WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND UNDERSTANDING: A TRIADIC TAXONOMY IN
THE FATHER’S INSTRUCTIONS TO HIS SON, PROVERBS 1-9
___________________
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of Old Testament Studies
& the Faculty of the Department of Theological Studies
Dallas Theological Seminary
___________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Theology
___________________
by
Graham Sanders McFarlane
May 2014
Accepted by the Faculty of the Dallas Theological Seminary in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Theology
Examining Committee
ABSTRACT
WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND UNDERSTANDING: A TRIADIC TAXONOMY IN
THE FATHER’S INSTRUCTIONS TO HIS SON, PROVERBS 1-9
Graham Sanders McFarlane
Readers: Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Douglas K. Blount
Three words are important for expounding the meaning of Proverbs 1-9. These words are
Wisdom, ‫ ; ָח ְכמָה‬knowledge, ‫ ;דַּ עַת‬and understanding, ‫בִּינָה‬.The conventional approach to the
meaning of these three words favors a significant degree of synonymity, to the degree
that wisdom, knowledge, and understanding may even be thought of as interchangeable
terms. This conventional view generates broad semantic domains for each word.
However, this thesis proposes that this approach should be tested. It does not appear that
anyone has considered whether wisdom, knowledge, and understanding might be
generally discrete terms. Each word is reviewed in both its respective discourse meanings
in use and in relation to each other and similar words. I will propose that discrete
meanings indeed exist for each term as generally used in Proverbs and that each term has
a more differentiated semantic domain. With discrete meanings and more differentiated
semantic domains, these three words function as a ternary system and form a triadic
taxonomy useful for classifying the “Father’s Instructions to His Son” in Proverbs 1-9.
By classifying these instructions, the taxonomy that emerges could prove helpful for the
subsequent interpretation and teaching of Proverbs 1-9.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………………vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION……..………………………………………………………….1
The Importance of Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
Statement of the Problem
Initial Observations
Hypothesis
2.
WORD STUDIES…………………………………………………………….7
Method of Approach
Wisdom
Knowledge
Understanding
3.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, and
UNDERSTANDING...………………………………………………………..31
Comparison of Semantic Contexts
Poetic Parallelism Examples
Summary of Meanings and Relationships
Importance of the Meaning and Relationships to a Taxonomy
4.
A PROPOSED TRIADIC TAXONOMY FOR PROVERBS………………68
Classification of the Major Pericopes of Proverbs 1-9
Dimensionality Concepts for Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
Interior Hierarchies for Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
iv
A Proposed Triadic Taxonomy
5.
CONCLUSIONS…….............………………………………………………82
General Meanings for Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
A Triadic Taxonomy for Proverbs 1-9
Usefulness of a Triadic Taxonomy for Proverbs
Practical Application of a Triadic Taxonomy for Instruction
Appendices
A.
DISPARITY OF APPROACH TO WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND
UNDERSTANDING….………………………………………………………89
B.
USE AND CONTEXT FOR WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND
UNDERSTANDING………………………………………….………………95
C.
SUB-CATEGORIES OF WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND
UNDERSTANDING BY FOX, WALTKE, AND SHUPAK..……………..102
BIBLIOGRAPHY…..………………………………………………………………….106
SUPPLEMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………...112
v
ABBREVIATIONS
AB
Anchor Bible
BBRSup
Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements
BCOT
Baker Commentary on the Old Testament
BDB
Brown, Frances A., S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and
English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907.
BR
Biblical Research
BSac
Bibliotheca Sacra
BSC
Bible Study Commentary Series
BZAW
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
CBQ
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
DCH
The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Edited by David J. Clines. 8 vols.
Sheffield, 1998.
HALOT
The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ludwig
Koehler, Walter Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm. 2 vols.
Leiden, 2001.
HBT
Horizons in Biblical Theology
IBC
Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching.
JBL
Journal of Biblical Literature
JBQ
Jewish Bible Quarterly
JSCE
Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics
LHB/OTS
Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies
LBRS
Lexham Bible Reference Series
LSAWS
Linguistic Studies in Ancient West Semitic
NAS
New American Standard Bible
vi
NET
Net Bible
NICOT
New International Commentary on the Old Testament
NIDOTTE
New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and
Exegesis. Edited by W. A. VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids, 1997.
NKJV
New King James Version
OBO
Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis
OBS
The Oxford Bible Series
OT
Old Testament
RBL/SBL
Review of Biblical Literature/Society of Biblical Literature
SB
Subsidia Biblica
SBLDissS
Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLSymS
Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series
SOTS
Society for Old Testament Study Monographs
VTSup
Supplements to Vetus Testamentum
WBC
Word Biblical Commentary
WW
Word & World
ZAH
Zeitschrift für Althebräistik
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The unexpected and miraculous opportunity of attending Dallas Theological
Seminary after a full forty years’ business career has been a wonderful experience the
Lord has provided for which I am exceedingly thankful. This opportunity strengthens
greatly my desire to put the training given to good effect. That direction is pointed to the
teaching and discipling of the young. The genesis of the problem discussed in this thesis
comes after much reflection upon the issue of how Proverbs is to be utilized as
instruction, its purpose. My goal is to put the results of this thesis into action, with the
hope these ideas may have merit and bear fruit. So I would like to thank those who have
helped me along this unexpected path over the years, some whom at the time I had no
knowledge they were so helping and only now in looking back, can see the hand of God
at work.
I thank my mother, Frances, who was first an English high-school teacher ,
and then mother of six. My school essays were read to her while standing in the kitchen
as she fixed dinner, and rewritten until she was satisfied with the effort. Due to her we
did not own a television and were instead expected to read books. I thank my father,
John, an entrepreneur, for opening up the world of the “greats” with his bringing home
one day a set of “The Great Books of the Western World.” My favorite is Gibbon. I thank
my high-school Latin teacher, Laura Hughes. It never occurred to me at the time that
wading through Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil and writing non-stop translations and
declining endless nouns and conjugating irregular verb forms might ever come in handy
at a seminary. I thank my spiritual mentor Glenn Campbell (he himself a graduate years
ago of Dallas Seminary), who through faithful teaching of Sunday school classes and
conducting weekly Bible studies over the years has influenced tremendously so many
people for the Lord. I thank Hy and Libba McEnery of LAMB Ministries, whose loving
example set through their many years’ street evangelism to the urban lost in the
“projects” and lower 9th Ward of New Orleans has inspired me in this issue of the need
for the instruction of the young; they strongly urged me to consider seminary.
I wish I could individually thank here every professor at DTS, for all have
been most patient with my questions and my failures of which they can most assuredly
attest after four and one-half years. Most pertinent to this process are my thesis readers,
Professors Robert Chisholm and Douglas Blount. When I made a low score on my first
Hebrew exam, it was Professor Chisholm who told the class regarding unpleasant first
attempts, “relax, there have been many a student who went on from low scoring first
viii
Hebrew exams, to successfully passing and graduating.” Hopefully this still applies in my
case. Professor Chisholm has encouraged creativity in the approach to problems, and I
hope this thesis reflects that encouragement as well as his many valuable insights and
clues shared with me in developing the thesis and poetic parallelism. Professor Blount
with his background in philosophy has been invaluable in fitting many elements of
theology into context. His answers regarding the issues of the existence of good and evil
as well as how philosophical ideas dovetail with orthodox theological truths to support
the propagation of the Gospel against all negative comers, inspire me continually. Ideas
how causality might be applied to the act-consequence or deed-nexus world of Proverbs
have been stimulated by reflecting upon Dr. Blount’s view of science.
I must give a special separate note of thanks to my former fellow student Rob
Kashow, now toiling away at Yale and headed up the path to an eventual Ph.D. When I
was floundering after the first year of Greek, with the start of Hebrew fast approaching on
top of second year Greek, it was Rob who began meeting and tutoring me at 8 a.m. on
Saturday mornings for all one summer. Rob has a special teaching gift. His tutoring and
wise counsel continued over into the next two years. That’s how my degree plan ended
up a double academic track in Hebrew and Greek.
I thank my loving wife, Lee. After nearly forty-one years of marriage she
remains my close spiritual prayer partner, encourager, and maintains a level of faith that
is difficult to emulate. She has remained constant through these difficulties of seminary
and I appreciate so much not only her patience and prayers, but the many prayers she has
encouraged from others. As an English major herself, she too has listened and read many
a paper of mine, made many a helpful comment with red pen in hand, and visited my
classes at seminary, enjoying meeting the always gracious professors.
For all the errors and mistakes in thought this thesis contains, only I am
responsible. The patience of those who read it is appreciated very much.
This thesis is dedicated to my three wonderful sons, Joshua, Benjamin, and
Samuel. I am so proud of them. If it were not for my successes and failures for them as a
loving father, the motivating drive to attack this problem of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding might not have borne me through to their end purpose: the godly
instruction of the young.
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Importance of Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
The first nine chapters of Proverbs are generally called “The father’s
instructions to his son.” Many consider these chapters an introduction to the remainder of
Proverbs that functions as its hermeneutical guide and key. 1 The father’s instructions are
intended to encourage his son in the rewards of righteous living, 2 but to warn of the
dangers of folly. 3 The dangers are intense and painful, including death. 4 The rewards are
pleasant and bountiful, including protection and life. 5 The father emphasizes certain terms
1
Fox traces four stages of development of Proverbs chapters 1-9, generally called the
“Prologue,” comprising “Ten Lectures” and “Five Interludes.” These “introduce” chapters 10-29. Michael
V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 18A (New York:
Doubleday, 2000), 323. Waltke states that “the first collection consists of three sections: a main title (1:1)
with a preamble (1:2-7), a prologue (1:8-8:36), and an epilogue (9:1-18).” Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of
Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004),
10. Longman emphasizes that “Proverbs 1-9 functions as a hermeneutical guide to Prov. 10-31.” Tremper
Longman III, Proverbs, BCOT (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006), 89. Murphy and Sandoval
view chapters 1-9 as the hermeneutical key to Proverbs. Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, WBC 22 (Nashville,
TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 5. Timothy J. Sandoval, “Revisiting the Prologue of Proverbs,” JBL 126, no. 3
(2007): 455-473.
2
The rewards of righteous living include: God holds success in store for the upright (Prov
2:7); wisdom, knowledge, discretion, and understanding enable walking in the way of good men (Prov
2:20); and God is intimate with the upright (Prov 3:32).
3
In contrast to the rewards of righteous living, God observes the adulterer, whose own
iniquities capture him. He dies without instruction, led astray by folly (Prov 5:21-23).
4
Death is the destination for involvement with the adulteress by hating wisdom. The
adulteress flatters but her house leads to death (Prov 2:18). The steps of the adulteress lead directly to the
grave (5:3-5). The adulteress hunts for the precious life (6:26). In adultery one is led like a bird to a snare
(7:23). The adulteress leads to the chambers of death (7:27). Hating Woman Wisdom leads to death (8:36).
5
Wisdom and knowledge, along with discretion and understanding, will deliver you from the
way of evil men and the adulteress (Prov 2:10-16). You will enjoy your relationship with your wife as a
reward for faithfulness (5:15-19). The father’s instructions reward and give long life (3:2). Woman
Wisdom is a tree of life (3:18). The right way of life is rewarded with longevity and favor (3:22; 4:10, 13,
22; 6:23; 8:35; and 9:11).
1
2
in giving his instruction, particularly wisdom (‫) ָח ְכמָה‬, knowledge (‫)דַּ עַת‬, and understanding
(both ‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫)תְּ בוּנָה‬. 6 Throughout the Bible these words describe intellectual activity. 7
5F
6F
Their use is concentrated in Proverbs. The following table displays this concentrated use
in Proverbs 1-9, 8 comparing their frequency with other important wisdom terms in the
7F
Prologue: 9
8F
Table 1-1, Comparative Frequency of Use of Wisdom, Knowledge, and
Understanding in the OT and Proverbs
Key Words
Chosen from
Proverbs 1, vv.
1-7, “The
Prologue”
Hebrew
Total
Occurrences
in the Old
Testament
Occurrences
in the book
of Proverbs
Chapters 131
Percent
in
Proverbs
Chapters
1-31
Occurrences
in Proverbs
Chapters 1-9
Wisdom
Wisdom(pl)
Knowledge
Understanding
Understanding
To Know
Instruction
To Understand
‫ָח ְכ ָמה‬
‫ָחכְמוֹת‬
‫דַּ עַת‬
‫בִּינָה‬
‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
‫ידע‬
‫מוּסָר‬
‫בין‬
149
6
90
38
42
952
54
171
39
4
40
14
19
32
30
34
26%
80%
44%
37%
45%
3%
44%
20%
17
3
13
10
8
10
13
9
Percent of
Use in
Proverbs
that is in
Chapters
1-9
44%
75%
33%
71%
42%
31%
43%
26%
These two terms for understanding, ‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, are examined in chapter 2 and concluded
to have synonymous general meanings.
6
7
Bakon discusses these three terms and comments about their importance, “In Isaiah’s vision,
the spirit of hokhmah [wisdom], binah [understanding], the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of daath
[knowledge], and the fear of the Lord (Isa. 11:2) will rest upon the ideal king or messiah. Here, as
throughout the entire range of the Bible, three terms of intellectual activity: hokhmah, binah, daath are
enumerated, without the benefit of defining their precise meaning.” Shimon Bakon, “Two Hymns to
Wisdom: Proverbs 8 and Job 28,” JBQ 36, no. 4 (October-December 2008): 224.
Searches and collocations were made using BibleWorks 9. Note that ‫ ָחכְמוֹת‬occurs six times
in the OT, with four times in Proverbs (Judg 5:29; Ps 49:4; Prov 1:20; 9:1; 14:1; 24:7). Weeks states: “this
abnormal form, whether it be an archaic, a foreign or an intensive form, is apparently used to highlight the
personification of Wisdom when she makes her speeches.” Stuart Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in
Proverbs 1-9, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 195-96.
8
9
“Instruction” has comparable frequency, but the dominant use of instruction is correction, as
either rebuke or punishment, and not as intellectual activity. The Prologue “uses terminology important
throughout the book.” Fox, Proverbs 1–9, 35; 325-26.
