Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
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Gondwana Research
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g r
Granitic magmatism, basement ages, and provenance indicators in the Malay
Peninsula: Insights from detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf-isotope data
Inga Sevastjanova a,⁎, Benjamin Clements a,b, Robert Hall a, Elena A. Belousova c,
William L. Griffin c, Norman Pearson c
a
b
c
Southeast Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, TW20 0EX, UK
Statoil ASA, Forusbeen 50, N-4033 Stavanger, Norway
GEMOC ARC National Key Centre, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 20 May 2010
Received in revised form 30 September 2010
Accepted 1 October 2010
Available online 11 November 2010
Editor: M. Santosh
Keywords:
Sundaland
Malay Peninsula
Basement
Detrital zircon
U–Pb ages
Hf-isotope dating
a b s t r a c t
The Malay Peninsula lies on two continental blocks, Sibumasu and East Malaya, which are intruded by
granitoids in two provinces: the Main Range and Eastern. Previous models propose that Permian–Triassic
granitoids are subduction-related and syn-to post-collisional. We present 752 U–Pb analyses that were
carried out on zircons from river sands in the Malay Peninsula; of these, 243 grains were selected for Hfisotope analyses. Our data suggest a more complex Sibumasu–East Malaya collision history. 176Hf/177Hfi ratios
reveal that Permian–Triassic zircons were sourced from three magmatic suites: (a) Permian crustally-derived
granitoids, (b) Early-Middle Triassic granitoids with mixed mantle–crust sources, and (c) Late Triassic
crustally-derived granitoids. This suggests three Permian–Triassic episodes of magmatism in the Malay
Peninsula, two of which occurred in the Eastern Province. Although the exact timing of the Sibumasu–East
Malaya collision remains unresolved, current data suggest that it occurred before the Late Triassic, probably in
Late Permian–Early Triassic. Our data also indicate that Sibumasu and East Malaya basements are
chronologically heterogeneous, but predominantly of Proterozoic age. Some basement may be Neoarchaean
but there is no evidence for basement older than 2.8 Ga. Finally, we show that Hf-isotope signatures of Triassic
zircons can be used as provenance indicators.
© 2010 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
SE Asia is a composite region of continental crustal fragments and
volcanic arcs, separated by sutures that represent remnant ocean
basins (e.g. Metcalfe, 2006, 2010). These continental fragments are
allochthonous to the Eurasian margin and separated from Gondwana
in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic (Audley-Charles, 1988; Metcalfe,
1988, 1996a,b). Palaeogeographic reconstructions show that these
fragments arrived from NW Australia and NE Greater India (Hall,
2008; Hall et al., 2009; Metcalfe, 1988, 1996b, 2009).
In the SE Asian region, U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology has
been successfully used for tracing sediment pathways (Clements and
Hall, 2008; van Hattum, 2005; van Hattum et al., 2006), dating large
Cenozoic eruptions (Smyth et al., 2008), and identifying fragments of
unexposed basement (Smyth et al., 2007). Studies of Hf-isotope
compositions in detrital zircons have resulted in detailed crustal
evolution models for parts of Australia (Belousova et al., 2006;
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1784 443592; fax: +44 1784 434716.
E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Sevastjanova).
Griffin et al., 2004, 2006a; Murgulov et al., 2007) as well as for other
parts of the world (e.g. Bahlburg et al., 2010; Bodet and Schärer,
2000; Kuznetsov et al., 2010; Matteini et al., 2010), and have also
aided provenance interpretations (e.g. Belousova et al., 2009;
Howard et al., 2009; Veevers et al., 2006). However, there are no
Hf-isotope studies for the Sundaland region and few studies have
addressed the age and nature of the basement fragments in the
region. This is the first study to apply zircon U-Pb dating and Hfisotope analyses to Sundaland.
In this paper we discuss U–Pb and Hf-isotope data in detrital
zircons from modern rivers draining the Malay Peninsula. Current
data suggest a complex multi-phase evolution of the volcanic arcs that
developed in the Permian and Triassic on the western margin of SE
Asia as a result of predominantly east-directed Palaeo-Tethys
subduction. Crustal model ages reveal that the basement beneath
the East Malaya and Sibumasu Blocks (Fig. 1) is Palaeoproterozoic,
although of different age, and with probable Neoarchaean crust also
present. The Sundaland basement is intruded by abundant Permian–
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous granitoids. A significant overlap in
U–Pb zircon ages from different Sundaland source areas makes
provenance interpretations difficult. However, the different Hfisotope compositions enable distinctions to be made between granitic
provinces of similar age.
1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2010 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.10.010
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
1025
Fig. 1. Principal basement features (after Hall, 2008; Metcalfe, 2009) and potential sources of granitoid detrital zircons (after Cobbing, 2005; Cobbing et al., 1992; Thuy et al., 2004;
Williams et al., 1988) in Sundaland. Dashed line shows the approximate boundary of Sundaland.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Sundaland
Sundaland, the continental core of SE Asia (Hall, 2002; Hamilton,
1979; Hutchison, 1989), comprises Indochina, the Thai–Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the shallow shelf between
these landmasses (e.g. Hall and Morley, 2004). Amalgamation of the
continental blocks that form Sundaland occurred during the Late
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic as a result of separation of continental slivers
from the Gondwana margin and successive opening and closure of
Tethyan oceanic basins (e.g. Metcalfe, 1996b, 1998, 2009). Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic reconstructions are based on multidisciplinary evidence
that includes palaeomagnetism, lithofacies correlations, faunal provinces, magmatic episodes, and dating of tectonic events. These data
are complex and difficult to interpret, especially with regard to the
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I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
Tethyan oceans, which have been destroyed by subuction (Hall et al.,
2009). However, despite disagreements on the exact origin of the
blocks, the timing of their departures and arrivals, it is now accepted
that the core of Sundaland comprises the Indochina–East Malaya,
West Burma, and West Sumatra Blocks that separated from
Gondwana in the Devonian and together formed a composite
Cathaysia Block in the Permian (Barber and Crow, 2009; Metcalfe,
2006, 2009). The Sundaland core also includes Sibumasu, which was
accreted to Indochina–East Malaya, most likely in the Late Permian–
Early Triassic (Barber and Crow, 2009; Metcalfe, 2009). The Sukhothai
Volcanic Arc that lies between the Indochina–East Malaya and
Sibumasu Blocks is interpreted to be a continental sliver that
separated from the Indochina–East Malaya margin by back-arc
spreading in the Permian (Metcalfe, 2009, 2010; Sone and Metcalfe,
2008) (Fig. 1). Another important episode of rifting around northern
Australia occurred in the Jurassic and the blocks that separated from
this area are now in Borneo, Java, and Sulawesi (Hall et al., 2009).
The Banda and Argo Blocks collided with the SE Asian margin in
Cretaceous time. Collision of the Woyla intra-oceanic arc with the
Sumatra Block in the Late Cretaceous terminated subduction beneath
Sundaland (Clements et al., in press; Hall et al., 2009) and it
resumed only in the Eocene (Hall et al., 2009). West Sumatra and
West Burma, that originally formed one block, became separated by
the opening of the Andaman Sea in the Miocene (Barber and Crow,
2009).
Abundant subduction-related and syn- to post-collisional Permian–
Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids are intruded into the core of
Sundaland. The granitoids that extend from Thailand, through the Malay
Peninsula and Indonesian Tin Islands are tin-bearing and are known as
the SE Asian tin belt (e.g. Cobbing et al., 1992). These granitoids are
probably a major source of detrital zircons in Sundaland.
