Iwona Wro ska1
CANADA’S NORTH MAJOR PLAYERS
There are many definitions of the area referred to as Canada’s North.
Geographically, it is the vast northernmost region of Canada that is enclosed by an
isotherm linking the Labrador coast north-westward to the mouth of the Mackenzie
River. The region can be divided into two distinct parts based on climate: the
subarctic and the Arctic or Far North. The subarctic that is characterized by monthly
temperatures above 10 °C for at least one month of the year and forest vegetation. It
falls between 53N-55 ° latitude to the tree line. The Arctic is the land and seas above
the Arctic Circle, over the tree line toward the North Pole.
Politically the North or the Arctic refers to three territories of Canada: Yukon,
Northwest Territories (NWT), Nunavut and northern parts of Quebec (Nunavik) and
Newfoundland and Labrador (Nunatsiavut). The North with an area of 4 million km²
makes up around 40 percent of Canada’s territory.
Table 1. Canada’s North area
Nunavut
Northwest Territories
Yukon
Nunavik (Quebec)
Nunatsiavut (NF and L)*
Total
Land Area ( km² )
1 877 787
1 143 793
474 712
443 684
15 800
4 072 476
Source: Statistics Canada: Population and dwelling counts for Canada, provinces and
territories, 2011;
*Newfoundland and Labrador
The region is heavily endowed with natural resources. The largest part of the
north is composed of permanent ice and tundra. Due to the natural conditions it is
sparsely and diversely populated. As of 2011 about 113 thousand people lived in the
region.
1
Iwona Wro ska, Associate Professor, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce.
61
Table 2. Population of Canada’s North in 2011
Nunavut
Northwest Territories
Yukon
Nunavik (Quebec)
Nunatsiavut (NF &L)*
Total
Total population
36 600
43,600
36 500
12 090
2 200
113 535
Source: Statistics Canada: Population and dwelling counts for Canada, provinces
and territories, 2011
*Newfoundland and Labrador
Canadian policy toward the Arctic has been evolving2. In the 20 century, the
federal government paid little attention to the region. Except in the late 1950’s and
in the beginning of 1960’s the prime minister John Diefenbaker in search of natural
resources focused attention on the North but due to high costs this policy was put on
hold. In light of the latest developments, with the rapid disappearance of the ice cap,
the Canadian government has turned more attention to the North3. Especially
Stephen Harper’s government has recognised the political and economic value of the
region and allocated more funds for development.
There are several institutions that shape Canada’s current approach to the North.
Although the federal government is still a major player there are other players that
influence Canada’s Northern policy.
Federal government
The North or the Arctic reappeared on the federal government political agenda
mainly due to climate changes that opened new opportunities for natural resources
extraction and commercial use of water. Thus the melting of the polar ice has
strongly influenced not only indigenous people and wild life, economic
development, environmental protection but also induced international competition
among the states to access natural resources and shipping routes.
The discussion over the possession of Arctic resources and authority over the sea
route brought back the issue of sovereignty over the North. Canadian’s claim to the
2
3
See: I. Wronska, Canada Artic Policy: Determinants and Trends, [in:] The Northern Spaces:
Contemporary Issues, ed. R. Czarny, Kielce 2012; K. Kubiak, Interesy i spory pa stw w Arktyce
w pierwszych dekadach XXI wieku, Warszawa, 2012; M. Gabry , From the Northwest Passage to
the Canadian Inland Waters: Political History of the Canadian Arctic Waters, “Ad American”
vol. 9, 2009; K. Coates, P.W. Lackenbauer, B. Morrison, G. Poelzer, Arctic Front: Defending
Canada in Far North, Toronto 2008; M. Byers, Who Owns the Arctic, Vancouver 2009;
S. D. Grant, Polar Imperative: A History of Arctic Sovereignty in North America, Vancouver,
2010; F. Griffith, Canada and the Changing Arctic: Sovereignty, Security, and Stewardship,
Waterloo 2011; P. Pigott, From Far and Wide: A Complete History of Canada’s Arctic
Sovereignty, Toronto, 2011.
