
surprisingly, these reports indicated that the war was progressing and that it was a
necessary effort to achieve important foreign policy goals. In so doing, the government
ensured that its version of the war was the one that could be found in the newspapers,
maintaining favorable public support for the conflict.48
47
48
Ibid 75
Ibid 69
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Summary
Throughout its evolutionary history, mass media has played a dominant role in
influencing governmental decisions around the world. The sphere of influence that it has
created through the five stages of its evolution continues to grow, allowing the media
more access to individuals, and to important global events. The development of the press
has changed the way people, especially the citizens of the United States, view and think
about issues that face the country because media organizations tend to ‘tell’ what the
audience should and should not think about, instead of letting the people decide on their
own.
In today’s society, mass media plays a significant role in how people view and
interpret many of the major issues that are important. The challenge that both the media
and the American public face is to what extent they are willing to let the reporting of the
news determine what events are important. Only once the populace allows news agencies
to become proxies for their own inquisitiveness will the media have truly asserted its
influence over them. Equally, only once the news agencies can provide the sort of news
reporting that is both credible and timely, will its audience allow it to become a truly
accepted and trusted medium. As these two processes converge, a veritable dialogue is
taking place between the American public and the press, negotiating the extent to which
each entity will control or influence the other.
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Discussion Questions
• Should the media have the right to influence the general public? How much
influence should they have?
• Should the government try to regulate the media outlets more than it does so
currently?
• Do the currently proposed theories and practices exemplify the current state of the
mass media?
• Do you believe it is the media’s right and obligation to report anything and
everything, even if it deals with issues of national security?
• Over the course of history, the mass media has been able to change and influence
many important governmental decisions that have resulted in negative
repercussions to the country. To a certain extent, the same idea exists in today’s
society. Do you believe that this needs to be changed to make sure that the media
does not have such an influence?
• Do you believe that there is a significant difference in the level of influence
between the ways news is reported from a liberal standpoint than from a
conservative standpoint? If so, how much difference is there?
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Works Cited
“7 Tips for Success”, Date Accessed: 7 December 2004
<http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/text6-23-2004-55802.asp>
“Communication Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible”, accessed 19 August
2004
<http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html>
Cottle, Simon, News, Public Relations, and Power, (London, SAGE Publications LTD,
2003)
“Dependence Theory”, Date Accessed: 12 December 2004
<http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Med
ia/Dependency%20Theory.doc/>
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