3
To be Prudent
Righteousness
To be
righteous
Justice
‫שׂכל‬
‫צֶדֶ ק‬
‫צדק‬
77
119
41
19
9
1
25%
8%
2%
2
5
0
11%
56%
0%
‫שׁפָּט‬
ְ ‫ִמ‬
424
20
5%
4
20%
Equity,
Integrity
Naïve, simple
‫מֵישׁ ִָרים‬
19
5
26%
2
40%
‫ֶ֫פּתִ י‬
19
15
79%
9
60%
Prudence
‫ע ְָר ָמה‬
16
3
19%
3
100%
Discretion
‫ְמזִ ָמּה‬
19
8
42%
5
63%
Wise Man
‫ָחכָם‬
166
61
37%
11
18%
Learning
Wise Counsel
‫ֶלקַח‬
‫תַּ ְחבֻּלוֹת‬
9
7
6
5
67%
71%
4
1
67%
20%
Wisdom, knowledge, and understanding frequently occur in proximity, usually in
pairs:
Table 1-2, Occurrences of Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding in Proximity to
Each Other within Five Verses
Collocation Within
Five Verses
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫בִּינָה‬
Total in
Proverbs
9
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
10
4
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫דַּ עַת‬
11
6
‫ דַּ עַת‬and ‫בִּינָה‬
‫ דַּ עַת‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
5
6
5
3
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫ דַּ עַת‬and
‫בִּינָה‬
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫ דַּ עַת‬and
5
4
4
3
50
31
‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
Total
Total In
Prov 1-9
6
Collocations Within Five Verses and by Chapter
1:2,7; 2:2,3,6; 4:1,5,7; 7:4; 8:12,14; 9:6,10; 16:16;
23:23; 30:2,3.
2:2,6,10,11; 3:13,19; 5:1; 8:1; 10:23; 14:29,33;
17:24,27; 18:2,4; 21:30; 24:3.
1:4,7; 2:5,6,10; 3:19,20; 5:1,2; 8:9,10,12; 9:10;
10:13,14; 14:6,7,8; 15:2,7;
[17:27 & 18:4 are not considered collocated]; 24:3,4,5;
[29:3 &7 are not considered collocated]; 30:3.
1:2,7; 2:3,5,6; 8:12,14; 9:6,10; 30:2,3.
2:2,3,5,6,10,11; 3:19.20; 5:1,2; 11:9,12; 17:27; [17:27
and 18:2 are not considered collocated]; 24:3,4,5.
1:2,4,7; 2:3,5,6; 8:9,10,11,12,14; 9:10; 30:2,3.
2:2,3,5,6,10,11; 3:19,20; 5:1,2; [17:27 and 18:2,4 are
not considered collocated]; 24:3,4,5.
It is concluded that the terms wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are
important in Proverbs, based on their frequent occurrences and appearing in many
4
collocation combinations. The father emphasizes these terms, concentrating them within
the instructions to the son. The issues are life and death. Proverbs 1-9 functions as a
hermeneutical guide, or key, to the rest of Proverbs, and the terms are important to
comprehending this key.
Statement of the Problem
In efforts to define these terms, nearly everyone suggests that wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding are interchangeable in meaning. 10 They do not discuss
them as potentially distinct, but overlapping. Major lexicons and encyclopedias present
broad semantic domains for these terms. 11 Their semantic domains may include all
three. 12 Or, wisdom might be seen as an amorphous term changing over time. 13
Knowledge is presented as having an almost unbounded range of meaning, encompassing
both wisdom and understanding. Self-defining lexical meanings, such as ‘understanding,’
or as the act or faculty of ‘understanding,’ are used to explain understanding.
Commentators generally support the idea interchangeability and synonymity
between wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. For example, in addressing wisdom
For example, Fretheim states that knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬, is used “interchangeably” in Proverbs
with wisdom, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, and understanding, both ‫בִּינָה‬, and ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬. He also posits the word knowledge as
focusing more on the secular realm in Proverbs 10-29, but on theological reflection in chapters 1-9.
Terence E. Fretheim, “‫י ָדַ ע‬,” in vol 2 of NIDOTTE, 411.
10
The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew lists knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬, as synonymous with wisdom,
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, and understanding, ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬. DCH also lists ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬as synonymous with ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, ‫ דַּ עַת‬, and ‫ ;בִּינָה‬lists ‫ בִּינָה‬as
synonymous with ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫ ;תְּ בוּנָה‬and lists ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬as synomymous with ‫בִּינָה‬, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫ דַּ עַת‬. See David J. A.
Clines and John Elwode eds. et al., The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, “‫ ” ָח ְכמָה‬in vol. 3, 222-23; “‫ ”דַּ עַת‬in
vol. 2, 457–459; “‫ ”בִּינָה‬in vol. 2, 149-50; and “‫ ”תְּ בוּנָה‬in vol. 8, 587-588 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press,
1995, 1996, and 2011).
11
12
Willem A. VanGemeren, ed., “Index of Semantic Fields: Wisdom, knowledge, skill,” in
NIDOTTE, vol.5, 212–213 (Grand Rapids, MI: ZondervanPublishingHouse, 1997), 212. Compare with the
similar semantic fields of “Knowledge,” 114, and “Understanding,” 203.
13
Collins argues that “In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is characterized by a particular view of
the world or theological perspective. That perspective, however, changes over time.” John J. Collins,
Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997), 1. Fox
discusses how Lady Wisdom was later equated with Torah in the ideas of Ben Sira 24. Fox, Proverbs 1-9,
353, 358.
5
epistemology Fox says that knowledge “(also called ‘wisdom’ and ‘understanding’)”. . .
“are for all practical purposes synonymous in Proverbs.” 14 Waltke similarly sees all three
terms together: “Wisdom is inseparable from knowledge (dāʽat) . . . “Wisdom in the
summary statement of the book’s purpose (Prov 1:2) entails all the other virtues listed in
its preamble: ‘knowledge’ (dāʽat), ‘insight’ (bînâ), ‘prudence’ (haśkîl), ‘cunning’
(ʽormâ), ‘discretion’ (mezimmâ), ‘learning’ (leqaḥ), and ‘guidance’ (taḥbulôt). To these
1:25 adds ‘counsel’ (ʽēṣâ); 2:1-4, ‘understanding or competence’(tebûnâ) and
‘resourcefulness’ (tûšîyâ); and 8:14, ‘heroic strength’ (gebûrâ).” 15 Shupak finds wisdom
synonymous with bînâ and ḥokmâ. 16 Woodcock emphasizes the overlap and close
relationship of wisdom and understanding, being at times almost equivalent in meaning. 17
Appendix A renders a comparison and much more detail between the approaches taken
by Fox, Waltke, and Shupak for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding in Proverbs.
Initial Observations
Commentators use such terms as “synonymous” and “inseparable” in
describing the terms wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. They do not emphasize
what might be important distinctions in use. A false dichotomy would insist only two
options exist for the meanings of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding: synonymous,
or distinct. But, the general views examined above do seem to emphasize one principal
option, (repeating here elements of views above) that the terms are considered “for all
14
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 10-31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary,
AB 18B (New York: Doubleday, 2009), 963 and fn. 453.
15
Waltke, Proverbs 1-15, 77.
16
Nili Shupak, Where Can Wisdom Be Found? The Sage’s Language in the Bible and in
Ancient Egyptian Literature, OBO 130 (Fribourg, Switzerland: University Press, 1993), 232-33; 239-47;
253-54. Shupak is a valuable commentator since she examines wisdom words in Hebrew wisdom literature
and Egyptian wisdom vocabulary.
17
Eldon Woodcock, Proverbs: A Topical Study. BSC (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan
Publishing House, 1988), 36, 37.
6
practical purposes synonymous in Proverbs,” are “used interchangeably” and have broad
overlap, such as “Da‘at is the broadest of the wisdom words. It appears that everything
designated by any of those words could also be called da‘at” or “Wisdom is inseparable
from knowledge (dā‘at).” Another approach would be to investigate other options for the
meanings for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.
Hypothesis
First, it does not appear that anyone has considered whether wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding are other than generally synonymous or interchangeable.
Second, it does not appear that anyone has evaluated the implications resulting if wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding are not highly synonymous in meaning. These
implications would extend to developing some method to classify their relationship to
each other and bear additional insights into the purposes of Proverbs 1-9.
Therefore, the general meanings of these words in the immediate contexts of
their use and in parallel to each other are examined in chapters 2 and 3. The purpose is to
see if the widely accepted conventional view, that wisdom, knowledge, and understanding
are in most respects interchangeable and synonymous, is the correct option. The
hypothesis of this thesis is that there are additional options in meaning for the use of
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.
CHAPTER 2
WORD STUDIES
Method of Approach
Differences and similarities in meaning for words can emerge by examining
them through a discourse approach and in comparing their semantic domains. 1 A
discourse approach assesses meaning contingent upon how those words are used in their
context. Meanings for words are also assessed contingent upon their relationship with
other words. These relationships with other words generate their semantic domains. A
semantic domain is composed of a “group of words that have certain aspects of meaning
in common.” 2
Discourse use refers to “the co-textual effect on interpretation in that all
sections of a discourse, but most strongly the previous sections, serve as the framework
or field of reference for the information to be processed in later sections of the
discourse.” 3 The context is determined by examining these terms in relation to other
words: “The context of a word is the phrase, the clause, and the sentence. The context of
1
For example, Heim analyzes words in Proverbs 10 and their relationships. He groups them
into “more narrowly defined semantic fields,” stating “this should give a clearer picture of the differences
and similarities between the terms.” Knut Martin Heim, Like Grapes of Gold Set in Silver: An
Interpretation of Proverbial Clusters in Proverbs 10:1–22:16, BZAW 273 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,
2001), 82.
2
Reinier de Blois, Towards a New Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew Based on Semantic
Domains (Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit, 2000), 4.
3
Peter J. MacDonald, “Discourse Analysis and Biblical Interpretation,” in Walter R. Bodine,
ed., Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew, 153-175 (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 167. This also
relates well to the proposed ideas of “disjointed parallelism” developed by Fox. Michael V. Fox, Proverbs
10-31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 18B (New York: Doubleday, 2009),
494-98.
7
8
a sentence is its paragraph (i.e., the sequences of sentences).” 4 The purpose of examining
the words wisdom, knowledge, and understanding including their discourse use and
context is to assist determining their meaning: “A determination of the meaning of a word
may be better assessed in its discourse and in relation to other words (semantic field). On
the one hand, the discourse provides a structure of relationships within which the
meaning of a word can best be judged. On the other hand, the determination of the
meaning of a word is also contingent on its relationship with other words.” 5
Four logical steps are used to determine similarities and differences in
meaning for each word. First, major lexical references for wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding are compared. 6 Second, a comparative lexical entry emphasizing their use
in Proverbs is presented for each word based upon an independent assessment of use and
context of each occurrence of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. 7 Third, OT
semantic contexts for each use are presented. 8 Semantic contexts allow additional aspects
of meaning to emerge. If semantic domains for words are different, then the words are
less related in semantic space. 9 As the fourth step, a general definition is then proposed
for each term as used in Proverbs.
4
Peter J. MacDonald, “Discourse Analysis and Biblical Interpretation,” 155.
5
Kevin Vanhoozer, “Language, Literature, Hermeneutics and Biblical Theology,” vol. 1 of
NIDOTTE, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren et al. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), 8.
6
The structured approach of this chapter follows aspects of the method used by Bo H. Lim,
The “Way of the Lord” in the Book of Isaiah, LHB/OTS 522 (New York, T & T Clark, 2010), 43-46.
7
Appendix B comments on every use and context in the OT.
8
de Blois builds upon Louw and Nida’s well recognized 93 Greek semantic domains useful
for determining distinctiveness in meaning in the NT. Cf. Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A Nida, GreekEnglish Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, New York: United Bible Societies,
1988. de Blois formulates 85 contextual semantic domains that he asserts are more relevant to Old
Testament life than found in New Testament Greek. Contextual semantic domains “are supposed to cover
the word in its entire context, including all semantic features that are relevant to that context.” de Blois,
Towards a New Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew, 87, 90-96.
9
Louw and Nida give helpful insight into the usefulness of semantic domains for determining
potential distinctiveness in meaning for terms often thought synonymous: “The primary value of a lexicon
9
‫ ָח ְכ ָמה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
Table 2-1 compares three recognized lexical presentations of the subcategories in meaning for ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬. The numbering shown is that used (or not) as each source
presents:
Table 2-1, ‫ָח ְכמָה‬
HALOT 10
1. Skill in technical
matters
2. Experience,
shrewdness
3. Worldly wisdom
4. The pious wisdom
of Israel
5. God’s wisdom
6. Wisdom personified
BDB 11
1. Skill in war
DCH 12
1. Wisdom, prudence, skill
3. Shrewdness, wisdom
2. Wisdom in administration
4. Wisdom, prudence in
religious affairs
5. Wisdom, ethical and
religious
(a) Of God, as a divine attribute
or energy
(c) Of man
(b) The divine wisdom is
personified
3. Good sense, insight, religious wisdom of
Israel, wisdom of God
2. Personified wisdom
HALOT appears not to make the distinction that BDB makes between wisdom
as a divine attribute and human attribute. DCH tends to meld the two. Fox, Waltke and
Shupak offer similar sub-categories for their broad definitions of ‫( ָח ְכמָה‬See Appendix C).
All 149 usages of ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬were examined in their discourse (use) and in relation
to other words (context) to independently develop sub-categories of meaning, with
emphasis in the discussion below upon how ‫ ָח ְכ ָמה‬is used in Proverbs: 13
29F
based upon semantic domains is that it forces the reader to recognize some of the subtle distinctions which
exist between lexical items whose meanings are closely related and which in certain contexts overlap . . .
Since any differences of meaning are marked by context, it follows that the correct meaning of any term is
that which fits the context best. In other words, this principle maximizes the coherence of meaning within
the context” (emphasis mine). Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon, x & xvi.
10
s.v. ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, HALOT, 314.
11
s.v. ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, BDB, 315.
12
s.v. ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, DCH vol 2, 222-23.
13
N.b., every OT use for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding is examined in Appendix B.
10
Sub-category 1: Practical expertise for tangible and technical results. The
Lord laid the earth’s foundation (Prov 3:19). Wisdom builds a “house”, which is probably
metaphorical for initiation of the household’s relationship with God (Prov 24:3). God
made the earth by His power (Jer 10:12; 51:15).
Sub-category 2: Expertise sourced or assessed in reading and culture. (This is
an expertise not so used in Proverbs). Solomon’s wisdom exceeded that of the men of the
East, and Egypt (I Ki 4:30 3x).
Sub-category 3: Expertise in interpreting signs and text. The rewards of
wisdom are both present and future, perhaps reflecting both temporal and eschatological
uses (Prov 24:14). Agur has not learned the wisdom that comes from God, which is
parallel with knowledge of the Holy One (Prov 30:3). The human wise men, who reject
the word of the Lord, have no wisdom (Jer 8:9).
Sub-category 4: Expertise in formulating plans and strategies. Wisdom
enabled Joshua in his role as administrative and battlefield conqueror (Deut 34:9). As
opposed to the one walking in his own mortal insights, the wise will be delivered (Prov
28:26). The father is made glad by the son who exercises wisdom in his life, as opposed
to wasting with harlots (Prov 29:3).
Sub-category 5: Expertise in exercising good judgment in administration and
practical matters. In contrast with exercising wisdom, fools despise wisdom (Prov 1:7).