There is strong evidence that environmental changes in the North especially in the Far North have
been approaching in high speed.
62
region is based on effective occupation through the presence of the Inuit who for
centuries were the only inhabitants and through British and Canadian exploration.
As. I. L. Head indicates territorial sovereignty is a compound of several factors,
involving both rights and responsibilities. The sovereign has the right to control
access to the territory and exercise authority and bears the obligation of protecting
it. The exercise of these state activities not only accrues lawfully but the
manifestation of them is indicative of who is the sovereign. Just a claim to territorial
sovereignty if not accompanied by such a manifestation might be challenged by other
states4. So it was vital for the Canadian government not only to claim its rights to the
area but also to demonstrate it.
Already in 1958 the Advisory Committee on Northern Development advised the
Canadian government to enhance scientific exploration in the region. As it indicated
Canada has done very little in the region, apart from the Defence Research Board
expedition to the Ellesmere ice shelf, hydro graphic works, and participation in some
US’ navy work in the Beaufort Sea. Meantime Russians have planned to undertake
a major programme of research using a network of fixed and mobile stations5. Prime
Minister J. G. Diefenbaker committed his administration to northern development6.
With Diefenbaker’s departure from the office, the priorities changed and the North
once again lost importance. The oil crisis of 1973 forced the Liberal government to
invest in the North. It offered mineral assistance grants, tax relief, development
infrastructures and services to accelerate development and established a publicly run
company Petro-Canada that received special drilling rights in the North. The
objective also included maintaining Canadian sovereignty and security in the North7.
Since 2000, due to the minimal display of Canada’s military activity in the
Arctic, several defence specialists have advocated for a more active role for the
military. Additionally indigenous communities have pushed for self-governments
and land claims settlement arrangements and territorial governments have pressed
the federal government for more power. As a result, Canada’s North has come back
on the federal government’s agenda.
The announcement of The Northern Dimension of Canada’s Foreign Policy
signalized that a new vision for upholding Canadian sovereignty in the North is
4
I. L. Head, Canadian claims to territorial sovereignty in the Arctic regions, ‘McGill Law Journal’
vol.9, no 3 (1963) p. 224.
5 Resources and Development – Northern Development in Canada. n.d., 1958-1963 VIII/501; John
G. Diefenbaker fonds, University of Saskatchewan Diefenbaker Archival Collections no. 86612.
6 During Diefenbaker years in power roads construction for resource access began; a new railway was
built to Pine Point mine on the south shore of Great Slave Lake; scientific exploration was
financed.
7 Northern Canada in the 70s. A report by the Honourable Jean Chretien, Minister of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, to the Standing Committee on Indian Affairs and Northern
Development on the Government’s northern objectives, priorities and strategies for the 70’s.
[online] http://www.capekrusenstern.org/docs/chretienpolicy_1970.pdf (12.02.2012).
63
needed8. Since then the North has been an important part of the Canadian foreign
policy which was strengthened by S. Harper who became the Prime Minister of
Canada in 2006. Harper’s government has not only recognized the political and
economic value of the region but also allocated more funds for regional
development. From the very beginning Harper has strongly insisted that the Arctic
has been fundamental to Canada’s national identity. He introduced annual tours to
Canada’s North and an annual military exercise of the Canadian Armed Forces to
demonstrate Canada’s ability to respond to threats and emergencies in this remote
area. In 2010 the Prime Minister declared that the protection and promotion of
Canada’s sovereignty in the Arctic a “non-negotiable priority”. In 2014 he
emphasised that Russia’s growing aggressiveness in the international sphere is not
the only reason to demonstrate Canada’s sovereignty in the Arctic9.
In order to meet challenges and opportunities of a changing North, the
government has launched a Northern Strategy which focuses on four priority ideas:
exercising Arctic sovereignty; promoting social and economic development;
protecting the environment: and improving and devolving Northern governance10.