Few studies have attempted to date the basement in the SE Asian
region. Hamilton (1979) mapped the extent of the Cretaceous
continental crust from well data in the Java Sea and traced the
Sundaland margin from West Java to SE Borneo. Based on U–Pb
SHRIMP zircon dating of Cenozoic igneous and sedimentary rocks,
Smyth et al. (2007) confirmed that there is a change in basement
character from West to East Java. However, inherited Archaean,
Proterozoic, and Palaeozoic zircons suggest that East Java is underlain
by Gondwana-derived continental crust and not by Cretaceous
accreted material as has been suggested previously (e.g. Hamilton,
1979). Previous Nd–Sr and U–Pb zircon dating of Permian–Triassic
granitoids in the Malay Peninsula (Liew and McCulloch, 1985)
suggested that the crust beneath the Sibumasu Block is 1500–
1700 Ma old and the crust beneath the East Malaya Block is 1100–
1400 Ma. Based on U–Pb dating and Hf-isotope analysis of detrital
zircon and baddeleyite from large rivers draining mainland SE Asia –
the West Burma, Sibumasu and Indochina Blocks – Bodet and Schärer
(2000) identified five Proterozoic crustal growth events in the area at
around 2.5 Ga, 2.3 Ga, 1.9 Ga, 1.1 Ga and 0.8 Ga. Based on radiogenic
isotope analyses, radiometric age studies, and petrographic data from
the Malino and Palu Metamorphic Complexes, van Leeuwen et al.
(2007) suggested that Northwest Sulawesi is underlain by crust that
was derived from the New Guinea–Australian margin of Gondwana.
2.2. The Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula is situated in the heart of Sundaland and lies
on the Sibumasu and East Malaya Blocks (Fig. 1). The Sibumasu Block
extends from western Yunnan to Burma, Thailand, western Peninsular
Malaysia, and northeast Sumatra. East Malaya is a southwards
extension of the Indochina Block (Metcalfe, 2000). Lower Palaeozoic
rocks of the Sibumasu Block show Gondwanan biogeographic
affinities. This and the presence of Lower Permian glaciomarine
diamictites indicate that Sibumasu was part of Gondwana until the
Early Permian (Metcalfe, 1988, 1996b, 1998, 2009; Schwartz et al.,
1995). This is supported by general tectonostratigraphical similarities
between Sibumasu and the Canning Basin of NW Australia (e.g.
Metcalfe, 1996b, 2000). In East Malaya, only Ordovician and Silurian
but not younger faunas show Gondwanan affinities. It has therefore
been suggested that East Malaya separated from Gondwana in the
Devonian (e.g. Metcalfe, 2000). Sibumasu and East Malaya are
separated by the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone, which includes a
tectonic mélange with ribbon-bedded cherts, schists, and minor
ophiolites that represent Palaeo-Tethys remnants (Hutchison, 1975,
1977, 2009; Metcalfe, 2000).
Late Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic subduction of the PalaeoTethys oceanic crust and the collision of the Sibumasu and East
Malaya Blocks resulted in active magmatism (Metcalfe, 2000). The
products of this magmatism are Permian and Triassic granitoids of
two provinces, the Main Range Province and the Eastern Province
(which includes the Central and Eastern Belts) (Fig. 2). Predominantly
I-type and rare S-type Permian and Triassic granitoids of the Eastern
Province are considered to be subduction-related, produced in a
volcanic arc that formed on the East Malaya Block (Metcalfe, 2000).
Triassic S-type granitoids, intruded into the Sibumasu Block, are
interpreted as syn- and post-collisional (Hutchison, 1977; Metcalfe,
2000). Triassic volcaniclastic turbidites were sourced from the East
Malaya Volcanic Arc and are now exposed near the Bentong–Raub
Suture Zone (Metcalfe, 2000; Metcalfe et al., 1982; Roslan, 1989).
Upper Cretaceous granitoids were emplaced locally in the Central Belt
(Cobbing et al., 1992). Based on stratigraphical and structural
differences the Malay Peninsula is divided into three geological
zones (belts): the Eastern Zone, Central Zone, and Western Zone that
are bounded by major fault zones (e.g. Hutchison, 1975, 1977; Khoo
and Tan, 1983) (Fig. 2). The Western Zone lies on the Sibumasu Block
and is intruded by the granitoids of the Main Range Province. The
Central and Eastern Zones lie on the East Malaya Block and are
intruded by Eastern Province granitoids.
Upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks in the Malay Peninsula are
continental. Alluvial and fluvial sequences of the Upper Jurassic–
Lower Cretaceous Tembeling and Gagau Groups were deposited in the
central part of the Malay Peninsula (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973;
Harbury et al., 1990; Racey, 2009; Rishworth, 1974). Palaeocurrent
data from the Tembeling Group in the Malay Peninsula suggest
sediment transport from the northwest (Harbury et al., 1990). The
Tembeling Group and Khorat Group in NE Thailand are correlatable
(Racey, 2009) and form a regionally extensive, laterally continuous
stratigraphic sequence over much of the region (e.g. Racey, 2009).
However, in the Malay Peninsula much of the Post-Triassic succession
has been eroded as a result of prolonged emergence during the Late
Cretaceous and Early Palaeogene (Clements et al., in press). Cenozoic
coal-bearing lacustrine and fluvial basins have a very limited
distribution on land (Stauffer, 1973).
3. Sample selection
Zircons from nine modern river samples draining the Malay
Peninsula (Fig. 2) were dated using U–Pb techniques. Six of these
samples were selected for Hf-isotope analyses based on the nature of
source lithologies and catchment of the particular river, and on the
composition of heavy mineral assemblages (Sevastjanova, 2007) with
the aim of covering all potential source areas. Source lithologies were
characterised based on the published literature, SRTM-derived digital
elevation models (DEM), and geological and river maps (Gobbett and
Hutchison, 1973; Hutchison and Tan, 2009 and references therein;
Senathi Rajah et al., 1976) that were digitised using GIS software.
Sample details are summarised in Table 1. Permian–Triassic zircons in
samples IS37 and IS40 characterise detritus eroded from the Eastern
Province granitoids. Samples IS14, IS18, IS19, IS31, and IS41
characterise various sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic source
rocks common in the Central Zone, while samples IS2 and IS26 that
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
1027
Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Malay Peninsula (modified from Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973). White dots show the locations of river sand samples analysed from the Malay
Peninsula.
were collected from the first-order streams draining granitoids in the
Western Zone are representative of the Main Range Province detritus.
4. Analytical techniques
4.1. Sample preparation
Heavy minerals were separated from the 63 to 250 μm grain-size
fraction following a standard procedure described by Mange and
Maurer (1992). The heavy mineral fraction was separated using
sodium polytungstate (SPT) solution (density 2.89 g/cm3) and run
through a Franz Magnetic separator at 20° tilt angle, and 0.1, 0.4, and
1.7 μA voltages. Non-magnetic fractions (N1.7 μA) were separated in
diiodomethane (DIM) with a density 3.3 g/cm3. Zircons were handpicked from the residual DIM heavy fraction, mounted in araldite
resin on labelled glass slides or resin discs, and polished. Samples IS2,
IS18, IS37, IS40 and IS41 were imaged with CL-SEM prior to Hf-isotope
analyses.
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Table 1
Descriptions of the samples analysed from the Malay Peninsula.
Geological zone
Sample
Longitude
Latitude
Drainage
Eastern
IS40
IS37
102.49112
103.43609
5.73763
4.64011
Central
IS41
IS14
101.69095
102.11230
5.66084
5.53565
IS19
102.01583
4.09164
IS18
102.19065
4.04281
IS31
IS2
IS26
102.68436
101.34138
101.89650
3.55614
4.42584
3.44557
Eastern Province granitoids, Carboniferous schists and phyllites and recent coastal sediments
Eastern Province granitoids, Carboniferous schists and phyllites, recent coastal sediments and
minor Mesozoic clastic rocks.