Wisdom is on the lips of the discerning (Prov 10:13). Wisdom becomes inherent within a
man of understanding (Prov 10:23). The mouth of the righteous emits wisdom (Prov
10:31). The humble have wisdom (Prov 11:2). Wisdom resides with the well-advised
(Prov 13:10). The scorner can’t find wisdom (Prov 14:6). With wisdom, men can find
11
their way (Prov 14:8). Wisdom resides in the decision-making process of he who has
understanding (Prov 14:33). Even if fools could buy wisdom, they would not put it to use
(Prov 17:16). Wisdom is in the presence of the understanding one (Prov 17:24). The
virtuous woman dispenses wisdom in kindness (Prov 31:26).
Sub-category 6:
a) Expertise sourced in God for right living. Wisdom is given by God so that
the nations would call them a wise and understanding people (Deut 4:6). The secrets of
wisdom are from God (Job 11:6). Wisdom emanates from the mouth of the righteous (Ps
37:30). God made David to know wisdom (Ps 51:6). Wisdom is sourced in God (Prov
1:2; also see 2:6). Be attentive to wisdom and its source in God (Solomon as a teacher is
a proxy for wisdom’s ultimate source in God, Prov 2:2; again see Prov 2:6). The Lord
gives wisdom (Prov 2:6). One is blessed to find wisdom from the Lord (Prov 3:13).
Sons are to get wisdom from the father and mother (Prov 4:5, 7 [2x]). Be
attentive to wisdom (Prov 5:1). Wisdom has a way which is taught (Prov 8:11). The fear
of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Prov 9:10). The fear of the Lord is the instruction
for wisdom (Prov 15:33). Wisdom is better than gold, i.e., better than the most valuable
non-divine source (Prov 16:16). Wisdom is a bubbling brook, which is a metaphor for its
divine source (Prov 18:4). Wisdom is supreme with God, and there is no human
opposition possible (Prov 21:30). Get wisdom from God (Prov 23:23).
b) Expertise sourced in personified Wisdom for right living. Wisdom is called
my sister (Prov 7:4). Wisdom is personified as Woman Wisdom (Prov 8:1). Wisdom
personified has a value far above rubies (Prov 8:11). Wisdom personified dwells with
prudence (Prov 8:12).
12
The following table 2-2 lists an assessment of these results by sub-category in
examining the lexical use and the general context for “wisdom” in the OT:
Table 2-2, Proposed Revised Lexical Entry for ‫ָח ְכמָה‬
Sub-category 1,
Wisdom
Practical expertise
for tangible and
technical results
Verses
Concept in its use
Context
Exod 28:3; 31:3,6; 35:26, 31,
35: 36:1, 2; 1 Kgs 7:14; Ps
104:24; 107:27; Prov 3:19;
24:3; Jer 10:12; 51:15
Selection and purpose of
creating divine works
Primarily phenomenal
expression of eternal
truths in cultic
craftsmanship; includes
nature and created world
by God
1 Kgs 4:30 3x, 34 2x; 10:4, 6,
7, 8, 23, 24; 2 Chr 9:3. 5, 6, 7,
22,23; Eccl 1:16 2x; Isa 29:14
in the negative
Giving degrees of
assessment upon the
wisdom of Solomon or
pagan wisdom
Wisdom as evidenced or
not in human
responsibilities
Sub-category 3
Expertise in
interpreting signs
and text
Prov 24:14; 30:3; Eccl 1:13;
8:1; Isa 47:10; Jer 8:9; 9:22;
Ezek 28:12, 17; Dan 1:17, 20
Ascertaining God’s
hand or revelation in
human affairs
Generally transcendental
contexts concerning
God’s rewards or
judgments
Sub-category 4
Expertise in
formulating plans
and strategies
Deut 34:9; Prov 28:23; 29:3,
15; Eccl 9:13, 15, 16 2x, 18;
Jer 49:7 2x; Ezek 28:4, 5, 7
Exercising skills and
strategems
Evidenced to the good
by conquest,
deliverance, or godly
living, or to the bad by
evil exercise
2 Sam 14:20; 20:22; 1 Kgs
2:6; 3:28; 11:41; 2 Chr 1:10,
11,12; Job 4:21; 12:2, 12;
13:5; 15:8; 26:3; 32:7, 13;
33:33; Prov 1:7, 10:13, 23,
31; 11:2; 13:10; 14:6, 8, 33;
17:16, 24; 31:26; Eccl 1:17,
18; 2:3, 9, 12, 13, 21; 7:10,
11, 12 2x, 19, 23, 25; 9:10;
10:1, 10; Dan 1:4
Exercising judgment for
good or ill in the human
decision-making process
Protection and life
versus the taint of folly
and rejection of this
expertise by fools
Verses
Deut 4:6; 1 Kgs 4:29; 5:12; 1
Chr 28:21; Job 11:6; 12:13;
28:12, 18, 20, 28; 38:36, 37;
39:17; Ps 37:30; 51:6; 90:12;
111:10; Prov 1:2; 2:2, 6, 10;
3:13; 4:5, 7 2x; 5:1; 8:11;
9:10; 15:33; 16:16; 18:4;
21:30; 23:23; Eccl 2:26; 8:16;
Isa 10:13; 11:2; 33:6
Concept in its use
Comprehending wisdom
as God’s axiomatic
principles behind His
plan for the universe and
the base for all thought
and action
Context
This expertise founded
in God and given those
fearing Him yields
stability and security for
our benefit with His
glory manifested to all
Sub-category 2,
Wisdom
Expertise sourced
or assessed in
reading and culture
Sub-category 5
Expertise in
exercising good
judgment in
administration and
practical matters
Category 6
a. Expertise
sourced in God for
right living
13
b. Expertise
sourced in
personified
Wisdom for right
living
Prov 7:4; 8:1, 11, 12 [as ‫ָחכְמוֹת‬
occurs six times in the OT,
with four times in Proverbs:
Judg 5:29; Ps 49:4; Prov
1:20; 9:1; 14:1; 24:7]
Woman wisdom,
instructing those who
will listen, in the right
“way of life” so as to
avoid death and reap the
rewards of God
The practical benefits of
simple obedient actions
based upon
comprehending God’s
axiomatic principles of
the universe
These sub-categories for ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬are represented in their contextual semantic
domains as follows: 14
30F
Table 2-3, Wisdom, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, Semantic Contexts
Semantic Contexts for ‫ָח ְכמָה‬
NAS
Crafts, all terms relating to the
production and maintenance of artifacts
and constructions, and other technical
processes that require a certain level of
experise, including methods, tools,
jargon, etc.
Navigation, relating to ships, maritime
activities, and other related objects.
Personification, all cases where poetic
license is used to make inanimate
objects perform events that, strictly
spoken, can be performed by animate
objects only.
Providence, all characteristics of God,
his angels, and other supernatural
beings that are in his service, including
God’s daily care of this world and his
interventions on behalf of his people.
Wisdom, all terms relating to wisdom,
intelligence, education, and also skill
[expertise], including the process of
acquiring these qualities, and the
people who possess them.
Exod 28:3; 31:3, 6; 35:26, 31, 35; 36:1, 2; 1 Ki 7:14
Ps 107:27
Prov 7:4; 8:1, 11, 12; [as ‫ ָחכְמוֹת‬, the term occurs six times in the
OT, with four times in Proverbs: Judg 5:29; Ps 49:4; Prov 1:20;
9:1; 14:1; 24:7. See chapter 1, fn 8.]
Ps 104:2; Prov 3:19; 24:3; Jer 10:12; 51:15
Deut 4:6, 34:9; 2 Sam 14:20; 20:22; 1 Kgs 2:6; 3:28; 4:29, 30 3x,
34 2x; 5:12; 10:4, 6, 7, 8, 23, 24; 11:41; 1 Chr 28:21; 2 Chr 1:10,
11,12; 9:3, 5, 6, 7, 22, 23; Job 4:21; 11:6; 12:2, 12, 13; 13:5;
15:8; 26:3; 28:12, 18, 20, 28; 32:7, 13; 33:3; 38:36, 37; 39:17;
Ps 37:30; 51:6; 90:12; 111:10; Prov 1:2, 7; 2:2, 6, 10; 3:13; 4:5,
7 2x, 11; 5:1; 9:10; 10:13, 23, 31; 11:2; 13:10; 14:6, 8, 33; 15:33;
16:16; 17:16, 24; 18:4; 21:30; 23:23; 24:14; 28:26; 29:3, 15;
30:3; 31:26; Eccl 1:13, 16, 17, 18; 2:3, 9, 12, 13, 21, 26; 7:10,
11, 12 2x, 19, 23, 25; 8:1, 16; 9:10, 13, 15, 16 2x, 18; 10:1, 10;
Isa 10:13; 11:2; 29:14; 33:6; 47:10[delusion of human wisdom];
Jer 8:9; 9:22; 49:7 2x; Ezek 28:4, 5, 7, 12, 17; Dan 1:4, 17, 20
The dominant concept in Proverbs of ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬relates to comprehending wisdom
as God’s axiomatic principles behind His plan for the universe and the base for all
14
Following his overall linguistic method, de Blois develops a sample lexical entry for ‫ ָחכָם‬.
Cf. de Blois, Towards a New Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew, 199-200.
14
thought and action. This is supported by comparing Tables 2-1 and 2-2, the frequency of
sub-category 6 of Table 2-2 in Proverbs, and the semantic contexts of Table 2-3. A less
frequent use and related to sub-category 5 of Table 2-2 is exercising judgment for good
or ill in the human decision-making process. In Proverbs the general definition for
wisdom is expertise sourced in God for godly living. The dominant use in Proverbs is as
axiomatic wisdom. The dominant use relates to comprehending wisdom as God’s
axiomatic principles behind His plan for the universe and being the base for all thought
and action. A less frequent use is foundational to exercising judgment for good or ill in
the human decision-making process. 15
‫ דַּ עַת‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
The following table compares three recognized lexical presentations of the
sub-categories in meaning for ‫דַּ עַת‬. The numbering shown is that used (or not) as each
source presents. Parentheses indicate the apparent context:
15
Ross says: “‘Wisdom’ (ḥoḵmāh) basically means ‘skill’ . . . In the Book of Proverbs
‘wisdom’ signifies skillful living—the ability to make wise choices and live successfully according to the
moral standards of the covenant community. The one who lives skillfully produces things of lasting value
to God and the community.” Allen P. Ross, “Proverbs 1:1-19,” in Learning from the Sages: Selected
Studies on the Book of Proverbs, ed. Roy B. Zuck (Grand Rapids, MN: Baker Books, 1995), 172.
15
Table 2-4, ‫דַּ עַת‬
HALOT 16
1. Knowledge
(a) knowledge in general
(b) technical knowledge,
ability
2. Knowledge about a
subject
4. Discernment,
understanding
3. Knowledge
(a) of God
(b) of good and evil
BDB 17
1. Knowledge
(a) knowledge, perception
(b) skill (in worksmanship)
(c) of prophetic knowledge
(d) knowledge with moral quality
(e) knowledge possessed by God
(f) Windy (unreal) knowledge
2. Knowledge, especially in Wisdom
Literature
(a) discernment, understanding, wisdom
DCH 18
Knowledge
Knowledge, also with verbal
force, knowing
Discernment, understanding
(b) in highest sense, knowledge of God
(including obedience)
(c) opposite, opposed to, or contrasted with
(e) Lips of knowledge, man of knowledge
HALOT gathers the elements of knowledge with respect to God in one subcategory, while BDB uses two. DCH does not appear to isolate transcendent knowledge.
All 90 usages of ‫ דַּ עַת‬were next examined in their discourse (use) and in
relation to other words (context) to develop sub-categories of meaning, with emphasis in
the discussion below upon how ‫ דַּ עַת‬is used in Proverbs:
Sub-category 1: a) Knowledge in general. Knowledge expressed as the cause
of attaining and securing valuable property (Prov 24:4). b) Knowledge expressed as
technical knowledge or ability for the selection and purpose of devising sacred works.
Sub-category 2: a) Knowledge about a subject, or (b) Concerning God’s
supernatural knowledge of men.
16
s.v. ‫דַּ עַת‬, HALOT I , 228-29.
17
s.v. ‫דַּ עַת‬, BDB, 395-96.
18
s.v. ‫דַּ עַת‬, DCH, 457.
16
Sub-category 3: This category is narrowed from a more general idea of
knowledge about transcendental ideas concerning God or about good and evil, or that
given and revealed by the Spirit, to:
a) Knowledge as God’s royal majesty and power to cause His effects in the
universe displaying inherent causality relationships. Knowledge is the revelation of
God’s royal majesty and power (Ps 19:3). God knows all and causes all (Ps 139:6).
Knowledge and discernment or understanding are by the decree of God and granted by
Him (Prov 2:6). Knowledge is the means for the natural and caused functioning of nature
by God (Prov 3:20). Stored knowledge causes success (Prov 10:14). The Lord safeguards
the effectiveness of godly knowledge (Prov 22:12).
b) Knowledge used as metonymy of cause for effect for God’s purposes.
Balaam ‘knew the knowledge,’ the ultimate purposes of God for Israel (Num 24:16). The
first temporal, progressive step of knowledge is the fear of the Lord (Prov 1:7). Sinners
hate knowledge, which is a cause of good, and the antonymic effect is more sin (Prov
1:22). The fool who will not respond to God’s rebuke (Prov 1:22) hated knowledge (Prov
1:29). Knowledge is used as cause for effect (Prov 2:5; See NET fn 26tn, 1080: “The
term ‫[ דַּ עַת‬da‘at, ‘knowledge’] goes beyond cognition; it is often used metonymically
[cause] for obedience [effect]; see, e.g. Prov 3:6, ‘in all your ways acknowledge him,’
and BDB 395 s.v. This means that the disciple will follow God’s moral code; for to know
God is to react ethically and spiritually to his will . . .”).
Knowledge will be attractive to you because you will see the result in
decisions of the heart (Prov 2:10). Knowledge is held as supernatural cause: ‘by His
knowledge the deeps were broken up, and the skies drip with dew,’ i.e. God causes all
creation’s effects, which said in the vernacular is “God is in control” (Prov 3:20).
Knowledge is held as foresight, which is the means for avoiding destruction by ‘Lady
Folly’ (Prov 5:2). The words from ‘Wisdom Woman’ are all straightforward to him who
understands or experiences the effects, and right to them who find or discover
17
knowledge, i.e., that which causes the good outcome the Father is communicating (Prov
8:9). Instruction equals knowledge equals cause (Prov 8:10).
The knowledge of the holy is the cause of understanding, even as the fear of
the Lord [cause] is the first temporal principle or progressive step of wisdom (Prov 9:10).
The righteous are delivered from destroying their neighbor by the means of knowledge
(Prov 11:9). Knowledge causes one to love the beneficial effects of discipline and
correction (Prov 12:1). The prudent sensible man ‘stores up, treasures, keeps covered’
knowledge, knowing the beneficial results from the use of knowledge wisely (Prov
12:23). A prudent man utilizes knowledge, but a fool displays the opposite uselessness,
folly (Prov 13:16). The understanding man can reason backwards to knowledge, so that a
discerning person can easily live a godly effectual life by knowing the causes of that life
(Prov 14:6).