The first and the most important pillar of the Northern Strategy is a confirmation
that Canada exercises sovereignty over Arctic lands and waters – sovereignty that is
long-standing, well-established and based on historic title, international law and the
presence of Inuit and other Aboriginal peoples for thousands of years. Although the
government affirms that the sovereignty cannot be questioned it has announced
a number of initiatives to enhance Canadian’s capacity and increase presence in the
region. The Canadian government commits to create the appropriate conditions for
sustainable development in the Arctic region, to seek trade and investment
opportunities that especially benefit the inhabitants of the North. Based on these
assumptions there are plans to promote resource development both renewable and
non-renewable. This can be done through close cooperation with the territorial
governments, indigenous people's organizations and key international institutions.
The Canadian government has affirmed that Canada has taken responsibility for
environmental protection and enforcement in the Arctic. It will continue to promote
an ecosystem-based management approach with its Arctic neighbors and others that
also include activities related to the international co-management of species in the
Arctic whose habitat crosses national borders such as caribou, polar bears and Arctic
birds. The final pillar of the Northern Strategy is focused on empowering the people
of the North with more control on Arctic issues. In other words the federal
government has been in the process of devolving more power to the territorial
governments. It has acknowledged the role of Indigenous people in shaping the
Arctic.
8
Summative Evaluation of the Northern Dimension of Canada’s Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs and
International Trade Canada, Ottawa, 2000. [online] www.international.gc.ca /about-a _propos/oigbig/2005/evaluation/northern_program (10.01.2012).
9
A. Boutilier, Harper warns against Arctic complacency, “Toronto Star”, 02.08.214.
10
Canada’s Northern Strategy [online], http://www.northernstrategy.gc.ca/index-eng.asp
(10.05.2015).
64
The federal government is aware that the improvement of Northern governance
also requires an international support with neighbors in the Arctic, especially through
the Arctic Council. Relations with the United States, Canada's major partner in the
Arctic, are especially important to generate a more strategic engagement on Arctic
issues. This includes working together on issues related to the Beaufort Sea, on
Arctic science, on Aboriginal and Northern issues. The cooperation with other Arctic
states is also essential for environmental protection, natural resource development,
oceans management, climate change adaptation and scientific cooperation. The
Arctic Council has recently reached an agreement on a regional search and rescue
which is the first binding agreement negotiated under the auspices of the Arctic
Council. The issue was especially urgent because of the growing accessibility of the
Arctic Ocean. Further agreements, including one on developing energy resources,
are under discussion.
Governments of territories
The territories include all of mainland Canada’s North of latitude 60 north and
west of Hudson Bay as well all islands. Governments of territories derive their
authority from the federal government. Their power was limited and controlled by
the federal government. Unlike Canadian provinces the territories do not own the
lands and resources, which are owned by Canada and by Indigenous peoples in areas
where land claims have been settled. Nevertheless over the last few decades through
ongoing devolution processes the federal government has transferred more
responsibilities to territories similar to provincial ones. These included responsibility
for education, small business, public works, social services and local government,
the delivery of health care, administration of airports and forestry management. This
way the territorial governments have gained control over the daily affairs of its
inhabitants except land and resource management. The last issue has also been
undertaken and the federal government has been involved in the process of
concluding agreements on land and resource management with three territories one
by one.
The Yukon devolution agreement that entered into force in 2003 provided for
the transfer from Canada to the Yukon Territorial Government of responsibilities for
land, water, forestry and mineral resources11. This agreement, also signed by the
Aboriginals groups12, gave Yukon legislature the power to make laws with respect
to public land and waters. In 2012 amendments changed revenue sharing
arrangements, providing the Yukon government with more revenues from the natural
resources industry.
11
Yukon Northern Affairs Program Devolution Transfer Agreement, Minister of Public Works and
Government Services Canada, 2001, [online] http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/129728362473
9/1297283711723 (03.05.2015).