The Cretaceous Stong Migmatite Complex
Eastern Province granitoids, the Stong Migmatite Comples, Mesozoic and Permian clastic and
volcaniclastic rocks, and minor basic volcanics and limestones
Mesozoic and Permian clastic and volcaniclastic rocks, Eastern (the Central Belt), and Main Range
Province granitoids, and Permian limestones
Mesozoic and Permian clastic and volcaniclastic rocks, minor basic volcanics, Eastern (including the
Central Belt), and Main Range Province granitoids, and Permian limestones
Jurassic‐Cretaceous fluvial‐alluvial rocks (the Tembeling Gp)
Main Range Province granitoids
Main Range Province granitoids
Western
4.2. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating
U–Pb dating was performed at University College London using a
New Wave 213 aperture-imaged frequency-quintupled laser ablation
system (213 nm) coupled to an Agilent 7500 quadrupole-based ICPMS. Grains typically were ablated with 55 μm laser spot and a 30 μm
laser spot was used for finer-grained samples. Background was
measured for 30 s, followed by 30 s of data collection, and a 30 s purge
cycle after each run. Real-time data were processed using the
GLITTER® software package (Griffin et al., 2008). PLESOVIC zircon
(TIMS reference age 337.13 ± 0.37 Ma; (Sláma et al., 2008)) and NIST
SRM 612 silicate glass (Pearce et al., 1997) were used as external
standards for correcting mass fractionation and instrumental bias. At
least 60 grains were analysed in each sample. 204Pb could not be
measured for common lead correction because of interference from
204
Hg in the carrier gas. The correction of Andersen (2002), which
assumes that measured 206Pb/238U, 207Pb/235U and 208Pb/232Th ratios
are discordant due to a combination of common lead contamination
and lead loss at defined time, was used instead. A 10% cutoff was
adopted to reject discordant data. 238U/206Pb ages are used for zircons
b1000 Ma and the 207Pb/206Pb ages were used for older zircons.
4.3. Hf-isotope analyses
Hf-isotope analyses were performed at GEMOC ARC National Key
Centre at Macquarie University, Australia. 176Hf/177Hf ratios in zircons
were measured with a New Wave Research 213 nm laser-ablation
microprobe attached to a Nu Plasma multicollector ICPMS. The
analytical procedure is described in detail by Griffin et al. (2000,
2006a). Time-resolved analyses were processed using Nu Plasma
software. Analyses were carried out at 5 Hz frequency with a beam
diameter of 55 μm and energies around 0.1 mJ per pulse. Background
was measured for 60 s. The length of the analysis varied between 30
and 140 s depending on the thickness of the grains.
Repeated analyses of Mud Tank (long-term running average 176Hf/
177
Hf value 0.282523 ± 43, (Griffin et al., 2006b)) and 91,500 (longterm running average 176Hf/177Hf value 0.282307 ± 58, (Griffin et al.,
2006b)) zircon standards were used to monitor data quality (Table 2).
The 176Lu decay constant (1.865 × 10−11) calculated by Scherer et al.
(2001) from terrestrial samples, the chondritic values of 176Hf/
177
Hf= 0.0332 and 176Lu/177Hf= 0.282772 (Blichert-Toft and Albarède,
1997), and zircon ages determined by U–Pb dating techniques were
used for further calculations.
Epsilon Hf (εHf) describes the deviation of the initial 176Hf/177Hf
ratio from the evolution line defined by chondritic meteorites (CHUR)
(Faure and Mensing, 2004). In the granitoid magmas high 176Hf/177Hfi
(εHf ≫ 0) indicates mantle-derived input and low 176Hf/177Hfi
(εHf b 0) suggests crustal reworking (Belousova et al., 2006). Hf
model ages (TDM) represent a minimum age for the source material of
the zircon parental magma. Crustal model ages (TCDM) assume that
zircon parental magma was produced from an average continental
crust (176Lu/177Hf = 0.015), that originally was derived from the
depleted mantle (Belousova et al., 2006), and provides a more realistic
estimate of its source age.
5. Results
5.1. U–Pb dating
752 U–Pb zircon ages were collected from nine modern river-sand
samples from the Malay Peninsula. Results are illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4.
Sample locations were chosen with the aim of covering zircon age
variations in all three geological zones.
5.1.1. The Eastern Zone
Two samples (IS37 and IS40) were analysed from the Eastern
Zone. There are two major Phanerozoic zircon populations: Late
Permian–Late Triassic (199 to 260 Ma) and Early-Middle Permian
(266 to 296 Ma). A Late Permian-Late Triassic population is present in
both samples. An Early-Middle Permian population is prominent only
in sample IS37, collected from the southern part of the zone.
5.1.2. The Central Zone
Five samples, IS14, IS18, IS19, IS31, and IS41, were analysed from
the Central Zone. There are five Phanerozoic zircon populations in the
Central Zone samples: Late Cretaceous (70 to 84 Ma), Jurassic (162 to
Table 2
Precision and accuracy for reference standard zircons (91,500 and Mud Tank) used in this study.
176
Reference
Technique
n
91500
Griffin et al., 2006b
This study
LA‐MC‐ICPMS
LA‐MC‐ICPMS
632
7
Mud Tank
Griffin et al., 2006b
This study
LA‐MC‐ICPMS
LA‐MC‐ICPMS
2190
87
Hf/177Hf
± 2σ
176
0.282307
0.282319
± 58
± 29
0.282523
0.282464
± 43
± 19
Lu/177Hf
±2σ
176
Yb/177Hf
0.000317
0.000321
±54
±1
0.0115
0.0128
±50
±2
0.000059
±2
0.0027
±1
± 2σ
30
40
20
Eastern
60
30
20
10
60
60
40
40
20
20
60
30
40
20
Central
20
60
40
20
60
40
Number of grains
20
10
30
20
10
30
20
20
10
60
30
40
20
20
10
60
30
40
20
Western
Number of grains
40
10
20
60
40
20
Central
60
Western
20
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I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
10
30
20
10
0
500
Ages are
shown in Fig.4.
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
0
100
Age, Ma
Fig. 3. Histograms showing detrital zircon U–Pb ages in river sediments from the Malay
Peninsula. Bin width is 50 Ma.
190 Ma), Late Permian–Late Triassic (224 to 258 Ma), Early-Middle
Permian (267 to 299 Ma), and Ordovician–Silurian (423 to 458 Ma). A
Late Cretaceous population is prominent in samples IS14 and IS41,
collected from rivers draining the Stong Migmatite Complex. Jurassic
grains form a small population in sample IS31, collected from a river
draining Mesozoic alluvial sedimentary rocks. A significant Late
Permian–Late Triassic population is present in all samples. An EarlyMiddle Permian population is present only in sample IS18 collected
from the southern part of this zone. A minor Ordovician–Silurian
population is found only in sample IS31.
200
300
400
500
Age, Ma
Fig. 4. Histograms showing the 0–500 Ma U–Pb ages in detrital zircons from the Malay
Peninsula. Grey area highlights zircons derived from local Permian–Triassic granitoids.
Bin width is 10 Ma. Note that the vertical scale for IS41 is 0 to 60 and for all other
samples 0 to 30.
CL-imaging reveals cores in euhedral/subhedral zircons from the
Western Zone of the Malay Peninsula and U–Pb dating shows these
have Precambrian ages. Both Precambrian cores and rounded grains
are common in the Eastern and Central Zones of the Malay Peninsula
(Fig. 5).
5.2. Hf-isotope composition
During this study 243 of the dated zircon grains were analysed for
Hf-isotope composition. Results are summarised in Figs. 6 and 7.
5.1.3. The Western Zone
Two samples (IS2 and IS26) were analysed from the Western Zone.
Two major Phanerozoic zircon populations can be identified: Late
Triassic (212 to 228 Ma) and Middle Permian–Middle Triassic (229 to
270 Ma). The Late Triassic population is dominant in both samples. A
Middle Permian–Middle Triassic population is prominent only in
sample IS26, which was collected in the southern part of this zone.
Devonian–Carboniferous grains are present in all zones, but do not
form major populations (Fig. 4). Small numbers of Late Archaean–Late
Proterozoic grains are consistently present in all samples analysed.
Sample IS31 contains minor latest Neoproterozoic (598 to 646 Ma),
Meso-Neoproterozoic (793 to 1171 Ma), late Palaeoproterozoic (1732
to 1888 Ma) and Neoarchaean–early Palaeoproterozoic populations
(2196 to 2722 Ma). There is one Eoarchaean (3750 ± 56 Ma) zircon in
sample IS37.