Neither wise counsel, instruction, nor knowledge will originate in a foolish
person: “‘Lips’ is the metonymy of cause, and ‘knowledge’ is an objective genitive
[speaking ‘knowledge’] or attributive genitive [knowledgeable speech]” per NET fn 28tn,
1118 (Prov 14:7). The reason ‘he who restrains his words has knowledge’ is he knows the
spiritual power of knowledge through the effect [restraint] for cause [knowledge] (Prov
17:27).
Knowledge is one of the five divine causal acts of God in Prov 30:4: God first
ascends and descends to and from heaven; second, God controls the created realm and
winds; third, God controls the hydrological cycle which drives nature and hence life on
earth and in the waters; fourth, God created all people and the earth; and fifth, God
named Himself and His son (Prov 30:3). The ‘lips of the priest’ keep and preserve
knowledge, which is the message causing benefit based on the Torah of God who rules
over all as first cause (Mal 2:7).
Category 4: Narrowed from an idea of knowledge as general discernment or
understanding about God’s commandments or His intents and purposes, to:
18
a) Moral and ethical discernment from comprehending wisdom or
understanding in relation to knowledge. Knowledge is the means of the functioning of
Wisdom’s house and causes valuable results (Prov 24:3-4). Self-deprecation of attaining
knowledge except from God is appropriate (Prov 30:2-3).
b) Knowledge as discernment of God’s intentional plans. Knowledge parallels
the deliberative plan of God (Prov 1:4). Knowledge is to be guarded or reserved for its
revealed intentional use (Prov 5:2).
c) Knowledge as a practical moral instrument for divine purposes.
Knowledge is found or discovered from wisdom (Prov 8:12). The shrewd or prudent
possesses knowledge (Prov 14:18). The tongue of the wise produces knowledge (Prov
15:2). The lips of the wise disperse, i.e., plant and use for effect, knowledge, whereas the
decision making of fools builds on no ‘good seed’ (Prov 15:7). The decision making
center of he who has understanding seeks knowledge to use (Prov 15:14).
As an intentional act, the prudent acquires knowledge and the wise man tests
out knowledge in Godly living (Prov 18:15 2x). The impassioned effect, zeal, exercised
without the proper means, knowledge, is dangerous (Prov 19:2). The discerning person
that is corrected will gain knowledge as a result (Prov 19:25b). If you stop listening to
instruction then you will stray from the words of knowledge (Prov 19:27).
Words of knowledge are recognized as very valuable for intentional use (Prov
20:15). The instructed wise person gains knowledge in return (Prov 21:11). Knowledge is
implied as from God (Prov 22:17). God causes and utilizes sayings through sages (Prov
22:20). Knowledge is gained by hearing, i.e., obedience (Prov 23:12). Knowledge is the
means of functioning of Wisdom’s house (Pr 24:4). A man of knowledge increases the
power of the throne (Prov 25:5). The wicked can make no connection between
knowledge and the desired effects of the rights of the poor (Prov 29:7).
Knowledge causes faithfulness and loyalty, as otherwise there is only cursing,
lying, murder, stealing, adultery, violence, and bloodshed; with “no knowledge’ thus the
19
land mourns, the inhabitants perish, and the creator God does not exist for them (Hos
4:1). In lack of knowledge lies destruction: “my people are destroyed for lack of
knowledge” which is the rejected Torah of God, and their destruction is the effect of the
cause, the lack of knowledge (Hos 4:6).
The following table 2-5 lists an assessment of these results by sub-category in
examining the lexical use and the general context for “knowledge” in the OT:
Table 2-5, Proposed Revised Lexical Entry for ‫דַּ עַת‬
Category 1,
Knowledge
a. In general
Verses
Concept in its Use
Context
Prov 24:5
Dominion and control
b. Technical
knowledge, ability
Exod 31:3; 35:31; I Ki 7:14
The cause of attaining
political/military power
Selection and purpose
of creating divine
works
Without intention to
cause a death
Without an
intentionally guilty or
wicked soul
Cause of death
Gen 2:9, 17; Job 15:2; 21:22;
33:3; 34:35, 35:16; 36:12; Ps
19:2; 139:6; Prov 2:6; 3:20;
10:14; 22:12, Isa 5:13; 11:2;
44:25
Prov 1:7, 22, 29; 2:5, 10; 5:2;
8:9, 10; 9:10; 11:9; 12:1, 23;
13:16; 14:6, 7; 17:27; 30:3; Isa
53:11; Mal 2:7
The cause of good, or
evil as the lack thereof
Cause of moral
results
Necessary for achieving
God’s purposes
Realizing the ultimate
results from or lack
thereof
Prov 24:4; Eccl 1:16; 2:21, 26;
7:12; 9:10; Isa 33:6; 40:14;
44:19; 47:10; Dan 1:4
Functioning of
knowledge in causing
moral effects
b. As discernment
of God’s
intentional plans
Num 24:16; Job 13:2; 38:2; 42:3;
Ps 94:10; 119:66; Prov 1:4; Isa
58:2; Jer 22:16; Hos 6:6
Causing interference or
support of God’s
intentions
c. As a practical
moral instrument
for divine purposes
Prov 8:12; 14:18; 15:2, 7, 14;
18:15 2x; 19:2, 25b, 27; 20:15;
21:11; 22:17, 20; 23:12;
29:7;Eccl 1:18; 12:9; Jer 10:14;
51:17; Dan 12:4; Hos 4:1, 6 2x
The cause of a true or
false noumenology or
phenomenology
Attainment and
increase along with
wisdom or
understanding
Visibility or
obscuration of the
desired results of
God’s plans
The medium or
means for effects of
divine transactions
Category 2,
Knowledge
a. About a subject
b. As God’s
supernatural
knowledge of man
Category 3,
Knowledge
a. As God’s power
expressed to cause
His effects
b. As metonymy of
cause for effect for
God’s purposes
Category 4,
Knowledge
a. As moral and
ethical discernment
Deut 4:42; 19:4; Josh 20:3, 5
Job 10:7
Cultic craftsmanship
Cause of evil
20
These sub-categories for ‫ דַּ עַת‬are represented in their contextual domains as
follows:
Table 2-6, Knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬, Semantic Contexts
Semantic Context for ‫דַּ עַת‬
Crafts, all terms relating to the production and
maintenance of artifacts and constructions, and
other technical processes that require a certain
level of experise, including methods, tools,
jargon, etc.
Death, all terms relating to death, including the
world of the dead, embalming, funerals,
mourning rites, etc.
Devotion, all terms relating to people in their
relationship with God.
Prosperity, all terms relating to favorable
circumstances in the lives of people, including
health, wealth, and peace.
Providence, all characteristics of God, his angels,
and other supernatural beings that are in his
service, including God’s daily care of this world
and his interventions on behalf of his people.
Responsibility, all terms relating to people’s
responsibility for their actions towards other
people and/or supernatural beings, including all
terminology relating to the elimination of guilt
and the restoration of the relationships that were
affected by this morally and ethically wrong
behavior.
Right, all terms relating to what is considered to
be morally and/or ethically right, depending on
the perspective of the context.
Supernatural, all terms relating to supernatural
beings and their characteristics. Note that the
relationships between people and supernatural
beings are covered in other contextual domains
like Devotion, Providence, and Idolatry. The
epiphanies of supernatural beings to people are
covered under Apparition.
Violence, all terms relating to acts of aggression,
violence, and destruction committed by people,
animals, or supernatural beings towards other
objects, either as individuals or in groups.
Wrong, all terms relating to what is considered
to be morally and/or ethically wrong, depending
on the perspective of the context.
NAS
Exod 31:3; 35:31; I Kgs 7:14
Deut 4:42; 19:4; Josh 20:3, 5
Job 33:3
Prov 24:4; Eccl 2:26; Isa 33:6; 40:14; 44:19
Num 24:16; Job 13:2; 38:2; 42:3; Ps 19:2; Ps 94:10;
119:66; 139:6; Prov1:4,7,22,29; 2:5,10; 3:20; 5:2;
8:9,10,12; 9:10; 10:14; 11:9; 12:1,23; 13:16; 14:6,7,18;
15:2,7,14; 17:27; 18:15 2x; 19:2, 25,27; 20:15; 21:11;
22:17,20; 23:12; 24:5; 29:7; 30:3; Eccl 1:18; 12:9; Isa
53:11; 58:2; Jer 10:14; 22:16; 51:17; Dan 1:4; 12:4;
Hos 4:1, 6 2x; 6:6; Mal 2:7
Job 34:35; 36:12
Eccl 1:16; 7:12; 9:10
Gen 2:9, 17; Job 10:7; 15:2; 21:22; 35:16; Prov 2:6;
22:12; Isa 11:2; 44:25
Isa 5:13
Eccl 2:21; Isa 47:10
21
The dominant concept of ‫ דַּ עַת‬relates to comprehending knowledge as
causation for good, for God’s purposes, for moral effects, for support of God’s intentions,
and as a practical moral instrument. This is supported by comparing Tables 2-4 and 2-5,
the frequency of sub-categories 3b and 4c of Table 2-5 in Proverbs, and the semantic
contexts of Table 2-6. In Proverbs the general definition for knowledge is comprehension
and utilization of the causation of desired godly effects. The dominant use in Proverbs is
as causality knowledge. The dominant use relates to utilization of knowledge for
causation of God’s moral purposes. This dominant use encompasses the causation of
good, the causation of positive moral effects, the support of God’s intentions, and use
fundamentally as a practical moral instrument. 19
35F
‫ בִּינָה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
The following table compares three recognized lexical presentations of the
sub-categories in meaning for ‫בִּינָה‬. The numbering shown is that used (or not) as each
source presents. Parentheses indicate the apparent context:
Table 2-7, ‫בִּינָה‬
HALOT 20
Understanding (general)
Human understanding
Understanding words
Understanding people
Incomprehensible (lack)
To understand fully
Understanding (dreams)
Understanding (listening)
BDB 21
1. The act
2. The faculty
DCH 22
Understanding (general)
3. The object of knowledge
4. Personified
19
Regarding da’at, Ross says: “‘Attaining,’ from the infinitive daʽat (lit., ‘to know’),
encompasses an intellectual and experiential acquisition of wisdom and discipline.” Allen P. Ross,
“Proverbs 1:1-19,” in Learning from the Sages, 172.
20
s.v. ‫בִּינָה‬, HALOT, 123.
21
s.v. ‫בִּינָה‬, BDB, 108.
22
s.v. ‫בִּינָה‬, DCH, vol 2, 149.
22
All three lexical entries appear to be self-defining, in that understanding is
some variant of understanding “something” or inclusive of the act, the faculty, and the
object of knowledge. This is not especially illuminating.
All 38 usages of ‫ בִּינָה‬were next examined in their discourse (use) and in
relation to other words (context) to independently develop sub-categories of meaning,
with emphasis in the discussion below upon how ‫ בִּינָה‬is used in Proverbs:
Sub-category 1: The faculty of intellectual discernment and interpretation, the
existence of which implies a purpose. Do not rely on your own devices or thoughts, i.e.,
understanding, in your actions, but rely on God’s wisdom and knowledge for your actions
(Prov 3:5). Intentionally get understanding along with wisdom for the good results of
divine protection (Prov 4:5, 7). Claim understanding’s close benefit as a protection from
going evil ways (Prov 7:4). Get understanding, not useless commercial money, that
directs you upon the right way or path (Prov 16:16). Get understanding, as wisdom and
instructive knowledge in use brings joy to your teachers, the cause of that understanding
(Prov 23:23). Agur has it not, and is purposeless (Prov 30:2).
Sub-category 2: The exercise of that intellectual faculty of discernment and
interpretation as a way of life or action. Do the statutes (Deut 4:6). Understanding yields
success as keeping the Law of the Lord (1 Ch 22:11). Understanding to the decisionmaking mind is equivalent to the flooding result of tipping over the water-jars of heaven
(Job 38:36). Live the instruction of a father, whose instruction is causative to
understanding as a result (Prov 4:1). The first temporal principle for understanding is
knowledge of the Holy One (Prov 9:10). Cease from the consideration of wealth as a
legitimate result in understanding, for it is ephemeral (Prov 23:4). A good understanding,
‫שֵׂ כֶל‬, is possessed by all those who do the will of the Lord (Ps 111:10).
Sub-category 3: The product of that intellectual faculty of discernment and
interpretation in word or deed as achieving godly results, or not. To depart from the
practice of evil is understanding (Job 28:12, 20, 28). The labor of the ostrich is in vain,
23
without understanding, and produces no results (Job 39:17). Understanding is the product
of wisdom and instruction (Prov 1:2). Inclining your decision-making heart to
understanding leads to the fear of the LORD and the knowledge of God (Prov 2:3).
Understanding is parallel as the effect of sound counsel from wisdom and knowledge
(Prov 8:14). Walk in the way of understanding as the result of forsaking folly (Prov 9:6).
Understanding is seen as the product of Daniel’s discerning of visions and dreams (Dan
1:17), and of greatest superiority as it was sourced in God (Dan 1:20).
The following table 2-8 lists an assessment of these results by sub-category in
examining the lexical use and the general context for “understanding” in the OT:
Table 2-8, Proposed Revised Lexical Entry for ‫בִּינָה‬
Category 1, Understanding
The faculty of intellectual
discernment and
interpretation, the existence
of which implies a purpose
Category 2, Understanding
The exercise of that
intellectual faculty of
discernment and
interpretation as a way of
life or action
Category 3, Understanding
The product of that
intellectual faculty of
discernment and
interpretation in word or
deed as achieving godly
results, or not
Verses
1 Chr 12:32; 2 Chr
2:11-12; Job 34:16;
38:4; Prov 3:5; 4:5,
7; 7:4; 16:16; 23:23;
30:2; Isa 11:2; 33:19;
Jer 23:20
Concept in its use
For application within
and upon the
circumstances of the
possessor
Context
Achieving godly purposes
Deut 4:6; 1 Chr
22:12; Job 20:3;
38:36; Prov 4:1;
9:10; 23:4; Isa 29:14,
24; vide the related
ֵ in Ps
use of ‫שׂכֶל‬
111:10.
Acting in accord with
the principles of God
in living and right
decision-making
Doing and keeping the
statutes and judgments of
God within right actions
and thereby reaping His
benefits
Job 28:12, 20, 28;
39:17, 26; Prov 1:2;
2:3; 8:14; 9:6; Isa
27:11; Dan 1:20;
8:15; 9:22; 10:1
Achieving productive
godly results
Exercising within spheres
of action, responsibility,
or spiritual insight
intended for good effects
These sub-categories for ‫ בִּינָה‬are represented in their contextual semantic
domains as follows:
24
Table 2-9, Understanding, ‫בִּינָה‬, Semantic Contexts
Semantic Context for ‫בִּינָה‬
Control, all terms covering relationships between people who have some degree
of authority or control over other people, and those subjected to that control,
including objects that symbolize that relationship, e.g. crown, scepter, etc.