12
Yukon First Nations, Kwanlin Dun First Nation, Liard First Nation and Kaska Tribal Council.
65
In 2014 a similar agreement was signed with the government of Northwest
Territories that gave the Northerners more control over land and resources13.
According to the agreement the territorial government will gain jurisdiction on
around 90 percent of land and water. The rest of the area, that includes national parks,
will remain under federal control. Environmental assessment and the overlapping of
oil and gas will remain shared responsibility14.
The devolution agreement is still a work in progress in Nunavut, but through its
creation, the Nunavut Inuit have gained a possibility to govern themselves.
These agreements have a profound impact on decision making processes in the
Arctic. The devolution of land and resource management became a key factor in
creating the future of the North. It has provided the Northerners with a powerful tool
to make decisions regarding land and water use so they can be self-sufficient in the
future. It is an investment in democratic institutions and hopefully devolution will
bring more financial responsibility to Aboriginal communities.
So far the Canadian Government significantly finances the North. The territorial
governments are heavily dependent upon subsidies from the federal government.
Especially the Government of Nunavut relies profoundly on federal transfers. In
2013-2014 the Government of Nunavut received $1.4 billion in major transfers,
accounting for 83 percent of its revenues in this fiscal year.
Table 3. Federal Support to the territories in 2013/2014
Territory
Yukon
Northwest-Territories
Nunavut
Total Federal Support
(million dollars)
860
1,163
1,396
Support Per Capita
(dollars)
23,566
26,773
39,773
Source: Federal Support to Provinces and territories, Department of Finance Canada for
2013/2014
Aboriginal people of the North
In 2011 Aboriginal people of the North accounted for 64 percent of the total
population of the territories and made up the largest share of the population of
Nunavut and the Northwest Territories population of territories15.
13
Northwest Territories Devolution Act,2014, (62-63 Elizabeth II).
Northwest Territories Devolution-Delegated authorities Before & After Devolution, AANDC,
Government of Canada https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1390935454173/1390935501040
(03.05.2015).
15
Statistics Canada, National Household Survey 2011.
14
66
Table 4. Aboriginal Identity Population of the Arctic in 2011 and 200616
Nunavut
Northwest
Territories
Yukon
Nunavik
Nunatsiavut
Total
Aboriginal
Identity
2011
27 360
21 160
Aboriginal
Identity
2006
24, 920
20, 635
Indian
2006
Inuit 2006
Métis
2006
380
12 640
24 870
3 115
100
3 580
7 705
11 000
2 400
71 975
7 580
9, 650
2 200
68 880
6 280
45
0
19 025
255
9 550
2 160
44 715
805
15
35
4 560
Source: Statistics Canada, National Household Survey 2011, Number and distribution of
the of the population reporting on Aboriginal Identity; 2006 Census Aboriginal identity
population by province and territory.
The Inuit are the largest group of indigenous peoples living in the Canada North.
For centuries the Inuit have inhabited the Arctic and subarctic17. The Inuit are the
descendants of the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000
AD and spread across the Arctic. They commuted north of the “Arctic tree line”. In
the 14th century they moved south. They relied on and lived off the land and wildlife
by traditional hunting, fishing and trapping techniques for food, clothing, and shelter.
Historically, the Canadian Inuit were divided into eight main groups: Labrador Inuit,
Ungava or New Quebec Inuit, Baffin Island, Igloolik, Caribou, Netsilik, Copper and
Western Arctic Inuit. Today they live in four main communities Nunatsiavut,
Nunavik, Nunavut and Inuvialuit that stretch from Labrador to the Northwest
Territories18. A Census indicated in 2006 there were 50,500 Inuit in Canada. Half of
them lived in Nunavut, where they made up 85 percent of the total population of the
territory, 20 percent in Nunavik in northern Quebec, 6 percent in the Inuvialuit region
of the Northwest Territories, and 4 percent in Nunatsiavut in northern Labrador.