5.2.1. The Eastern Zone
Samples IS37 and IS40 were analysed from the Eastern Zone. Late
Permian–Late Triassic grains yield 176Hf/177Hfi values that are higher
than those in zircons of similar age from the Western Zone. 176Hf/
177
Hfi values of these grains plot both above and below CHUR (εHf
range from −4 to + 8) (Figs. 6 and 7). This suggests a mixed crustand mantle-derived source. Low 176Hf/177Hfi values of Early-Middle
Permian zircon grains suggest a crustally-derived source and those of
Precambrian plot both above and below CHUR.
5.2.2. The Central Zone
Samples IS18, IS31, and IS41 were analysed from the Central Zone.
Late Cretaceous grains yield low 176Hf/177Hfi values that plot below
CHUR (Figs. 6 and 7). This suggests a crustal source and is consistent
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I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
Fig. 5. CL-images of detrital zircons from rivers draining the Malay Peninsula. The top three rows show morphology and zoning of Precambrian zircons derived from the Eastern
Province. Note that many of the zircons are rounded, but subhedral grains with older cores are also common. The following row shows zoning in the Late Carboniferous–Middle
Permian zircons derived from the Eastern Province. The presence of cores suggests a reworked crustal source. The bottom two rows show zoning in Precambrian zircons derived
from the Main Range Province. These are cores in euhedral/subhedral zircons. Scale bar 100 μm.
with a provenance from granitoids within the Stong Migmatite
Complex. 176Hf/177Hfi values for Jurassic grains suggest a mixed
source. 176Hf/177Hfi values for Triassic and Permian grains have 176Hf/
177
Hfi values that plot both above and below CHUR and are
comparable to zircons of similar age from the Eastern Zone. Early
Palaeozoic grains yield predominantly low 176Hf/177Hfi values that
suggest crustally-derived source rocks, while 176Hf/177Hfi values of
Precambrian zircons plot both above and below CHUR.
5.2.3. The Western Zone
Sample IS2 was analysed from the Western Zone. Late Triassic
grains in this sample yield 176Hf/177Hfi ratios lower than CHUR
(εHf b 0). This suggests a crustal source for the parental granitoids of
these zircons. The high 176Hf/177Hfi values of Mesoproterozoic grains
suggest minor ‘juvenile’ crust production around 1.1–1.2 Ga and
1.6 Ga. The low 176Hf/177Hfi values of Palaeoproterozoic grains suggest
a crust-derived source for these grains.
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
0.2835
EASTERN
ZONE
0.2830
IS40
IS37
C
TDM
1.55 Ga
0.2825
TDMC
1.97Ga TDMC
2.17Ga
0.2820
0.2815
C
TDM
2.73 Ga
0.2810
DM
EAST MALAYA
BLOCK
a
1031
CHUR
0.2805
0.2800
0.2835
CENTRAL
ZONE
176Hf/177Hfi
0.2830
TDMC
0.2825
1.41 Ga
IS18
IS31
IS41
TDMC
C
DM
1.51 Ga
T
1.88 Ga
0.2820
TDMC
2.53 Ga
0.2815
0.2810
DM
EAST MALAYA
BLOCK
b
CHUR
0.2805
0.2800
0.2835
WESTERN
ZONE
0.2830
TDMC
1.58 Ga
0.2825
0.2820
IS2
C
TDM
2.0 Ga
C
TDM
2.97 Ga
0.2815
0.2810
DM
CHUR
0.2805
0.2800
SIBUMASU
BLOCK
c
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
T(Ma)
Fig. 6. Plots of U–Pb ages versus initial Hf-isotope composition in detrital zircons from the Eastern (a), Central (b) and Western (c) Zones in the Malay Peninsula. Dashed lines show
crustal model ages for significant zircon populations.
6. Discussion
6.1. Late Palaeozoic–Early Mesozoic granitic magmatism in the Malay
Peninsula
Morphology, oscillatory growth-zoning, and ages of Permian and
Triassic zircons in the river sediments indicate that they were derived
predominantly from local granitoids. Therefore, U–Pb ages for these
zircons constrain the timing of magmatism throughout the Malay
Peninsula. Detrital zircon is resistant to tropical weathering and
therefore we suggest that these ages are more robust than the
previous K–Ar and Rb–Sr ages (e.g. Ahmad and Yap, 1976; Bignell and
Snelling, 1977; Cobbing et al., 1992; Gobbett, 1973; Krähenbuhl,
1991; Schwartz et al., 1995; Seong, 1990; Yap, 1986) reported for the
Malay Peninsula granitoids. K–Ar ages need to be treated with caution
in tropical settings (e.g. Macpherson and Hall, 2002) such as those
that prevailed in the Malay Peninsula through the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic (e.g. Morley, 1998). Rb–Sr ages can also be problematical as
these isochrones date hydration events that are often difficult to
interpret.
A summary of previously published data (Fig. 8A) suggests that
granitoids of the Malay Peninsula range in age from 65 ± 2 Ma to 406 ±
12 Ma, and that Permian and Triassic granitoids are most abundant.
Most published datasets indicate that the Main Range Province
granitoids are 200–230 Ma old (Fig. 8G). However, some ages are
Jurassic and some are as young as Cretaceous. There are a few Main
Range granitoids that are older than 230 Ma in the Langkawi Islands
(242 Ma (Krähenbuhl, 1991)) and in Melaka (253–305 Ma (Gobbett,
1973; Krähenbuhl, 1991)).
U–Pb zircon data presented in this study reveal two distinct
episodes of magmatism (Fig. 8D and F) in the Eastern Province during
the Permian and Triassic. This bimodal age distribution has not been
identified in previous studies. Zircons sourced from the Main Range
Province granitoids are predominantly Late Triassic (Fig. 8H). One
sample in the Western Zone (IS26) contains a small number of Late
Permian–Middle Triassic grains (Fig. 4), although it is not clear
whether these grains were sourced from Main Range Province
granitoids or from granitic clasts in the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone.
Our new data do not support the hypothesis that Jurassic granitoids
are present in the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 8B). Although samples IS31
and IS14 from the Central Zone (Fig. 4) have a small number of
Jurassic grains (n = 5 and 2 respectively) and there is one Jurassic core
in sample IS41, we suggest these grains were most likely reworked
from Upper Jurassic alluvial–fluvial ‘redbeds’ that are exposed over
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
εHf
b
εHf
c
TDMC
1.55Ga
TDMC TDMC
1.97Ga 2.17Ga
C
TDM
2.73Ga
Eastern
Zone
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
TDMC TDMC
1.41Ga 1.51Ga
TDMC
1.88Ga
TDMC
2.53Ga
TDMC
2.94Ga
Central
Zone
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
TDMC
1.58Ga
TDMC
2.0Ga
TDMC
2.97Ga
Western
Zone
0
500
1000
1500
EAST MALAYA
BLOCK
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
EAST MALAYA
BLOCK
εHf
a
2000
2500
3000
SIBUMASU
BLOCK
1032
3500
Age(Ma)
CHUR
Depletedmantle
IS2
IS18
IS31
IS41
IS40
IS37
Fig. 7. Composite plots of U–Pb ages versus initial epsilon Hf values for detrital zircons from the Eastern (a), Central (b) and Western (c) Zones in the Malay Peninsula. Dark shaded
areas show major episodes of crust production in the Sibumasu and East Malaya Blocks. Light shaded areas show other possible episodes of magmatism in the SE Asian basement
fragments. However, granitoids produced during these episodes are not abundant, and some of the grains may have been recycled from sources outside the Malay Peninsula.
large areas of Central and SE Laos, Cambodia, NE Thailand, and the
Malay Peninsula (Harbury et al., 1990; Racey, 2009). Provenance
studies of these ‘redbeds’ in Thailand, referred to as the Khorat Group
and lateral equivalents (e.g. Carter and Bristow, 2003; Racey, 2009),
suggest that they were sourced from the Qinling Orogenic Belt
immediately to the north and deposited in a foreland basin setting. A
northerly provenance is supported by palaeocurrent data from the
Malay Peninsula (Harbury et al., 1990). Five U–Pb zircon age
populations are recognised from the Khorat Group in Thailand (Carter
and Bristow, 2003; Carter and Moss, 1999): Jurassic (161 to 170 Ma),
Permian–Triassic (242 to 261), Ordovician–Silurian (433 to 467 Ma),
late Palaeoproterozoic (1799 to 1839 Ma), and early Palaeoproterozoic
(2450 to 2500 Ma). Presence of Jurassic zircons in the Khorat Group
supports our interpretation that its equivalents are the most likely
sources for the Jurassic zircons in river sands from the Malay Peninsula.