Covenant, all terms relating to official and binding agreements between
individuals and/or groups of people, or between people and God.
Crafts, all terms relating to the production and maintenance of artifacts and
constructions, and other technical processes that require a certain level of
expertise, including methods, tools, jargon, etc.
Providence, all characteristics of God, his angels, and other supernatural beings
that are in his service, including God’s daily care of this world and his
interventions on behalf of his people.
Quantity, all terms relating to the size, measures, monetary value, or quantity of
certain objects, the frequency of certain events, and the different ways of
determining this quantity or frequency, including all terms relating to the division
of objects (or ranges of objects) into different portions, parts, or groups, including
all terms relating to the reversal of the process.
Right, all terms relating to what is considered to be morally and/or ethically right,
depending on the perspective of the context.
Success, Failure, all terms relating to the extent to which a particular event is
successful or not. This is somehow different from Quality as certain events may
be well-performed but be a failure nevertheless.
Sleep, relating to sleeping, including dreams.
Status, all terms relating to the status of people, but also other objects, within a
society and the relationships between people that depend on that status. This
includes terms like honor, shame, despise, respect, praise, mock, insult, etc.
Will, all terms relating to reasoning, planning, decision taking and people’s
motivation, determination, and will-power to reach a particular goal.
NAS
Prov 8:14
Deut 4:6; 1 Chr 22:12
2 Chr 2:11-12,
including in the
abstract, God’s
kingdom
Job 38:4; Prov 9:10;
Isa 11:2; 27:11, in the
negative; Jer 23:20
Prov 23:4
1 Chr 12:32; Job
28:12, 20, 28; Prov
1:2; 4:1; 7:4; 9:6
Job 38:36; 39:17, 26;
Isa 29:14,24.
Dan 1:20; 8:15; 9:22;
10:1
Job 20:3
Job 34:16; Prov 2:3;
3:5; 4:5, 7; 16:16;
23:23; 30:2; Isa 33:19,
in the negative
The dominant concept in Proverbs of ‫ בִּינָה‬is the consistent product of action
and application in accord with godly principles for the achievement of godly results. This
is supported by comparing Tables 2-7 and 2-8, and the semantic contexts of Table 2-9.
The general definition in Proverbs for understanding (‫ )בִּינָה‬is effectuation of godly
actions. The dominant use in Proverbs is resultant effectual understanding (‫)בִּינָה‬. Godly
results are achieved through action and application of axiomatic wisdom and causality
25
knowledge. The general definition in Proverbs for understanding (‫ )בִּינָה‬is effectuation of
godly actions. 23
39F
‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
The following table 2-10 compares three recognized lexical presentations of
the sub-categories in meaning for ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬. The numbering shown is that used (or not) as
each source presents. Parentheses indicate the apparent context:
Table 2-10, ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
HALOT 24
1. The understanding of God as the creator
BDB 25
1. The act
2 a) as an independent figure of significance
(hypostasis)
2 b) as a gift of Yahweh
3. Someone’s personal skill, or an ability conferred
upon him
4. Personified
2. The faculty
3 a)manual skill
3 b) cleverness, understanding shown by a people
3 c) the ability of an office holder, of the
representative of a group of people
4. for substantives which are linked with ‫ תְּ ׳‬in a
collocation or in parallelism see Gesenius-Buhl
Handw.: ‫ בִּינָה‬Pr 23, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬Pr 319 51 81 2130 243 Jb 1212,
‫ ֵעצָה‬Jb 1213, ‫ דַּ עַת‬Is 4419 Pr 26
5. pl. ‫ דֶּ ֶר� תְּ בוּנוֹת‬the path of knowledge, the way of
understanding
6. cj. Hos 132 pr. ‫ כִּתְ בוּנָם‬prop. with Sept., Vulg.
‫ כְּתַ ְבנִית‬according to the style of a divine statue
DCH 26
1.understanding of Y., often in
connection with creation
6. appar. (person of)
understanding
2. (faculty of) understanding, i.e.
a. intelligence, discernment,
perceptiveness b. skill, ability
3. (practical application of)
understanding, skill
4. (result, benefit of)
understanding, insight, wise
saying
3. The object
of knowledge
5. understanding, as a goal,
treasure
23
Woodcock says: “Several Hebrew words, bîn and cognates, include the ideas of
‘understanding,’ ‘discernment,’ ‘perception,’ and ‘insight’ . . . Their key idea is to come to an
understanding by discerning and choosing between such alternatives as good and evil, right and wrong, true
and false.” Eldon G. Woodcock, “Basic Terminology of Wisdom, Folly, Righteousness, and Wickedness,”
in Learning from the Sages: Selected Studies on the Book of Proverbs, ed. Roy B. Zuck, 111-124 (Grand
Rapids, MN: Baker Books, 1995), 112.
24
s.v. ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, HALOT, 1679-80. HALOT is more expansive regarding ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, than for ‫בִּינָה‬.
25
s.v. ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, BDB, 108. BDB utilizes the same four sub-categories of meaning as for ‫בִּינָה‬.
26
s.v. ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, DCH, vol. VIII, 587.
26
As with ‫בִּינָה‬, the lexical entries for ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬in BDB and DCH appear to be selfdefining, in that understanding is some variant of understanding “something” or inclusive
of the act, the faculty, and the object of knowledge. The four BDB sub-categories are the
same as for ‫בִּינָה‬. The HALOT entry has more sub-categories than for ‫בִּינָה‬, but the lexical
descriptions are also limited. The primary usage (11 times) in Proverbs as characterized
by HALOT is as “the ability of an office holder, or of a representative of a group of the
people,” followed by usage as hypostasis (4 times).
However, all 42 usages of ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬were next examined in their discourse (use)
and in relation to other words (context) to independently develop sub-categories of
meaning, with emphasis in the discussion below upon how ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬is used in Proverbs.
Indicating synonymity, the same sub-categories developed for ‫ בִּינָה‬appear to fit well the
indicated uses and contexts:
Sub-category 1: The faculty of intellectual discernment and interpretation, the
existence of which implies a purpose. Understanding is the skill that is effectual in
producing cunning sacred works (Exod 31:3; 35:31; 36:1; 1 King 7:14). Understanding is
expressed as effectual creative skill attributed to God (Ps 136:5). God has infinite
understanding of the poor and the proud (Ps 147:5). God gives the faculty of
understanding for a purpose, which is walking uprightly (Prov 2:6). The LORD’s
understanding is invincible (Prov 21:30). The LORD’s understanding is unfathomable
(Isa 40:28). Understanding is a negative skill purpose if the product is devising idols (Isa
44:19; Hos 13:2).
Sub-category 2: The exercise of that intellectual faculty of discernment and
interpretation as a way of life or action. An unwise generation is devoid of
understanding, seen as correct living (Deut 32:28). The exercise of understanding is in
the role of ruler to fulfill godly purposes (1 King 4:29). The exercise of God’s
understanding shatters sea-monsters, i.e., resistance (Job 26:12). Understanding is
27
expressed as an exercise of thought, which was ridiculed by Elihu (Job 32:11). The
decision-making heart meditates in understanding (Ps 49:3).
Understanding is the skillful exercise of leadership with integrity (Ps 78:72).
The exercise of the will, i.e., ‘inclining the heart,’ is understanding (Prov 2:2).
Understanding is synonymous with ‫ בִּינָה‬in exercising godly qualities in life (Prov 2:3).
The ear of obedience is inclined in exercise of understanding (Prov 5:1). The exercise of
understanding is implied for determining the right way (Prov 8:1). Exercising appropriate
silence is a product of understanding (Prov 11:12). Exercising slowness to anger exalts
wisdom (Prov 14:29). The exercise of an unruffled spirit is the product of a man of
understanding (Prov 17:27). The sinful rebellious fool seeks to air his own opinion,
which is the opposite product of understanding (Prov 18:2).
Good godly counsel is retrieved through the exercise of understanding (Prov
20:5). The extortionate leader lacks understanding as a way of life and rule (Prov 28:16).
The way of understanding is inherent within God’s character (Isa 40:14). Understanding
is the exercise by God in effecting the extension of the heavens (Jer 10:12; 51:15). In the
negative, the lack of understanding disables discernment of traps in life (Oba 1:7). In the
negative, the lack of understanding in the tribe of Esau brought God’s judgment (Oba
1:8). Also, compare the parallel and inherent idea of this sub-category with a good
understanding, ‫שׂכֶל‬
ֵ , possessed by all those who do the will of the Lord (Ps 111:10).
Sub-category 3: The product of that intellectual faculty of discernment and
interpretation in word or deed as achieving godly results, or not. The product of those
with understanding is long life (Job 12:12). Counsel and understanding are a product
from God (Job 12:13). The product of understanding will watch and guard (Prov 2:11).
Understanding is a product including days and riches (Prov 3:13). The orderly product of
the arrangement of the heavens came from understanding (Prov 3:19). Understanding is
the product from doing wisdom (Prov 10:23).
28
Understanding is expressed in walking uprightly (Prov 15:21). The product of
understanding is to fare well (Prov 19:8). Understanding is the establishment of an
expanding righteous household, which household is first founded upon principles of
axiomatic wisdom (Prov 24:3). Understanding in the negative is the ungodly product of a
fallen understanding (Ezek 28:4).
The following table 2-11 lists an assessment of these results by sub-category
in examining the lexical use and the general context for “understanding” in the OT:
Table 2-11, Proposed Revised Lexical Entry for ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
Category 1,
Understanding
The faculty of intellectual
discernment and
interpretation, the
existence of which
implies a purpose
Category 2,
Understanding
The exercise of that
intellectual faculty of
discernment and
interpretation as a way of
life or action
Category 3,
Understanding
The product of that
intellectual faculty of
discernment and
interpretation in word or
deed as achieving godly
results, or not
Concept in its use
Context
Exod 31:3; 35:31; 36:1; 1
Kgs 7:14; Ps 136:5; 147:5;
Prov 2:6; 21:30; Isa 40:28;
44:19; Hos 13:2.
For application
within and upon the
circumstances of the
possessor
Achieving godly
purposes
Deut 32:28; 1 Kgs 4:29;
Job 26:12; 32:11; Ps 49:3;
78:72; Prov 2:2, 3; 5:1; 8:1;
11:12; 14:29; 17:27; 18:2;
20:5; 28:16; Isa 40:14; Jer
10:12; 51:15; (in the
negative) Oba 1:7 and 1:8.
Acting in accord
with the principles
of God in living and
right decisionmaking
Doing and keeping the
statutes and judgments
of God within right
actions and thereby
reaping His benefits
Job 12:12, 13; Prov 2:11;
3:13, 19; 10:23; 15:21;
19:8; 24:3; Ezek 28:4.
Achieving
productive Godly
results
Exercising within
spheres of action,
responsibility, or
spiritual insight
intended for good
effects
These sub-categories for ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬are represented in their contextual semantic
domains as follows:
29
Table 2-12, Understanding, ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬, Semantic Contexts
Semantic Context for ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
Control, all terms covering relationships between people who have
some degree of authority or control over other people, and those
subjected to that control, including objects that symbolize that
relationship, e.g. crown, scepter, etc.
Crafts, all terms relating to the production and maintenance of artifacts
and constructions, and other technical processes that require a certain
level of expertise, including methods, tools, jargon, etc.
Providence, all characteristics of God, his angels, and other
supernatural beings that are in his service, including God’s daily care
of this world and his interventions on behalf of his people.
Right, all terms relating to what is considered to be morally and/or
ethically right, depending on the perspective of the context.
Success, Failure, all terms relating to the extent to which a particular
event is successful or not. This is somehow different from Quality as
certain events may be well-performed but be a failure nevertheless.
Will, all terms relating to reasoning, planning, decision taking and
people’s motivation, determination, and will-power to reach a
particular goal.
1 Kgs 4:29; Ps 78:72; (in the negative)
Prov 28:16;
Exod 31:3; 35:31; 36:1; 1 Kgs 7:14; (in
the negative) Isa 44:19 and Hos 13:2.
Ps 136:5; 147:5; Prov 2:11; 3:19; 21:30;
Isa 40:28; Job 12:13; 26:12; Isa 40:14; Jer
10:12; 51:15;
Prov 15:21; (in the negative) 18:2;
Deut 32:28; Prov 2:3; 3:13; Prov 5:1; 8:1;
10:23; 19:8; 20:5; 24:3; (in the negative)
Oba 1:7, 8; Job 12:12; (in the negative)
Ezek 28:4.
Job 32:11; Ps 49:3; Prov 2:2, 6; 11:2;
14:29; 17:27;
The dominant concept in Proverbs of ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬is the consistent concept of action
and application in accord with godly principles for the achievement of godly results. This
is supported by comparing Tables 2-10 and 2-11, and the semantic contexts of Table 212. The general definition in Proverbs for understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬is effectuation of godly
actions. The dominant use in Proverbs is resultant effectual understanding. Godly results
are achieved through action and application of axiomatic wisdom and causality
knowledge. The general definition in Proverbs for understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬is effectuation of
godly actions.
Conclusion
A four-step structured approach was constructed to investigate the general
meanings for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. First, major lexical references for
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding were compared. Second, based upon an
independent assessment of use and context of each occurrence of wisdom, knowledge,
and understanding, a lexical entry emphasizing their use in Proverbs was developed for
30
each word. Third, OT semantic contexts for each use were presented that demonstrated
additional differences and similarities in meaning emerging for each word. Fourth, based
upon these steps, a general definition has been proposed for wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding, as each term is used in Proverbs.
Next, in chapter 3, the semantic contexts for all three terms are overlaid and
compared in order to evaluate for distinctiveness or overlap in meanings in context. Then,
using poetic parallelism, selected collocations are evaluated, to yield additional insights
into similarities or distinctiveness in meaning for the terms.
CHAPTER 3
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND UNDERSTANDING
The relationships between wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are
compared and contrasted in this chapter based upon their semantic contexts. Next,
multiple poetic parallelism examples of the collocated terms are evaluated to test these
meanings, which is very important from a methodological perspective. This process
yields a summary of the proposed relationships and meanings developed for wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding.