In the mid- 1970s the first Inuit associations were established to promote their
culture but also their rights to their ancestors’ land and greater political autonomy.
The Inuit from James Bay took part in the first comprehensive land claims
settlement: The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of 1975 that led to
a greater autonomy of community in Nunavik19. In 2005 the Inuit signed a formal
agreement with the government of Quebec and the federal government to create
a new regional government in Nunavik that is supposed to represent all citizens. The
agreement introduced an elected assembly of at least 21 representatives from each
community and a 5 member executive council, with a government leader elected by
the general population.
16
General data comes from: Statistics Canada: 2011 National Household. Detailed Data comes form:
Statistics Canada Census 2006.Census.
17 The Inuit used to be called Eskimos, which means eater of raw meat. The Inuit means the people.
18
The Inuit land is called Ninangat.
19
James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement and complementary agreements (1998 ed.). Sainte-Foy,
Quebec: Les Publications du Québec. 1998. (04.05.2015).
67
The Inuit from the Northwest Territories, signed an agreement in 1984 that
created Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) in Canada’s western Arctic, spanning
906,430 square kilometres. Under the agreement the Inuvialuit agreed to give up
their exclusive use of their ancestral lands in exchange for certain rights such as:
land, wildlife management and money.
The Inuit’s support for Canada’s Arctic sovereignty led to signing the Nunavut
Land Claims Agreement which includes a comprehensive settlement of land claims
between the Inuit and the Canadian Government20. As a result of this agreement the
Canadian Government obtained legal certainty of ownership of land and natural
resources in more than 20 percent of the country and the Inuit obtained a wide variety
of rights and benefits. The implementation of the agreement is still a work in
progress, as yearly reports indicate21. In 1999, the federal government established
a third territory Nunavut pursuant to a land claim agreement reached with the Inuit
of the Eastern Arctic.
In 1977, the Labrador Inuit Association also began to act towards selfgovernment by filing a statement of claim with the Government of Canada seeking
rights to the ‘land and sea ice in Northern Labrador’. For three decades the
association was negotiating self-government arrangement for Labrador through the
settlement of the land claim. Finally in 2004 the Inuit settled a land claim agreement
and received the right to self-government. The settlement area consists of 72,520
square kilometres of land in northern Labrador. As a result, the Nunatsiavut
Government was established, representing around 2500 Inuit. The Nunatsiavut
Government has the power to establish its own justice system and pass laws
concerning land and resource management, education, health, culture, and language.
Its structure is based on the idea of responsible government and the separation of
powers. The democratically elected representatives of the Nunatsiavut Assembly
make laws and provide broad policy direction for the government of the Nunatsiavut
Assembly. The community level of Nunatsiavut Government is comprised of five
Inuit Community Governments of Nain, Hopedale, Postville, Makkovik and Rigolet
that are responsible for serving all residents of their communities. Each of them is
represented in the Nunatsiavut Assembly. The departments of the Nunatsiavut
Government enforce the laws of Nunatsiavut.
Apart from the Inuit the Indian people or First Nations of the North, such as the
Dene22 and Metis have also been living in the sub-Arctic Western region (Mackenzie
20
Agreement between the Inuit of the Nunavut Settlement Area and the Majesty the Queen in right of
Canada, (Nunavut Land Claims Agreement), Iqaluit, 25.05.1993.
21 Annual Report on The Implementation of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, 1995-1996, Ottawa:
Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1996; Annual Report on The Implementation
of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, 1997-1998, Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and
Government Services, 1998; Annual Report on The Implementation of the Nunavut Land Claims
Agreement 2005-2006, Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Ottawa 2006.
22 The Dene is divided into separate tribal groups. The Gwich’in tribe were the northernmost of all
North American Indians, and occupied the land located primarily north of the Arctic Circle and
extending across the Mackenzie drainage and northern tributaries of the Yukon River into
northwest Alaska, bordering Inuit land.