There is therefore no firm evidence for major magmatism in the area
between the Late Triassic and Cretaceous.
6.2. Magma sources for Permian–Triassic granitoids in the
Malay Peninsula
Compositions of magma sources are governed by the tectonic
processes by which they are produced and therefore may be matched
to individual geodynamic settings. Granitoids can be produced in a
range of settings that include mid-ocean ridges, intraplate settings
(oceanic islands, continental rifts and hotspots), subduction zones
(continental margin arcs, and island arcs), and continent–continent
collision zones. Mantle-derived sources are commonly associated
with mid-ocean ridges, oceanic island arcs, and hotspot settings,
whereas crustal reworking is the primary source for magma
generation in continental collision zones. Sources for subductionrelated magmas may be complex, since many processes such as partial
melting of subducted sediments and oceanic lithosphere, melting
of the mantle wedge, mantle flow, magma mixing, and crustal
contamination can all contribute to subduction-related melts. Most
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
CENOZOIC
CRETACEOUS
CARBOSI- ORDOJURAS- TRIAS- PERMDEVONIFELU- VICIIAN
SIC
SIC
NIAN
ROUS
RIAN AN
100
A*
All Peninsula
50
0
100
B
50
0
C*
60
40
Eastern-I
20
0
D
40
20
0
30
E*
subduction-related magmas are produced by a combination of several
of these processes (e.g. Condie, 1989; Pearce and Peate, 1995). Some
authors have emphasised that newly generated crust has a different
preservation potential in different tectonic settings. For instance,
Hawkesworth et al. (2010) suggested in subduction zones the volume
of the continental crust that can be recycled back into the mantle may
be comparable with the volume of crust that is generated in these
settings.
Permian–Triassic granitoids of the Malay Peninsula are commonly
interpreted as subduction-related and syn-to post-collisional (e.g.
Metcalfe, 2000). Hf-isotope data obtained for Permian and Triassic
zircons allow the recognition of three major magmatic suites: (a) Permian
crustally-derived granitoids, (b) Early-Middle Triassic granitoids with
a mixed mantle–crust source, and (c) Late Triassic crustally-derived
granitoids. This suggests three major Permian–Triassic episodes of
magmatism in the Malay Peninsula. Two of these episodes (a and b)
occurred in the Eastern Province.
Evolved Hf-isotope compositions (εHf values vary from −8 to
−13) of Triassic zircons from the Sibumasu Block (Western Zone of
the Malay Peninsula) indicate a reworked crustal source and a syn- to
post-collisional setting for their parental granitoids. The older
crystallisation ages of Permian–Triassic zircons from the East Malaya
Block (Western and Central Zones of the Malay Peninsula) support a
subduction-related setting for their parental granitoids. Abundant
crustally-derived granitoids are unusual in a subduction-related
setting and their presence may indicate derivation from old
continental basement beneath the East Malaya Block.
6.3. Different tectonic models
15
Eastern-II
Number of grains
60
1033
0
30
F
15
0
50
G*
0
50
Main Range
25
H
25
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Age (Ma)
Fig. 8. Histograms showing previously published granitoid ages and new U–Pb detrital
zircon ages from the Malay Peninsula. A: a summary of published ages* for the whole
region. B: a summary of all analysed detrital zircon U–Pb ages that are younger than
500 Ma. C: published ages* for the Eastern Province granitoids (both Eastern and
Central Belt). D: 0–500 Ma old zircons that are sourced from the granitoids of the
Eastern Belt (IS37 and IS40) and the Stong Migmatite Complex (IS41). These are
representative of the Eastern Province source. E: published granitoid ages* for the
Eastern Province, excluding the Central Belt. F: 0–500 Ma old zircons sourced from the
Eastern Belt Granitoids (IS37 and IS40). G: published ages* for the Main Range Province
granitoids. H: 0–500 Ma old zircons from the Western Zone of the Malay Peninsula (IS2
and IS26) that are representative of the Main Range source. Bin width is 10 Ma.
*Previously published data from Ahmad and Yap (1976), Bignell and Snelling (1977),
Cobbing et al. (1992), Gobbett (1973), Krähenbuhl (1991), Schwartz et al. (1995),
Seong (1990) and Yap (1986).
There are several tectonic models for the Permian and Triassic
evolution of the Thai–Malay Peninsula. Most of these models
acknowledge that tin belt granitoids were produced during the closure
of Palaeo-Tethys and the resulting collision between Sibumasu and
East Malaya–Indochina (e.g. Barber and Crow, 2009; Hutchison, 1977;
Metcalfe, 2000, 2009). However, the exact timing of this collision
remains contentious, and is the focus of this section. Three main ages
have been suggested for the Sibumasu–East Malaya collision: 1) Late
Triassic–Jurassic (Hirsch et al., 2006; Kamata et al., 2002; Sashida et al.,
1995), 2) Middle-Late Triassic (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008), and 3) Late
Permian–Early Triassic (Barber and Crow, 2009; Metcalfe, 2009)
(Table 3).
6.3.1. Late Triassic–Jurassic collision
Proposals for a Late Triassic–Jurassic collision between Sibumasu
and East Malaya are based on radiolarian biostratigraphy from cherts
in the Semanggol Formation of northwestern Malay Peninsula and its
equivalents in Thailand. Hirsch et al. (2006) suggest that the
Sibumasu–East Malaya collision occurred in the latest Triassic–Early
Jurassic, Kamata et al. (2002) argued for the collision after the Early
Carnian (early Late Triassic), and Sashida et al. (1995) suggest
collision occurred after the Middle Triassic. These studies base the
timing of collision on the assumption that radiolaria from cherts
represent pelagic open-ocean sedimentation and therefore must be
older than collision. Metcalfe (2000) however suggests that Triassic
Semanggol Formation cherts were deposited in a foredeep basin and
therefore do not represent true Palaeo-Tethyan oceanic deposits.
Furthermore, Metcalfe (2000) draws attention to a major structural
discontinuity between Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks in the Peninsula
as evidence for collision at this time and Metcalfe (2003) provides
additional conodont colour and textural alteration data that support
collision at the end Permian. Barber and Crow (2009) also point out
that in many occurrences the studied radiolarian cherts were
deposited in intracontinental basins on the Sibumasu continental
crust and not on Palaeo-Tethyan oceanic crust. Therefore, the timing
of collision between Sibumasu and East Malaya–Indochina, and the
1034
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
Table 3
A summary of different tectonic models proposed for the timing of the Indosinian Orogeny (Sibumasu and East Malaya–Indochina collision).
Collision timing
Evidence
Arguments against
This study
Latest Triassic–Early Jurassic
Radiolarian chert ages
• In many instances, cherts deposited
in the inter-continental basins;
• Do not constrain the timing
of the Paleo-Tethys destruction
(Barber and Crow, 2009).
• Do not support this timing;
• These models require Jurassic synto postcollisional magmatism;
• Only a few Jurassic grains present
in the analysed samples.
• Chronostratigraphic occurrence of
pelagic or deep-sea sediments
in Nan and Sra Kaeo sutures in Thailand;
• Granitoid ages and geochemistry.
• Different deformation styles of
1) Carboniferous–Permian and
2) Triassic rocks;
• Permo-Triassic unconformity
(Barber and Crow, 2009);
• Reveal two episodes of magmatism
in the Eastern Province;
• Do not resolve the arguments with
regard to these timings, but suggests
a more complex subduction history.