Comparison of Semantic Contexts
The semantic contexts for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding developed
in Tables 2-3, 2-6, 2-9 and 2-12 are overlaid and then compared in the following Table 31. For each semantic context, the number of uses of that semantic context in Proverbs
associated with the individual term is compared to the total uses of that semantic context
associated with that term in the OT. Note that limited horizontal overlap of semantic
contexts between the three terms exists in this comparison. This demonstrates that the
dominant semantic context(s) for each term are also distinct:
31
32
Table 3-1, Comparison of Semantic Contexts for Distinctiveness and Overlap in
Proverbs Based Upon Tables 2-3, 2-6, 2-9, and 2-12
Wisdom, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬, total 149 uses in
the OT
Knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬, total 90 uses in
the OT
Crafts, 0/9
Crafts, 0/3
Death, 0/4
Devotion, 0/1
Understanding, ‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬,
total 80 uses in the OT
Control, 2/4 (i.e., two of four uses
within the semantic context of
“Control” occurs in Proverbs)
Covenant, 0/2
Crafts, 0/8
Navigation, 0/1
Personification, 4/4 (plus, there
are 4 uses as ‫ ָחכְמוֹת‬in Proverbs)
Providence, 2/5
Prosperity, 1/5
Providence, all characteristics of
God, his angels, and other
supernatural beings that are in his
service, including God’s daily
care of this world and his
interventions on behalf of his
people, 37/59
Providence, 4/16
Quantity, 1/1
Responsibility, 0/2
Right, 0/3
Right, all terms relating to what is
considered to be morally and/or
ethically right, depending on the
perspective of the context. 6/10
Success, Failure, all terms relating
to the extent to which a particular
event is successful or not. This is
somehow different from Quality
as certain events may be wellperformed but be a failure
nevertheless. 8/18
Sleep, 0/4
Status, 0/1
Supernatural, 2/10
Violence, 0/1
Will, all terms relating to
reasoning, planning, decision
taking and people’s motivation,
determination, and will-power to
reach a particular goal. 12/16
Wisdom, all terms relating to
wisdom, intelligence, education,
and also skill [expertise],
including the process of
acquiring these qualities, and the
people who possess them, 33/130
Wrong, 0/2
33
Summary: 39 of 149 uses of ‫חָ כְ מָ ה‬
in the OT are in Proverbs, and
33 of these 39 Proverbs uses are
associated with the “Wisdom”
Semantic Context.
Summary: 40 of 90 uses of ‫ דַּ עַ ת‬in
the OT are in Proverbs, and 37 of
these 40 Proverbs uses are
associated with the “Providence”
Semantic Context.
Summary: 33 of 80 uses of ‫בִּ ינָה‬
and ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬in the OT are in
Proverbs, and 26 of these 33
Proverbs uses are associated with
the “Right,” “Success,” and
“Will” Semantic Contexts.
As the above summaries tabulate, the dominant semantic context for wisdom
is “Wisdom,” for 33 of the 39 uses in Proverbs. The dominant semantic context for
knowledge is “Providence,” for 37 of the 40 uses in Proverbs. The dominant semantic
contexts for understanding are “Right,” “Success,” and “Will,” for 26 of 33 uses in
Proverbs. These dominant semantic contexts do not overlap. Therefore, comparing and
contrasting the differing semantic contexts for the use of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding supports that there are distinctions in meanings derived from their use and
context, since little overlap occurs between their dominant semantic contexts.
The dominant semantic context(s) for each term support the lexical categories
and sub-categories of meaning for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding developed in
chapter 2:
The dominant use in Proverbs of ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬relates to
comprehending wisdom as God’s axiomatic principles behind
His plan for the universe and the base for all thought and
action. It may be termed “axiomatic wisdom.”
The dominant use of ‫ דַּ עַת‬relates to comprehending knowledge
as causation for good of desired godly effects, for God’s
purposes, for moral effects, for support of God’s intentions,
and as a practical moral instrument. It may be termed
“causality knowledge.”
The dominant use in Proverbs of ‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬relates to
comprehending understanding as the consistent action and
application in accord with godly principles to achieve the
effect of godly results. It may be termed “effectual
understanding.”
The semantic context of “Wisdom” is consonant with the dominant use in
Proverbs of wisdom, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬as God’s axiomatic principles behind His plan for the universe
34
and the base for all thought and action, since that semantic context supernaturally
encompasses His plan for the world. The semantic context of “Providence” is consonant
with the dominant use in Proverbs of knowledge, ‫ דַּ עַת‬as comprehending the term relating
to causation for good, for God’s purposes, for Godly moral effects, for support of God’s
intentions, and as a practical moral instrument, since it is that semantic context,
Providence, which enables this causation for good. The semantic contexts of “Will,”
“Right,” and “Success” are consonant with the general use in Proverbs for understanding,
‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬as effects of Godly actions, since those semantic contexts express the
decision making and will to reach moral and ethical goals and accomplish successful
events. Therefore, this comparison of semantic contexts for wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding supports the more distinctive general meanings and sub-categories of
meaning as developed in chapter 2 and further, illuminate their meanings.
Poetic Parallelism Examples
In this fourth step of the structured analysis undertaken, the poetic parallelism
around collocations of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding (including ‫ בִּינָה‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
as synonymous) in Proverbs 1-9 is examined to test if the hypothesis of this thesis works
when put into practice. The method is to evaluate whether a) the use of the terms in
poetic parallel support better the consensus idea that the relationships between wisdom,
knowledge and understanding display interchangeable meanings which are practically
synonymous, or b) the use of the terms in poetic parallel instead better support the thesis
that they are not generally synonymous but can have distinctive meanings, and if so, what
are the specific reasons involved in preferring this second alternative. And if the latter
idea is preferred, it would be expected these specific reasons should relate to the lexical
meanings developed in chapter 2 and reflect the differing semantic contexts of Table 3-1,
above.
35
Because there are overlaps in meaning possible, it is not necessary that every
collocation support the thesis; some may not, or some may be neutral to either case. For
those that do not support the thesis, it would only mean that the lexical nature of the
terms would tend to overlap in that particular parallel.
The method and terms used for examining the meanings for wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding through parallelism in general collocation to each other is
based upon the ideas of different commentators. Heim summarizes the history of the
development of the ideas regarding interlinear and intralinear parallelism and renders his
own conclusions of the merit of each and how it has influenced his development of the
ideas of translinear parallelism found by variant set analysis. 1 The basic technique used
here is to compare the “A” and “B” lines of couplets within stanzas that contain two or
more of the three terms wisdom, knowledge, and understanding and identify the type of
parallelism that seems to be present and the illuminated meanings generated through that
parallelism. Common descriptive concepts and terms are utilized in describing
parallelism and poetic features. These concepts and terms are drawn from Kugel, Watson,
Honeyman, Alter, Wolff, Chisholm, Schökel, Smith, and Berlin. 2
1
Heim presents a pertinent survey the reader is referred to for current scholarship on
parallelism in biblical poetry and the different methods and terms. The method of parallelism analysis
utilized here is intended to be creative. The method includes observing the semilinear, intralinear, or
interlinear parallels between lines or segments within pericopes. Heim quotes Gillingham’s advocacy of
creativity: “It ‘is not so much a fixed technique as a creative art.’ This statement further underlines the
importance of imaginative and creative approaches to the interpretation of Hebrew poetry.” Knut Martin
Heim, Poetic Imagination in Proverbs: Variant Repetitions and the Nature of Poetry, BBRSup 4 (Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 28. Heim’s detailed review of recent literature and methodology is found in
pages 3-35, and his conclusions on parallelism are in pages 634-645. S. E. Gillingham, The Poems and
Psalms of the Hebrew Bible, OBS (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 87.
2
James L. Kugel, The Idea of Biblical Poetry: Parallellism and its History (Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 58, regarding “A, and what’s more, B” parallelism; and 271,
regarding merismus. Wilfred G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques (London:
T & T Clark International, 2001), 321-324 regarding merismus . A. M. Honeyman, “Merismus in Biblical
Hebrew,” JBL 71(1952):11-18, regarding merismus. Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry (New York,
NY: Basic Books, 2011), 205-30, and 211 regarding compression . Hans Walter Wolff, Anthropology of the
Old Testament (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1974), 40-58; especially “Reason” 46-51, and “Decisions
of the Will” 51-55, as they relate to “the heart.” Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., From Exegesis to Exposition: A
36
The examination proceeds through three steps. First, part or all of the pericope
(and its indicated stanzas) of the collocation(s) is presented. Key Hebrew terms are noted
in parenthesis, if helpful. Second, a conventional summary of the parallelism for that
collocation(s) is given, based upon the consensus idea of synonymity and
interchangeability in meaning for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Third, if
appropriate an alternative view of the parallelism possible for that collocation(s) is
presented, and a conclusion reached regarding implications for the meanings of wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding.
Proverbs 1:2-7 (NAS)
A
1 The proverbs of Solomon the son of David, king of Israel:
A
B
A
B
2 To know wisdom and instruction,
To discern the sayings of understanding,
3 To receive instruction in wise behavior,
Righteousness, justice and equity;
A
B
A
B
4 To give prudence to the naive,
To the youth knowledge and discretion,
5 A wise man will hear and increase in learning,
And a man of understanding will acquire wise counsel,
A
B
A
B
6 To understand a proverb and a figure,
The words of the wise and their riddles.
7 The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge;
Fools despise wisdom and instruction.
Practical Guide to Using Biblical Hebrew (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1998), 142-147. Chisholm
summarizes terminology used for parallelism, including reiterative or synonymous; specifying;
complementary; explanatory; progressive or consequential; comparative; and contrastive. Luis Alonso
Schökel, A Manual of Hebrew Poetics, SB 11 (Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1988), 83,
regarding merismus as a special case of synonymy. Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Poetic Closure: A Study of
How Poems End (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), regarding “terminal modification,”
or “deviation,” as a poetic technique in ending a poem. Berlin offers much that shows meaning from the
order observed in Hebrew poetry, particularly the choice of pairs, disambiguation through parallelism, and
that order implies meaning. Adele Berlin, The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, rev. and expanded version
(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 80-82, 96, 130, 134, 137 and 138.
37
Prov 1:1-7 is generally called the “Prologue.” Verse 1 is the “Title.” Verses 26 are the “Statement of Purpose.” Verse 7 is called the “Motto” and some consider it
syntactically distinct. 3 Exploring parallelism in the Prologue is important, for each term,
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding, appears twice, and in close proximity.
One view of this Prologue would be that vv. 2-3, 4-5, and 6-7 are each paired
in synonymous parallelism. This would support that wisdom and understanding are
synonymous terms in 2A and 2B. 3B becomes specifying parallelism more specifically
identifying wisdom and understanding. Knowledge and understanding would be in
synonymous parallelism in 4B and 5B. To complete the symmetry that could be
expected, then v. 6 would be in explanatory synonymous parallelism to v. 7, implying
that the wise who fear the LORD have such qualities as v. 6 emotes, while fools do not.
Note that the underlying premise to these parallelism concepts of vv. 1-7
supposes the generally held idea that wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are
interchangeable and synonymous, as developed in chapter 1. But given the provisional
meanings for these terms developed in chapter 2, the question becomes could there be an
alternate parallelism structure consistent with these more distinctive meanings.
First, 2A and 2B employ verbs of cognition or mental activity, while 3A
displays a different action, that of receiving. To know axiomatic wisdom and to know the
instrumental cause instruction, as well as to discern by separating mentally the sayings of
effectual understanding, is an intellectual state quite different than the function 3A
performs. Verse 3 is better seen as functioning in progressive parallelism by logically
3
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary,
AB18A (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2000), 53, 58 , 67.
38
advancing and extending the ideas of effectual understanding as God’s desired effects:
wise behavior, being righteousness (‫צֶדֶ ק‬, as the idea of what is right for the community),
justice (‫שׁפָּט‬
ְ ‫ ִמ‬, as the idea of the founding principles of God’s rule), and equity (‫שׁ ִרים‬
ָ ‫מֵי‬, as
God’s established order). Instruction (‫ )מוּסָר‬is an extension of wisdom within 3A, in that
‫ מוּסָר‬is instrumental training, usually as actual physical parental discipline or the pain
from God’s discipline for transgressions upon the principles of wisdom. Instruction (‫)מוּסָר‬
is received in the sense of acquisition (‫ )לקח‬by the obedient hearer and put into effect as
wise behavior as indicated by a hiphil causative infinitive (‫)שׂכל‬. The idea of knowledge is
present by inference in the verbal “to know” in 2A. These parallelism principles support
the idea that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce
understanding, meanings developed lexically and semantically in chapter 2.
A similar structure then is found in vv. 4-5. Causality knowledge is in
synonymous parallelism with prudent foresight, then realized in a successful plan (‫)ע ְָרמָה‬
through discretion (‫) ְמז ִ ָמּה‬. The idea of “to give” in 5A is a different verbal idea than to
hear and increase in learning in 5B. Verse 5 also functions in progressive parallelism to v.
4 by logically advancing and extending effectual understanding derived from knowledge.
Effectual understanding includes the effects of learning and acquiring wise counsel.
Wisdom is present by inference through the presence of the “wise man” in v. 5. The wise
man in 5A is a progression from the ingenuous youth (‫ ) ַ֫נעַר‬of 4A, because he utilizes
wise counsel as the ability to steer with good effect through life’s uncertainties (‫)תַּ ְחבֻּלוֹת‬
effecting prudence, a skill of cunning and cleverness here needed for good in life’s
actions (‫ )ע ְָרמָה‬by the naïve youth. These abilities are derived as a progression from the
causes of 4B, knowledge and discretion (‫ ) ְמזִמָּה‬which foresight causes a successful plan.
39
With such a wise man hears (‫ )שׁמע‬with the sense of being obedient to these elements of
knowledge, and increases in his capacity to cause good effects, learning as the “how” of
things of sages to come into being (‫) ֶלקַח‬. This progression is consistent with Kugel’s
proposition that the “B” line in Hebrew poetry advances the “A” line. 4 This structure and
46F
progression also support the idea that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is
used to produce understanding.
In the final stanza, vv. 6-7, a similar structure is again found as in vv. 2-3 and
vv. 4-5. Now it is understanding that is present by inference through the verb “to
understand.” The collocated presence (or through lexical inference) of all three terms of
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are therefore present as a “ternary” (i.e., having
three parts) three times in the Prologue demonstrating their important emphasis to Prov.
1-9 by this repetition:
Wisdom
vv. 2A, 5B, 7B
Knowledge
vv. 2A, 4B, 7A
Understanding
vv. 2B, 5B, 6A
The words of the wise and their riddles in 6B function as specifying
parallelism to the desired effectual understanding derived from proverbs and figures in
6A. Logically, the reader would have expected v. 7 to follow from the wise man and man
of understanding of v.5, for whom the fear of the LORD is the beginning of
knowledge.The exercise of fear of the LORD is the first step in the progression of the
extension of causal effectualities, knowledge. The opposite of that is the fool (‫ ) ֱאוִיל‬who is
4
Kugel says, “B, by being connected to A—carrying it further, echoing it, defining it,
restating it, contrasting with it, it does not matter which—has an emphatic, ‘seconding’ character, and it is
this, more than any aesthetic of symmetry or paralleling, which is at the heart of biblical parallelism.” He
summarizes this as “Biblical parallelism is of one sort, ‘A, and what’s more, B,’ or a hundred sorts; but it is
not three.” Kugel, The Idea of Biblical Poetry, 51 and 58.