68
Valley, in Yukon Territory) for centuries mainly. They make up one third of the
population of Yukon. As of today, 11 out of 14 Yukon First Nations have signed
self-government agreements and settled claims23. These agreements with the
territorial and federal government empowered them to make decisions based on their
needs and interests. In 1993 the government of Canada, the government of Yukon
and the Council for Yukon Indians (currently Council of Yukon First Nations) signed
an Umbrella Final Agreement -UFA which created general rules for land and selfgovernment agreements. In total UFA allocated 41,595 km2 of land, which occupies
about 8,5 percent of the total land of the Yukon among 14 First Nations. Final
agreements are regarded as treaties protected under section 35 of the Constitution of
Canada24. Generally they provide for financial compensation, identify settlement
land that is owned and managed by each self-government, and outline land and
resource ownership, tenure, and management issues25.
Self-government assumed law-making authority in four general areas:
– Management of the self-government,
– Programs and services,
– Local and private nature on settlement land,
– Taxation.
The Comprehensive Land Claims Agreements were also signed in NWT where
approximately half of the population is Aboriginal. The first agreement signed in
1984 created Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) spanning 906,430 square
kilometres in Canada’s western Arctic. Under the agreement the Inuvialuit agreed to
give up their exclusive use of their ancestral lands in exchange for certain rights such
as: land, wildlife management and money. The Gwich’in Comprehensive Land
Claim Act of 1992 delineated approximately 22,330 km2 of land in the Northwest
Territories, and 1,554 km2 in the Yukon as the Gwich’in Settlement Area and
transfers ownership of specific land to the Gwich’in people. The agreement also
established fundaments for self-government. The Tlicho Land Claims and Selfgovernment Agreement signed in 2005 covers an area of 39,000 square kilometres
and is a combined land and self-government agreement. One of the main project of
the Tlicho self- government was a remediation plan for the former Colmac Gold
Mine Site that was polluted with cyanide. The Sahtu Dene and Métis agreement
recognizes the Aboriginal ownership of 41,437 square kilometres and also
recognizes their rights to self-government. The Sahtu and Metis of Tulita District
collaborated with the Canadian Government to establish Nááts’ihch’oh National
23
Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation; Champagne and Aishihik First Nations February; First Nation of
Nacho Nyak Dun February; Teslin Tlingit Council in 1995; Selkirk First Nation; Little
Salmon/Carmacks First Nation in 1997; Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in 1998; Ta’an Kwach’an Council in
2002; Kluane First Nation in 2004; Kwanlin Dun First Nation in 2005; Carcross/Tagish First
Nation in 2006. The White River First Nation, Ross River Dena Council and Liard First Nation
have not settled their land claims.
24
Article 35 of the Constitution Act,1982 recognizes existing aboriginal and treaty rights.
25
Building the Future: Yukon First Nation Self Government, AANDC, Government of Canada, [online]
http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1316214942825/1316215019710, (05.05.2015).
69
Park Reserve in 2012 to preserve the wildlife habitat and the South Nahanni River,
one of the greatest wilderness rivers within the Sahtu Settlement Area. The Impact
and Benefit Plan signed with the federal government ensures their role in the
conservation of the Park.
These agreements are very important. They institutionalised the Aboriginal by
providing them with rights and responsibilities to share power with the federal,
provincial and territorial governments over the Canadian's North. The agreements
also helped the federal government to support Canadian sovereignty over the Arctic.
What is also significant self-government jurisdictions and authorities can function
within the framework of the Canadian Constitution so self-government regulations
should be consistent with the federal and territorial jurisdiction. In the event of
a conflict with a federal law, the federal prevails, but self-government law prevails
over a territorial one.