• Different deformation styles of
1) Carboniferous–Permian and
2) Triassic rocks
• Permo-Triassic unconformity
(Barber and Crow, 2009).
• Three Permian–Triassic episodes of magmatism
1) Permian crustderived granitoids
• 2) Early-Middle Triassic granitoids with
a mixed mantleand crust-derived source
• 3) Late Triassic crustderived granitoids
• Two Permian–Triassic episodes of magmatism
(1 and 2) in the Eastern Province.
• Up to 30 Ma time lag between
the collision and a major phase
of post-collisional magmatism.
• However, this time lag is possible
(e.g. England and Thompson,
1984; Thompson and England, 1984).
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Hirsch et al. (2006)
After the Early Carnian
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Kamata et al. (2002)
After the Middle Triassic
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Sashida et al. (1995)
Late PermianEarly Triassic
(arc)
Middle-Late
Triassic
(main)
Jurassic
Permian
Triassic
Sone and Metcalfe (2008)
Late Permian–Early Triassic
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Barber and Crow (2009) Metcalfe (2009)
Late Permian–Early Triassic.
The main collision occurred
shortly after the collision
with the arc
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
This study
destruction of Palaeo-Tethys, cannot be determined by these
radiolarian ages. Furthermore, collision in the Late Triassic is not
supported by other lines of evidence. Our new detrital zircon U–Pb
ages presented here indicate unequivocally that collision occurred
prior to the Late Triassic.
6.3.2. Middle-Late Triassic collision
Sone and Metcalfe (2008) interpret the Eastern Province granitoids as remnants of the Sukhothai Arc (including the Linchang,
Sukhothai, and Chanthaburi Blocks). According to Sone and Metcalfe
(2008) this arc developed on an elongate fragment of continental
crust in the Permian that collided with Indochina (East Malaya) by the
Early Triassic – a model that places the major continent–continent
collision (Sibumasu–East Malaya) later than initial collision and prior
to the Middle Triassic–early Late Triassic. It is likely that the Eastern
Province granitoids represent the southerly continuation of the
Sukkothai Arc into the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. However, this
proposed continuation of the Sukhothai Arc (Chanthaburi Block)
southward into the Malay Peninsula (Metcalfe, 2009) requires the
presence of a second suture zone (between the Sukhothai Arc and East
Malaya Block) east of the Bentong–Raub suture zone. This inference is
supported by a zone of sheared diamictite along the eastern margin of
the Central Belt of the Malay Peninsula (referred to as the Lebir Fault
Zone), that is interpreted by Metcalfe and Chakraborty (1988) as
either olistostromes that formed along the fault scarps of a developing
graben or as a suture zone mélange. Although there are no reports of
ophiolitic-type rocks or radiolarian cherts within the sheared
diamictites of the Lebir Fault Zone, we prefer to interpret these
mélanges as tectonic in origin, and representative of a major suture.
This interpretation fits very well with observations further north,
where the Chanthaburi and Sukhothai Blocks are separated from
Indochina by the Sra Kaeo and Nan Sutures respectively. These sutures
both contain ophiolitic rocks, melange and radiolarian cherts of
Permian age and are interpreted as a remnant back-arc basin by Sone
and Metcalfe (2008).
Our new detrital zircon data do not contradict the model that
assumes Permian–Triassic collision of East Malaya with the Sukhothai
Arc was followed by Sibumasu–East Malaya collision (the major
continent–continent collision) in the Middle–Late Triassic. A Late
Permian–Early Triassic gap in magmatism and a subsequent change of
zircon Hf-isotope compositions could be explained by the collision
between the Sukhothai Arc and East Malaya. The predominantly Late
Triassic ages of zircons sourced from the Main Range Province and
their crustally-derived Hf-isotope signatures are consistent with the
Middle Triassic–early Late Triassic major continent–continent collision. However, this timing is not supported by structural evidence
(Barber and Crow, 2009).
6.3.3. Late Permian–Early Triassic collision
Several authors (Barber and Crow, 2009; Harbury et al., 1990;
Metcalfe, 2009) support Late Permian–Early Triassic collision between
the Sibumasu and East Malaya Blocks. These arguments are based
mainly on the different structural deformation styles of Late
Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra
(Barber and Crow, 2009; Harbury et al., 1990). Late Palaeozoic, and
especially Carboniferous rocks show multiphase folding and regional
metamorphism (Harbury et al., 1990). Permian rocks show intensive
internal deformation, whereas Triassic rocks are only tilted and gently
folded (Barber and Crow, 2009). In Sumatra end-Permian collision is
supported by the absence of uppermost Permian and lowermost
Triassic fossils (representing an unconformity) within a sequence of
Permian–Triassic limestones (Barber and Crow, 2009).
In the new interpretation for Thailand (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008),
this tectonic event corresponds to the collision of the Sukhothai Arc
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
with the East Malaya Block and not collision between Sibumasu and
East Malaya. An alternative interpretation is that Sibumasu–East
Malaya collision occurred in the Late Permian–Early Triassic, shortly
after, or contemporaneously with, the collision of East Malaya and the
Sukhothai Arc. The Lebir Fault Zone therefore marks the boundary
between the Sukhothai Arc and East Malaya (and represents a
remnant oceanic basin – as suggested by Sone and Metcalfe (2008)
further north), whereas the Bentong–Raub suture zone separates
Sibumasu from the Sukhothai Arc and East Malaya and represents the
main Palaeo-Tethys Suture. Two issues require explanation for this
model to be valid: (a) the tectonic setting of the Eastern Province
granitoids and (b) the time lag between Sibumasu–East Malaya
collision (Late Permian–Early Triassic, ~250–254 Ma) and the major
phase of post-collisional magmatism in the Main Range Province
(200–230 Ma). In this model, collision between the Sukhothai Arc and
East Malaya was shortly followed by Sibumasu collision and the
Permian Eastern Province granitoids are interpreted as subductionrelated despite their crustal 176Hf/177Hfi values that are unusual for
such tectonic settings. These 176Hf/177Hfi values are easily explained
by derivation from old continental crust beneath East Malaya (which
is supported by the Palaeoproterozoic TCDM of these zircons – see later
discussion). If the Permian Eastern Province granitoids are subduction-related then it seems unlikely that the deep oceanic basin that lay
between the Sukhothai Arc and East Malaya was a back-arc basin as
suggested by Sone and Metcalfe (2008) further north. The generation
of subduction-related granitoids through the Permian would be
expected to result in the destruction of a significant sized oceanic
basin, much larger than that expected for a typical back-arc basin.
Furthermore, the absence of pre-Permian radiolaria from this zone is
interpreted by Sone and Metcalfe (2008) to indicate back-arc rift
initiation in the Early Permian between the Sukhothai Arc and East
Malaya. In our model there is eastward-directed subduction beneath
East Malaya at this time and associated generation of crustal Eastern
Province granitoids. We therefore prefer to interpret the Sukhothai
Arc as intra-oceanic and not the result of slab rollback and back-arc
basin formation processes. The arc developed on a sliver of
continental crust that was then accreted to the Indochina margin at
the end Permian. Sone and Metcalfe (2008) point out that Permian
marine faunas associated with this continental sliver are of warm
water Tethyan type and support the interpretation of a back arc origin.
These observations however, do not require the Sukhothai Arc to have
been attached to the East Malaya Block before the Permian, although
these warm water Tethyan marine faunas do suggest a Cathaysian
affinity. Therefore, this evidence cannot be used to argue for the backarc tectonic history of the Sukhothai Arc and does not contradict our
interpretation.
The Triassic Eastern Province granitoids may be post-collisional,
despite their mixed ‘crustal’ and ‘juvenile mantle’ 176Hf/177Hfi values.
Using the example of the Woyla Arc collision, Barber (2000) has
shown that in the case of oblique subduction granitic rocks can be
intruded into an active shear zone that developed as the result of
collision. Examples of foliated granitoids intruded into the (Inthanon)
suture zone in northern Thailand (Baum et al. (1970) support such
arguments. We suggest that it is likely that the Triassic Eastern
Province granitoids were emplaced along the Lebir Fault Zone in a
similar fashion to that described by Barber (2000); these granites
were sourced from the upper mantle and crustal melts.