40
a rebel. This foolish rebel exercises despising (‫ )בוז‬contempt and spurns the progression
of wisdom and then causative and restrictive disciplinary instruction (‫)מוּסָר‬. This
causative instruction is parallel to knowledge.
There is a “terminal modification” or “deviation” in the last stanza, 5 created to
end the Prologue by inverting the expected poetic order and providing an inclusio with
Prov 1:1 by the use of wisdom and instruction in 7B. Logically, line 7 would be expected
to precede line 6, because it is causal knowledge that enables the effectual understanding
of proverbs, enigmas, words of the wise and their riddles. But in this terminal deviation,
or inversion, line 6 precedes line 7. Instead of the cause-effect order expected, now there
is an effect-cause order with the effects of line 6 preceding the causal knowledge of line
7. While it might be maintained that it would always be expected that axiomatic wisdom
precedes causality knowledge precedes effectual understanding in word order, given
poetic purposes in Proverbs this need not always occur, especially with regard for any
particular poetic closure technique that might be utilized with ending a pericope.
Therefore, adjusting for the forced structure of the inclusio and correcting for the logical
order expected, the concept that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn
produces understanding is present in the last stanza.
5
Smith notes various “terminal modification” techniques (at times called “terminal
deviation”) that are used in poetry to close poems. Terminal modification techniques (such as rhymed
couplets, longer or shorter lines, incomplete or anomalous lines, returning to the norm, giving
conclusiveness, deviation from preceding structures, and closing thematic elements such as death) operate
to establish conclusiveness “by qualifying the reader’s expectations” for closure, 54. Here in Prov 1:6-7, it
is this reversal of the logic expected by the hearer (in an oral culture) that becomes the terminal deviation
generating a sense of closure. C.f. Smith, Poetic Closure, 28, 44, 51, 54, 76-77, 80-81, and 107. See also
Watson’s discussion of closure in poems (particularly structural or formal closure) and retroactive reading,
in which consecutive lines are read and reread as “patterns of expectancy are continually being set up and
then corrected.” Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry, 62-65 and 28, fn 32.
41
Therefore, the proposed differentiating general meanings of wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding appear to be consistently displayed in this overall schema
for the Prologue. The distinctive meanings are supported by the collocated parallelisms
within the pericope.
Proverbs 2:1-22 (NAS)
A
B
2:1 My son, if you will receive my words
And treasure my commandments within you,
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
2 Make your ear attentive to wisdom,
Incline your heart to understanding (‫;)תְּ בוּנָה‬
3 For if you cry for discernment (‫)בִּינָה‬
Lift your voice for understanding (‫;)תְּ בוּנָה‬
4 If you seek her as silver
And search for her as for hidden treasures;
5 Then you will discern the fear of the LORD
And discover the knowledge of God.
A
B
A
B
A
B
6 For the LORD gives wisdom;
From His mouth come knowledge and understanding (‫)תְּ בוּנָה‬.
7 He stores up sound wisdom (‫שׁיּ ָה‬
ִ ‫ )תּוּ‬for the upright;
He is a shield to those who walk in integrity,
8 Guarding the paths of justice,
And He preserves the way of His godly ones.
A
B
A
B
A
B
9 Then (‫ ) ָ֗אז‬you will discern (‫ )בין‬righteousness and justice
And equity and every good course.
10 For (‫ )כִּ ֽי‬wisdom will enter your heart
And knowledge will be pleasant to your soul;
11 Discretion will guard you,
Understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬will watch over you,
12 To deliver you from the way (�‫ )דֶּ ֶר‬of evil,
From the man who speaks perverse things;
13 From those who leave the paths of uprightness
To walk in the ways of darkness;
14 Who delight in doing evil
And rejoice in the perversity of evil;
15 Whose paths are crooked,
And who are devious in their ways (‫;) ַמ ְעגָּל‬
42
16 To deliver you from the strange woman,
From the adulteress who flatters with her words;
17 That leaves the companion of her youth
And forgets the covenant of her God;
18 For her house sinks down to death
And her tracks lead to the dead;
19 None who go to her return again,
Nor do they reach the paths of life.
A
B
A
B
A
B
20 So you will walk in the way of good men
And keep to the paths of the righteous.
21 For the upright will live in the land
And the blameless will remain in it;
22 But the wicked will be cut off from the land
And the treacherous will be uprooted from it.
Prov. 2 has seven stanzas: stanza 1 (v.1); stanza 2 (vv. 2-5); stanza 3 (vv. 6-8);
stanza 4 (vv. 9-11); stanza 5 (vv. 12-15); stanza 6 (vv. 16-19); and stanza 7 (vv. 20-22).
The chapter lays out in this manner: 1-4-3-3-4-4-3. The address of “my son,”
communicates a conditional purpose protasis for the son in stanza 1 whose apodosis
culminates in stanza 7. The complementary idea that the “my son” sayings function as
protasis is supported by Prov 1:1; 1:8; 1:20; 2:1; 3:1; 4:1; 4:20; 5:1; 6:1; 7:1 and 8:1. The
“my son” conditionality is completed by the terminal deviation observed in stanza 7
(discussed below).
As in Proverbs 1:1-7, there is again the collocated presence (or through lexical
inference) of all three terms of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding three times in
Prov 2 (understanding occurs twice in v. 3 when including ‫)תְּ בוּנָה‬:
Wisdom
vv. 2A, 6A, 10A
Knowledge
vv. 5B, 6B, 10B
Understanding
vv. 3, 6B, 11B
Following the conventional idea of interchangeability between wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding, a traditional approach would see these occurrences in
43
stanzas 2, 3, and 4 as all being in synonymous parallelism with one another, and all
leading to God’s protection. However, there may be another approach, reflecting
distinctiveness in meaning between wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.
The terms are in that exact order one time each in stanzas 3 and 4. These three
sets of collocations for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding may be seen as a ternary
system to specify the protasis of stanza 1. A ternary system, meaning here a progressive
process or function consisting of three items, is used to express the relational concept that
wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn produces understanding.It is this ternary
system that extends the results of the cause-effect relationships of stanzas 2, 3, and 4 to
stanzas 5 and 6, since the latter two stanzas each begin with the resultant “to deliver” and
each ends with a deviant path.
The thematic terminal deviation by death in stanza 7 arises from a disjunction
of thought beginning the stanza. Given the progressive flow of thought developed in
stanza 5 and 6, the hearer would expect the antithetical parallelism of v. 22 (“but” the
wicked who will be cut off and uprooted from the land) to be proximate to v. 19,
specifying the penalty for following immorally deviant paths. So, rather than being
delivered (vv. 12 and 16) by the benefits of the ternary system (stanzas 2, 3, and 4) from
evil men (stanza 5) or evil women (stanza 6), the wicked die and the treacherous are
uprooted.
As support, note that in stanza 2 the obedient son, the “hearer,” is attentive to
axiomatic wisdom, who then progresses to the cry for discernment (understanding, ‫)בִּינָה‬
of 3A and understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬of 3B. Verses 3 and 4 are progressive parallelism to this
foundation of wisdom in 2A, for the son is then to “cry out” for effectual understanding.
44
In 5A, he is enabled to discern (‫ )בין‬the fear of the LORD and discover (‫ )מצא‬in 5B the
“knowledge of God.” “Knowledge of God” here in the genitive refers to covenantal
allegiance collocated with ‫אֱ�הִים‬, and not a single use of knowledge alone. Therefore this
order need not pose a contrary progression from wisdom that would be contra the thesis
presented.
In stanza 3, wisdom originates from the Lord’s mouth, as in Prov 4:5 and 5:7.
This stanza has the third set of the triple appearance of the ternary wisdom, knowledge,
and understanding. Line 6B is in specifying parallel to 6A, more generally defining what
comes from the LORD. Verses 7 and 8 are then consequential progression from the
originations of the LORD in verse 6. In 7A, “effective counsel” or “sound wisdom”
(‫ )תּוּשִׁ יּ ָה‬for the upright is a progressive effect achieving successful outcomes, including
being shielded, guarded, and preserved in 7B, 8A, and 8B.Though the order presented
may illustrate the progression that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is
used to produce understanding, the overall effect at this point in the pericope is neutral.
However, immediately following in stanza 4 the third set of the triple
appearances of the ternary wisdom, knowledge, and understanding occurs. The imperfect
verb tenses (accompanying that wisdom will enter and knowledge will be pleasant and
understanding will watch over you), are anterior futures introduced by the conjunction
“for,” ‫כִּי‬. 6 Anterior futures tend to be in subordinate clauses, as with ‫ כִּי‬here, providing a
conceptual relationship. Axiomatic wisdom and causality knowledge will have entered the
6
C.f. Wilhelm Gesenius, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. E. Kautzsch, trans. A. E. Cowley
(Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2006), §107k, 316.
45
heart and soul, and effectual understanding will have watched over you, in that order and
which repeats and emphasizes the order of 6A and 6B of the previous stanza.
Then the son will be capable of discerning the effects of righteousness, justice,
equity, and every good course (v. 9). The anterior futures introduced by the causal
particle ‫ כִּי‬beginning 10A therefore place wisdom, knowledge, and understanding prior to
the effects of v. 9 (so that then ‫אָז‬, in logical progression), the discerning (‫ )בין‬of the
effects of righteousness, justice, equity, and every good course. These are positive
specifying parallels from the prior foundational axiomatic wisdom and knowledge of 10A
and 10B, and the effectual understanding of 11B. 7 This progressive logical ordering is a
49F
very strong affirmation of the claims of this thesis, that wisdom is the basis for knowledge
which in turn is used to produce understanding.
Proverbs 3:13-26 (NAS)
A
B
13 How blessed is the man who finds (‫ )מצא‬wisdom
And the man who gains (‫ )פוק‬understanding (‫)תְּ בוּנָה‬.
14 For her profit is better than the profit of silver
And her gain better than fine gold.
15 She is more precious than jewels;
And nothing you desire compares with her.
16 Long life is in her right hand;
In her left hand are riches and honor.
17 Her ways are pleasant ways
And all her paths are peace.
18 She is a tree of life to those who take hold of her,
As apparently occurring here, Waltke and O’Connor note that ‫ כִּי‬may be used to invert a
protasis clause correctly for understanding, to be read before the apodosis clause. C.f. Bruce K. Waltke and
M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990) §38.5.4,
641. C.f. also Joüon-Muraoka who say, “A causal particle can govern two juxtaposed clauses in which the
first is logically subordinate.” Verse 9 can be seen as logically subordinate to v. 10 and 11.
P. Joüon
and T. Muraoka , A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, Subsidia Biblica 27, 3rd reprint of the 2nd edition (Rome:
Gregorian & Biblical Press, 2011), §170m.
7
46
And happy are all who hold her fast.
A
B
A
B
19 The LORD by (‫ ) ְבּ‬wisdom founded the earth,
By (‫ ) ְבּ‬understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬He established the heavens.
20 By (‫ ) ְבּ‬His knowledge the deeps were broken up
And the skies drip with dew.
21 My son, let them not vanish from your sight;
Keep sound wisdom (‫שׁיּ ָה‬
ִ ‫ )תּוּ‬and discretion,
22 So they will be life to your soul
And adornment to your neck.
23 Then you will walk in your way securely
And your foot will not stumble.
24 When you lie down, you will not be afraid;
When you lie down, your sleep will be sweet.
25 Do not be afraid of sudden fear
Nor of the onslaught of the wicked when it comes;
26 For the LORD will be your confidence
And will keep your foot from being caught.
There are six stanzas to the pericope of vv. 13-26. Verse 13 as stanza 1
introduces the subject, the blessings of wisdom and understanding. Stanzas 2 (vv.14-16)
and 3 (vv. 17-18), follow as explanatory parallelism of stanza 1. Wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding are further explained in stanza 4 (vv. 19-20) and their great value in
stanzas 5 (vv. 21-24) and 6 (vv. 25-26).
In the conventional view, wisdom and understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬would seem to be
in synonymous parallelism in 13A and 13B and support the consensus view of their
interchangeablilty in meaning. Stanzas 2 and 3 would be in specifying parallelism to this
introduction, conveying elements of detail. Likewise, in verses 19 and 20 wisdom and
understanding would be in complementary parallelism with knowledge, and introduce the
concluding stanzas 5 and 6.
However line 13A and 13B should be seen as a merismus for the ternary
system of axiomatic wisdom, causality knowledge, and effectual understanding. A
47
merismus “is a totality expressed in abbreviated form . . . The significant point is that in
merismus, of whatever form, it is not the individual elements themselves that matter but
what they amount to together, as a unit . . . Merismus, then, belongs to metonymy (the
part for the whole) and is a form of ellipsis, akin to hendiadys . . . Merismus, then, is an
abbreviated way of expressing a totality.” 8 The meristic word-pair, wisdom and
understanding, expresses in Proverbs a “meristic list.” Merismus “reduces a complete
series to two of its constituent elements,” or “meristic pairs;” sometimes “there may be
three elements;” the “elements of the merismus have common aspects of meaning.” 9
Honeyman details the concept of merismus with more particulars:
Merismus . . . consists in detailing the individual members, or some of them—usually the
first and last, or the more prominent—of a series, and thereby indicating either the genus
of which those members are species or the abstract quality which characterizes the genus
and which the species have in common. Symbolically expressed, merismus is the
brachylogous use of A + Y or A + B + Y in place of the complete series A + B + C . . . X
+ Y to represent the collective Z of which the individuals A to Y are members or the
abstract z which is their common characteristic, and the terms selected for mention are
commonly joined to each other by the copula. A particular type of merismus is that in
which the two named species exhaust the whole genus, and the merismus assumes the
form of a polar expression; in this case, if Z = A + Y, Z may also be expressed by A +
non-A. 10
8
Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry, 321.
9
Schökel, A Manual of Hebrew Poetics, 83-4 (emphasis mine).
10
A. M. Honeyman, “Merismus in Biblical Hebrew,” JBL 71(1952):13-14. “Brachylogous”
here means “elliptical.” Honeyman thinks that merismus reflected in Hebrew literature “the primitive
inability to subsume particulars under their universal or to characterize by abstracts,” and “constructiones
per merismum were their method of expressing such abstractions . . . The recognition of this limitation of
the language’s resources is of importance for our understanding of the Hebrew mind. It was only after
contact with the Greek spirit that the Hebrews were able to take certain steps towards completing their
scientific and abstract terminology, but the lack of such a terminology kept the Hebrew closely in touch
with things that he could see, feel and describe, and forced his composition to be pictorial, realistic and
comprehensible to people unaccustomed to abstractions.” A. M. Honeyman, “Merismus in Biblical
Hebrew,” JBL 71(1952):17-18.