Conclusions
The federal government is a principal player in the Canada’s North but there are
also others important players that shape the Northern decision. Gradually, over the
last few decades, the territorial governments and indigenous people have acquired
more jurisdiction over the area. Devolution of federal power gave territorial
governments more responsibilities that they are accounted for. Also settlements of
land claims agreements with the Aboriginal people made them responsible for the
Northern land. The Inuit reports illustrating the use and occupancy of lands in
Northwest Territories and Yukon and in northern Quebec and Newfoundland and
Labrador helped Canada to claim historic title to the area located from the external
edge of the coast and adjacent islands enclosing the Arctic Archipelago and internal
waters. This reports confirm that Canada’s sovereignty over the waters of the Arctic
Archipelago is founded on Inuit use and occupancy. When the issue of Canadian
sovereignty over the Arctic is at stake the Canadian government uses Inuit presence
in the Arctic to affirm Canada’s possession.
Bibliography
1. Agreement between the Inuit of the Nunavut Settlement Area and the Majesty the
Queen in right of Canada, (Nunavut Land Claims Agreement), Iqaluit,
25.05.1993.
2. Annual Report on The Implementation of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement,
1995-1996, Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1996.
3. Annual Report on The Implementation of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement,
1997-1998, Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1998.
4. Annual Report on The Implementation of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement,
2005-2006 Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.
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02.08.214.
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6. Building the Future: Yukon First Nation Self Government, AANDC,
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42825/1316215019710, (05.05.2015).
7. Byers M., Who Owns the Arctic, Vancouver 2009.
8. Canada’s Northern Strategy [online], http://www.northernstrategy.gc.ca/ indexeng.asp (10.05.2015).
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Stewardship, Waterloo 2011.
13. Head I. L., Canadian claims to territorial sovereignty in the Arctic regions,
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14. James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement and complementary agreements
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1998. (04.05.2015).
15. Kubiak K., Interesy i spory pa stw w Arktyce w pierwszych dekadach XXI wieku,
Warszawa, 2012.
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krusenstern.org/ docs/chretienpolicy_1970.pdf (12.02.2012).
17. Northwest Territories Devolution Act, 2014, (62-63 Elizabeth II).
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Spaces: Contemporary Issues, (ed.) R. M. Czarny, Kielce 2012.
23. Yukon Northern Affairs Program Devolution Transfer Agreement, Minister of
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dnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1297283624739/1297283711723 (03.05.2015).
71
Abstract
Politically Canada’s North refers to three territories of Canada Yukon, Northwest
Territories (NWT), Nunavut and northern parts of Quebec (Nunavik) and Newfoundland and
Labrador (Nunatsiavut). The region with an area of 4 million km² and around 113 thousand
inhabitants is sparsely populated mainly by the Aboriginal people.
These article analyses the decision making processes in the Canada’s North. It identifies
the main political players in the region. Although the federal government is the main one,
over the last few decades territorial governments and self-governments of Aboriginal people
have taken on greater responsibility for many aspects of the region’s affairs.
Kanada jako kluczowy gracz w Arktyce
Politycznie północ Kanady le y w granicach trzech terytoriów: Jukon, Terytoria
Północno-Zachodnie i Nunavut oraz w północnych obszarach dwóch prowincji: Quebeku
i Nowej Fundlandii i Labradoru. W regionie tym, który rozpo ciera si na obszarze
4 milionów km² mieszka około 113 tysi cy osób, w wi kszo ci to ludno rdzenna.
Artykuł ten analizuje proces podejmowania decyzji w kanadyjskiej północy. Autor
identyfikuje głównych graczy politycznych. Wskazuje, i cho to rz d federalny odgrywa
kluczow rol , to w procesie dewolucji władzy coraz wi cej uprawnie przejmuj rz dy
terytoriów jak i samorz dy ludno ci rdzennej.
Key words: Canada’s North, Arctic, Aboriginal people, territories of Canada
Słowa kluczowe: Kanada, Arktyka, ludno rdzenna, terytoria Kanady
Iwona Wro ska, Associate Professor, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce
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