Metcalfe (2000) states that the age of melting of the Sibumasu
continent probably occurred tens of millions of years prior to the Main
Range Province granitoid emplacement. Such a time lag between the
collision and post-collisional magmatism is not unlikely. Some studies
(e.g. England and Thompson, 1984; Thompson and England, 1984)
suggest that it may take several tens of millions of years to generate
melts in a thickened crust. Syn-collisional plutons are expected, but
may not be abundant. This is consistent with the presence of rare Late
Permian–Middle Triassic Main Range Province granitoids in Melaka
1035
(Krähenbuhl, 1991), the Langkawi Islands, and Bangka (Barber and
Crow, 2009).
6.3.4. Collision timing supported in this study
Our data do not contradict the interpretation that the Sukhothai
Arc collided with East Malaya at the end of the Permian and was then
followed by the main collision between Sibumasu and the newly
accreted Sukhothai Arc and East Malaya in the Middle to Late Triassic
(e.g. Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). However, other lines of evidence (e.g.
gently deformed Triassic deposits overlaying intensely deformed
Palaeozoic rocks (Barber and Crow, 2009; Harbury et al., 1990) and
missing latest Permian to earliest Triassic fauna from within PermoTriassic limestones (Barber and Crow, 2009) – discussed above)
support major collision at the end of the Permian/earliest Triassic. We
favour this interpretation and suggest that Sibumasu was accreted to
the Indochina margin at the end Permian and that this collision was
broadly contemporaneous with the collision between the Sukhothai
Arc and East Malaya (Fig. 9).
6.4. Ages of Sundaland basement
The parental magmas of many granitoids are produced from mixed
sources or incorporate a significant proportion of inherited material.
Crustal model ages calculated for zircons produced from a mixed
source give only an average age of the source material and should not
be treated as crustal-formation ages (Arndt and Goldstein, 1987;
Kemp et al., 2006). However, when crustal model ages are supported
by other lines of evidence, such as U–Pb zircon ages, they can be used
as an indicator of the true age of the basement rocks.
6.4.1. The Eastern Zone
Late Permian-Late Triassic zircons from the Eastern Zone have
both positive and negative εHf values and a spread of crustal model
ages from 0.72 to 1.55 Ga. The spread in εHf and age discrepancies
between crustal model ages and U–Pb ages suggest a mixed source.
Therefore, the crustal model ages of these grains may not provide a
meaningful estimate of the basement ages.
TCDM of Early-Middle Permian zircon grains indicate that their
parent granitoids were produced from a 1.97 Ga old source. Six U–Pb
ages between 1.7 and 2.1 Ga confirm a Palaeoproterozoic age for the
basement. TCDM suggest a 2.17 Ga source for Devonian–Carboniferous
zircons, but the U–Pb ages do not support a 2.17 Ga age for the
basement. These grains are not abundant and may have been sampled
from Palaeozoic sediments overlying the basement. TCDM of Palaeoproterozoic grains around 2.73 Ga and one 2.5 Ga U–Pb for a zircon
core may indicate a minor Neoarchaean basement contribution.
6.4.2. The Central Zone
River sediments in the Central Zone of the Malay Peninsula contain
zircons from local granitoids and Mesozoic siliciclastic rocks, and some
of these zircon grains are likely to be sourced from outside the Malay
Peninsula. TCDM from Permian–Triassic zircons are similar to those of the
Eastern Zone and are likely to have been produced from the same mixed
source. TCDM of Early Palaeozoic detrital zircons indicate the presence of
Mesoproterozoic (1.88 Ga) crust beneath the East Malaya Block. This is
supported by nine U–Pb zircon ages ranging from 1.7 to 1.9 Ga.
Several small Meso-Neoproterozoic detrital zircon populations
(Fig. 7) suggest numerous minor episodes of magmatism. Some of
these zircon grains are rounded with frosted surfaces (Fig. 5) and
therefore are likely to have been recycled from Mesozoic and
Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks. The majority of these grains have
TCDM around 2.5 Ga (Fig. 6), similar to TCDM in the Eastern Zone. This
may indicate the contribution of Neoarchaean basement in the East
Malaya–Indochina Block. Nine U–Pb zircon ages that range from 2.3 to
2.7 Ga support this suggestion.
1036
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
Paleo-Tethys
EARLY PERMIAN
Sukhothai Arc
East Malaya Arc
crust-derived
granitoids
EAST MALAYA
SIBUMASU
GONDWANA
MIDDLE PERMIAN
EAST MALAYA
SIBUMASU
LATE PERMIAN
LFZ
EAST MALAYA
SIBUMASU
EARLY TRIASSIC
BRSZ
SIBUMASU
MIDDLE TRIASSIC
crust-derived
granitoids
strike-slip
faults
EAST MALAYA
mixed
mantle-andcrustderivedgranitoids
EAST MALAYA
LATE TRIASSIC
crust-derived
granitoids
mixed
mantle-andcrustderivedgranitoids
Neo-Tethys (Meso-Tethys)
EAST MALAYA
Main Range
Province
Central Eastern
Belt
Belt
250 km (approx.)
Eastern Province
Fig. 9. A schematic conceptual model that provides a possible explanation for the Permian–Triassic subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean and the Sibumasu–East Malaya collision:
modified from Metcalfe (2000, 2009), Sone and Metcalfe (2008) and Barber and Crow (2009). The major difference of this model is that it identifies two distinct Permian–Triassic
magmatism episodes in the Eastern Province produced from different sources. Permian ‘crustally’ derived granitoids intruded into the East Malaya Block were most likely subductionrelated, whereas Triassic mixed ‘crustally’- and mantle-derived Eastern Province granitoids were emplaced along the faults in the Lebir Fault Zone. We also suggest that the Sukhothai Arc
did not separate from the East Malaya by back-arc spreading, but is an intra-oceanic arc built on a continental sliver. BRSZ – the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone; LFZ – the Lebir Fault Zone.
Late Cretaceous zircons present in the river sediments are most
likely derived from the Stong Migmatite Complex. The origin of the
Jurassic zircons in river sands is less clear and we interpret these to be
recycled from the Mesozoic fluvial–alluvial ‘red-beds’. Palaeocurrent
data suggest that these ‘red-beds’ are derived from the north–northeast (Harbury et al., 1990). However, there is no firm evidence for
abundant acid igneous rocks of Jurassic age in this region that could
have been a primary source for Jurassic zircons in the sedimentary
rocks. Although Jurassic granitoids are common in Sumatra (Cobbing,
2005; McCourt et al., 1996), there is no other evidence to support
provenance of the Mesozoic ‘red-beds’ from this region. The most
likely primary source rocks for the Jurassic zircons in the Mesozoic
fluvial–alluvial sedimentary rocks and, hence in river sands recycled
from them, are minor rhyolites that are locally interbedded with these
‘red-beds’ (e.g. Hutchison, 1989; Racey, 2009). Nevertheless, because
of the lack of isotopic dating of these rhyolites firm conclusions cannot
be drawn at present.
6.4.3. The Western Zone
TCDM and εHf b 0 in Triassic detrital zircons from the Western Zone
suggest that the Main Range Province granitoids (the source rocks of
these grains) were produced by remelting 1.9–2.0 Ga old crust. This is
supported by the presence of Palaeoproterozoic cores in younger
euhedral/subhedral zircons (Figs. 5 and 6). Triassic zircons have a
spread of εHf values that can be produced either by the introduction of
‘juvenile’ material into the melt (e.g. Belousova et al., 2006) or by
melting of inhomogeneous basement (e.g. Howard et al., 2009).
However, there is no evidence of juvenile component in this zone and
the presence of the old zircon cores supports the latter mechanism.
TCDM and εHf N 0 in Mesoproterozoic cores suggest a minor mantle-
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
derived input at around 1.1–1.2 and 1.6 Ga (Fig. 7). However, there
are few zircons of these ages in the samples analysed, which may
indicate that Mesoproterozoic granitoids are not abundant. TCDM of
three Palaeoproterozoic grains between 2.64 and 2.97 Ga suggest a
minor contribution from Neoarchaean basement beneath the Sibumasu Block. This is supported by the observation of two zircon cores
with ages of 2.5 and 2.8 Ga.
6.4.4. Summary
U–Pb and Hf-isotope data presented in this study support previous
interpretations that NW Sundaland lies on chronologically heterogeneous basement (Fig. 10). The basement of the Sibumasu Block is
mostly Palaeoproterozoic, around 1.9–2.0 Ga old. There are also
probably minor Mesoproterozoic (1.6 Ga) and Neoarchaean (2.8 Ga)
crustal components. The basement of the East Malaya Block is also
Palaeoproterozoic, around 1.7–2.0 Ga, but younger than that of the
Sibumasu Block. Late Archaean to Early Proterozoic crustal components, ranging from 2.3 to 2.7 Ga, are also present in the East Malaya
Block.
Data presented in this study are broadly consistent with the three
Palaeoproterozoic crust-formation episodes identified in mainland SE
Asia by Bodet and Schärer (2000), taking place at 2.5 Ga, 2.2–2.3 Ga
and 1.9–2.0 Ga. A number of Mesoproterozoic–Early Palaeozoic
episodes of granitoid production can also be recognised in detrital
zircon populations from the Sibumasu and East Malaya Blocks. Some
of these zircons show rounded morphologies and frosted surfaces and
are therefore best interpreted as recycled from sedimentary rocks.
These grains may therefore represent magmatic episodes outside the
area of Sibumasu and East Malaya.
The lack of Mesoarchaean and Palaeoarchaean grains is a striking
feature of both blocks. Ten Precambrian grains have TCDM between 3.21
and 4.18 Ga, but there is only one 3.34 Ga detrital zircon core in the
1037
Malay Peninsula samples. These grains are most likely recycled from
areas outside the SE Asian region.
6.5. Detrital zircon as an indicator of the tin belt provenance
Sundaland has been emergent or submerged to very shallow water
depths since the Early Mesozoic (Hall, 2009a). Throughout this period
local landmasses have shed large volumes of detrital material to
nearby areas. Different Phanerozoic histories of the Sundaland
basement fragments have generated provenance-diagnostic detritus,
specific to particular source provinces.
Previous provenance studies in Sundaland (Clements, 2008; van
Hattum, 2005; van Hattum et al., 2006) have shown that the tin belt
granitoids, including the Malay Peninsula, were an important source
of siliciclastic detritus in the region. Despite this, almost no studies
have attempted to characterise material derived from this significant
SE Asian source area. The purpose of this section is therefore to
identify detrital zircon signatures characteristic to different source
provinces in the Malay Peninsula.
It is difficult to distinguish between the Main Range and Eastern
Province based on U–Pb dating alone, as there is an overlap in the
zircon ages. However, distinctively different 176Hf/177Hf values of
Triassic zircons derived from the Eastern and Main Range Provinces
can be used to refine provenance interpretations based on U–Pb
methods. Negative εHf (−7.8 to −13.4) values are typical of zircons
from crustally-derived Triassic Main Range Province granitoids,
whereas Late Permian–Late Triassic zircons sourced from the mixed
crust- and mantle-derived Eastern Province granitoids have εHf
around −4.5 and + 9.2. This difference can be used as a provenance
indicator.
Cretaceous granitoids are only locally common in the Malay
Peninsula and their erosional products are not expected to be
consistently abundant in the material derived from this area.
However, if present, zircons from the Stong Migmatite Complex can
be distinguished from those of other Cretaceous sources in Sundaland
by their 70–85 Ma age. Most Cretaceous granitoids in Sundaland are
older than 80 Ma (Hall, 2009b).
Small amounts of Precambrian zircons are expected in detritus
derived from the tin belt, but their similar U–Pb and Hf-isotopic
compositions do not allow more precise provenance identification.
Some of the material from the Malay Peninsula is likely to be recycled
from the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks that
overlie the basement in places. Therefore, the presence of the Early
Palaeozoic and Precambrian zircons is also expected in the detrital
material derived from such pre-existing sediments.
We suggest that our method of assessing the provenance
characteristics of the Malay Peninsula by the sampling of river
sediments is arguably more robust than U–Pb and Hf investigations of
the granitoids themselves, since Condie et al. (2009) point out that
there may be instances when detrital rocks contain zircons from
basement lithologies that have been completely removed by erosion,
or are hidden beneath younger sedimentary/volcanic cover. By
sampling river sands in close proximity to the granitoids we are also
confident that these ages reflect a granitoid signature typical to each
region rather than to a restricted sampling locality that perhaps
represents only an individual magmatic event in the complex
development of the pluton as a whole.
7. Conclusions
Fig. 10. Cartoon showing age of basement fragments beneath the Malay Peninsula. Base
map modified from Sone and Metcalfe (2008).
1. U–Pb detrital zircon ages reveal that magmatism in the Eastern
Province of the Malay Peninsula occurred in two distinct episodes:
Permian and Early-Middle Triassic. Hf-isotope data identify
different magma sources for these zircon populations, suggesting
a complex history for the Palaeo-Tethyan subduction of oceanic
1038
2.
3.
4.
5.
I. Sevastjanova et al. / Gondwana Research 19 (2011) 1024–1039
crust and the Sibumasu–East Malaya collision and destruction of
Palaeo–Tethys.
The data presented here do not resolve the argument as to whether
the Sibumasu–East Malaya collision occurred in the Late Permian–
Early Triassic or in Middle Triassic–Late Triassic time. However,
detrital zircon ages do not support tectonic models that argue for
collision after the Late Triassic.
The basement of the Malay Peninsula is chronologically heterogeneous. The basement of the Sibumasu Block is ~1.9–2.0 Ga old
including some components around 2.8 Ga. The basement of the
East Malaya Block is ~ 1.7–2.0 Ga old with some older (2.7 Ga)
components. There is no firm evidence of Archaean basement older
than 2.8 Ga beneath the Malay Peninsula.
U–Pb ages and Hf-isotope compositions in detrital zircons from the
Malay Peninsula suggest that juvenile magmatic input increases
eastwards. The major feature of the Western Zone is reworking of
pre-existing Proterozoic crust and the lack of firm evidence for
juvenile magmatism. The Central Zone has a significant contribution of both Proterozoic and Archaean crustal components with a
minor juvenile contribution. The Eastern Zone has the most
significant juvenile input during the Triassic magmatism, mixed
with Proterozoic and Archaean crustal components.
U–Pb and Hf-isotope signatures of Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous
zircons are useful indicators of provenance from different granitoid
provinces within the SE Asian tin belt. Triassic zircons derived from
the Main Range Province granitoids can be distinguished from
similar-age zircons shed from the Eastern Province granitoids by
their ‘crustal’ Hf-isotope signatures.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Anthony Barber and Dr. Michael Crow
for the critical reviews and useful discussions of possible tectonic
models that significantly improved our interpretation. We are also
grateful to everybody in the SE Asia Research Group and GEMOC ARC
National Key Centre, particularly to Dr. Michael Cottam, Dr. Ian
Watkinson, Simon Suggate, Lanu Cross, Duncan Witts, Professor Tom
Andersen, Shelley Alchurch, and Dr. Ayesha Saeed. Dr. Andrew Carter
is thanked for help with the analytical work. Dr. Azman Ghani is
thanked for help with fieldwork. Professor Matthew Thirlwall and
Dr. David Alderton are thanked for the helpful discussions. We also
thank Dr. Maria Mange and Professor Ian Metcalfe for their
constructive reviews that improved the final version of the manuscript. This study used instrumentation funded by ARC LIEF and DEST
Systematic Infrastructure Grants, industry partners, and Macquarie
University. This is publication number 665 from the Australian
Research Council GEMOC ARC National Key Centre (www.gemoc.
mq.edu.au).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.10.010.
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