48
Watson’s description of a meristic list builds on Honeyman’s ideas above and would
support the concept that wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are a ternary system
expressed through merismus:
1. Meristic list (A+B+C . . . +M+N=Z or z). The uses of a list to denote a totality is only a
partial abbreviation, and the longer the list the less of an abbreviation it becomes. Of
course, few such lists could be completely exhaustive so that one could say that almost
every list is meristic (excluding detailed inventories or catalogues). What then marks off
the meristic list is not only that it is generally short and that a total is either expressed or
implied, but that the items enumerated belong to the same level. 11
By “same level” Watson means a common element. A sufficient common
element proposed is the ternary system in which it is the ḥakam (‫) ָחכָם‬, the “wise man” or
“expert” who comprehends, utilizes, and achieves Godly success with all three
elements. 12
54F
As a short meristic list, the foundational axiomatic principles as wisdom form
the one extreme, and the effectual results as understanding are the other polar extreme.
This merismus then stands elliptically for everything in between, which in the
progression of the ternary system proposed, includes the ellipsis causality knowledge.
Note that in every paired collocation in the OT of wisdom and understanding
as defined below, 13 wisdom always precedes understanding, confirming the idea of these
terms as a meristic pair. And for other collocation combinations in Proverbs, in many
cases the order that “wisdom precedes knowledge precedes understanding” is observed:
11
Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry, 321-324.
12
Fox identifies the “wise man” as an expert in these matters. C.f. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 32-33.
13
But for one, and that is Agur in a negative context in Prov 30:2, 3 where the reverse may be
being used to convey Agur’s lack, as though he were living out of kilter.
49
Table 3-2, The Word Order of Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding as Merismus
in Proximity to Each Other within Five Verses (Based on Table 1-2)
Collocation
Within Five
Verses
Total in
Proverbs
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫בִּינָה‬
9
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
10
4
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫דַּ עַת‬
11
6
‫ דַּ עַת‬and ‫בִּינָה‬
5
5
‫ דַּ עַת‬and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
6
3
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫דַּ עַת‬
and ‫בִּינָה‬
5
4
‫ ָח ְכמָה‬and ‫דַּ עַת‬
and ‫תְּ בוּנָה‬
4
3
50
31
Total
Total
In
Prov
1-9
6
Collocations Within Five
Verses and by Chapter
Exceptions to the Order that
W→U or K→U or W→K→U
1:2,7; 2:2,3,6; 4:1,5,7; 7:4;
8:12,14; 9:6,10; 16:16; 23:23;
30:2,3.
Only one exception, 30:2,3
(and that is in a negative
context; 4:1 and 9:6 are
considered as singlets)
No exceptions. (14:29; 18:2, 4
are considered as singlets)
2:2,6,10,11; 3:13,19; 5:1; 8:1;
10:23; 14:29,33; 17:24,27;
18:2,4; 21:30; 24:3.
1:4,7; 2:5,6,10; 3:19,20;
5:1,2; 8:9,10,12; 9:10;
10:13,14; 14:6,7,8; 15:2,7;
[17:27 & 18:4 are not
considered collocated];
24:3,4,5; [29:3 &7 are not
considered collocated]; 30:3.
1:2,7; 2:3,5,6; 8:12,14;
9:6,10; 30:2,3.
2:2,3,5,6,10,11; 3:19.20; 5:1,2;
11:9,12; 17:27; [17:27 and 18:2
are not considered collocated];
24:3,4,5.
1:2,4,7; 2:3,5,6;
8:9,10,11,12,14; 9:10; 30:2,3.
2:2,3,5,6,10,11; 3:19,20; 5:1,2;
[17:27 and 18:2,4 are not
considered collocated];
24:3,4,5.
Exceptions are 8:9, 10,12;
14:7,8 (1:7 as terminal
deviation; 2:5 in the genitive)
Exceptions are 2:3,5; 30:2,3
(9:6 considered a singlet)
Exceptons are 2:2,5; 3:19-20;
5:1,2; 11:9,12; 24:3,4 (24:5
considered a singlet)
Exceptions are 1:2; 2:3,5,6;
8:9,10,11; 30:2,3 (1:4,7
considered as singlets).
However, Prov 9:10 is a very
important occurrence.
Exceptions are 2:2,3,5;
3:19,20; 5:1,2; 25:3,4,5
It could be that the precedence of knowledge before understanding varies,
explained by an iterative relationship to be expected between the two terms since effects
are deduced from causes and causes are adduced for effects by the seasoned ḥakam (‫) ָחכָם‬
participant, the “wise man” or “expert.” But if these three terms were in fact merely
interchangeable and synonymous, then much more creative variability in their order
would be expected. This is because of the desire poetically for enhancing vividness and
interest within the hearer, rather than boring by using the same term over and over. A
50
more poetic creative variability in their ordering would also fit the contention that these
words have a “stereoscopic” range of meaning. But, the order of these terms when they
appear in collocation as shown above does not appear to be artistically variable, or reflect
unintention by the author. Instead, these terms are fairly strictly ordered as, on the whole,
the above Table 3-2 demonstrates. Rather, an apparent intention by the author is observed
in the order of their appearance. Berlin notes that “the choice of word pairs affects the
meaning of the parallelism,” and that the ways in which word pairs are ordered “have the
effect of restricting the meaning of the parallelism.” 14 Again, the implication is that the
inherent order observed within the collocations conveys a restricted meaning, which in
this case is a merismus that points to a universal idea, the ternary system.
Note that in 13B, understanding as the three syllable ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬is apparently used
to even the syllable count, rather than the two syllable ‫בִּינָה‬. Syntactically, there is
progression from the qal active “find” (‫ )מצא‬towards the hiphil causative, “gains,” as in
“causes to accomplish” (s.v. ‫פוק‬, HALOT II hip. 1b, 920) understanding, so one
progresses from finding wisdom to accomplishing understanding. This supports the
ternary system and complements the merismus as well of 13A and 13B.
Waltke considers “the earth” and “the heavens” as a merism in 19A and 19B
that “comprehends the creation of the entire cosmos as firmly fixed.” 15 Wisdom and
understanding in 19A and 19B through intralinear parallelism are then also supported as
merismus. Following Watson’s idea of ellipsis, knowledge in 20A can function included
in the merismus as the ellipsis causality knowledge. In this stanza, supported by the use
14
Berlin, Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, 80, 81.
15
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004), 261.
51
of the preposition “‫ ” ְב‬in the causal sense, the ternary system expresses that the whole
cosmos is the product of God’s wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. The parallel
emphasizes that when we look at creation, we see it as a totality infused with all three
concepts, with a movement from past to present in verse 20 also expressing the totality
chronologically as well.
This definite demonstrated order of wisdom, knowledge and understanding
supports them as being a merismus, and this merismus from their ordered presentations
points to a universal idea. Kugel states: “Sometimes two statements dealing with different
matters occur, but which, understood as a merismus, can and ought to be related to a
single general statement.” 16 And in light of what Berlin says that “parallelism . . .
structures the meaning of the ‘signs’ of which it is composed,” the merismus of these
terms which relates to a single general statement is the ternary system for Proverbs as
proposed: that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce
understanding. 17
Proverbs 4:1-9 (NAS)
A
B
A
B
4:1 Hear, O sons, the instruction of a father,
And give attention that you may gain (‫ )ידע‬understanding,
2 For I give you sound teaching;
Do not abandon my instruction.
16
17
Kugel, The Idea of Biblical Poetry, 271.
Berlin’s idea of parallelism structuring meaning could also support this idea of the ternary
system as the general statement for the merismus: “Each parallelism is designed to fit into its own context,
to partake of the meaning of the text as a whole and to contribute to it. Parallelism itself does not have
meaning; but it structures the meaning of the signs of which it is composed.” Berlin, Dynamics of Biblical
Parallelism, 138. In this case, the “signs” are the three terms, wisdom, knowledge, and understanding, and
the structure is the ternary system.
52
3 When I was a son to my father,
Tender and the only son in the sight of my mother,
4 Then he taught me and said to me,
“Let your heart hold fast my words;
Keep my commandments and live;
A
B
A
B
A
B
5 Acquire wisdom! Acquire understanding!
Do not forget nor turn away from the words of my mouth.
6 “Do not forsake her, and she will guard (‫ )שׁמר‬you;
Love her, and she will watch over (‫ )נצר‬you.
7 “The beginning of wisdom is: Acquire wisdom;
And with all your acquiring, get understanding.
8 “Prize her, and she will exalt you;
She will honor you if you embrace her.
9 “She will place on your head a garland of grace;
She will present you with a crown of beauty.”
This is a four stanza pericope. One view of this pericope would be that stanza
1 (vv. 1-2) displays synonymous or explanatory parallelism for understanding with
instruction and sound teaching. Stanza 2 (vv. 3-4) repeats stanza 1 and extends it for the
impact of the father’s words resulting in life. Stanza 3 (vv. 5-6) portrays the acquisition
of wisdom and understanding as synonymous parallels with not forgetting the father’s
words of his mouth, though the intralinear parallelism of 5A seems ambiguous. Stanza 4
(vv. 7-9) presents the same synonymous parallelism between wisdom and understanding.
Stanza 4 finishes the pericope in specifying parallelism with particularly identifying the
motivating rewards of wisdom and understanding.
However, as developed in the Prologue above, the instruction and sound
teaching in 1A, 2A and 2B are causalities and parallel the semantic domain of knowledge
(‫ )ידע‬in 1B, not understanding. There is a progression from hearing the instruction in 1A
to gaining (‫ )ידע‬the result, understanding, in 1B. Instruction and teaching given by the
53
father are then causalities of understanding, the resultant in 1B. A redoubled emphasis
upon instruction closes stanza 1 in 2B.
The merismus wisdom and understanding introduces both stanzas 3 and 4 in
their respective opening verses, v. 5 and v. 7, communicating the meristic range of
wisdom as the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce understanding. This
merismus has been repeated for emphasis in these two stanzas. This complete meristic
range, axiomatic wisdom to causal knowledge to effectual understanding, is that which
guards the sons in 6A, watches over the sons in 6B, and then exalts, honors, graces, and
crowns the sons in 8A through 9B.
Proverbs 5:1-14 (NAS)
A
B
A
B
A
B
5:1 My son, give attention (‫ )קשׁב‬to my wisdom,
Incline (‫ )נטה‬your ear to my understanding (‫;)תְּ בוּנָה‬
2 That you may observe (‫ )שׁמר‬discretion (‫) ְמז ִ ָמּה‬
And your lips may reserve (‫ )נצר‬knowledge.
3 For the lips of an adulteress drip honey
And smoother than oil is her speech;
4 But in the end she is bitter as wormwood,
Sharp as a two-edged sword.
5 Her feet go down to death,
Her steps take hold of Sheol.
6 She does not ponder the path of life;
Her ways are unstable, she does not know it.
7 Now then, my sons, listen to me
And do not depart from the words of my mouth.
8 Keep your way far from her
And do not go near the door of her house,
9 Or you will give your vigor to others
And your years to the cruel one;
10 And strangers will be filled with your strength
And your hard-earned goods will go to the house of an alien;
54
11 And you groan at your final end,
When your flesh and your body are consumed;
12 And you say, “How I have hated instruction!
And my heart spurned reproof!
13 “I have not listened to the voice of my teachers,
Nor inclined my ear to my instructors!
14 “I was almost in utter ruin
In the midst of the assembly and congregation.”
Based upon the conventional view holding synonymity and
interchangeability between wisdom and understanding, lines 1A and 1B are in
synonymous parallelism. Discretion in 2A is in synonymous parallelism with
knowledge in 2B. Note that ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬may be used for ‫ בִּינָה‬in 1B in order poetically to
even the syllable counts between 2A and 2B. This reinforces the analysis in chapter
2 that ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬and ‫ בִּינָה‬are generally synonymous.
But in the larger context, this is a four stanza pericope. The complete
pericope is shown in order to display the connection of stanza 1, (vv. 1-2), to the
three matched 4 line stanzas that follow (stanza 2, vv. 3-6; stanza 3, vv. 7-10; stanza
4, vv. 11-14). The last three stanzas, introduced by the causal ‫כִּי‬, are resultants.
They show the price of adultery derived from disregarding the ternary system of
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding that comprises the introduction to the
pericope in stanza 1.
Wisdom and understanding are merismus in 1A and 1B. To listen
attentively to axiomatic wisdom in 1A precedes the progressive or consequential
parallelism to “incline your ear,” which is effectual understanding in 1B (better
translated as physically “turning aside,” in view of the crux of the action desired in
v. 8, to turn far aside from the adulteress and go not near her door). This merismus
guards and watches over the sons with the same verbs (‫ שׁמר‬and ‫ )נצר‬used in Prov
55
4:6, providing a continuity of meaning to the hearer. Knowledge is the expected
middle term of the merismus, and while seemingly out of order in 2B (since it is the
middle term of the ternary system), this change in order provides emphasis to the
hearer and completes the introduction of the three elements. This is because it is
causality knowledge that is so necessary to avoid the negative effects, the utter
public ruination and physical calamity in stanzas 2, 3, and 4 which derive from the
practical causation of entering the doors of the house of the adulteress.
Proverbs 7:1-5 (NAS)
A
B
A
B
A
B
7:1 My son, keep my words
A
B
A
B
4 Say to wisdom, “You are my sister,”
And call (‫ )קרא‬understanding your intimate friend;
5 That they may keep (‫ )שׁמר‬you from an adulteress,
From the foreigner who flatters with her words.
And treasure my commandments within you.
2 Keep my commandments and live,
And my teaching as the apple of your eye.
3 Bind them on your fingers;
Write them on the tablet of your heart.
The two stanzas of the pericope display the contrastive interlinear
parallelism of the valuable causative words of the father in 1A versus the worthless
words of the flattering foreign adulteress that closes the pericope in 5B. Based
upon the conventional view of synonymity and interchangeability between wisdom
and understanding, lines 4A and 4B would be in synonymous parallel as a
restatement of terms which protect from adultery.
However, as in Prov 5:1, in 4A and 4B wisdom and understanding are
merismus for the ternary system that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is
56
used to produce understanding. And again as in Prov 4:6, the ternary system when in use
produces the end result, guarding the son (‫ )שׁמר‬from the adulteress.
Proverbs 8:1-11 (NAS)
A
B
8:1 Does not wisdom call,
And understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬lift up (‫ )נתן‬her voice?
2 On top of the heights beside the way,
Where the paths meet, she takes her stand;
3 Beside the gates, at the opening to the city,
At the entrance of the doors, she cries out:
4 “To you, O men, I call,
A
B
And my voice is to the sons of men.
5 “O naive ones, understand prudence (‫;)ע ְָרמָה‬
And, O fools, understand knowledge (‫)לֵב‬.
6 “Listen, for I will speak noble things;
And the opening of my lips will reveal right things.
7 “For my mouth will utter truth;
A
B
And wickedness is an abomination to my lips.
8 “All the utterances of my mouth are in righteousness;
There is nothing crooked or perverted in them.
9 “They are all straightforward to him who understands,
And right to those who find knowledge.
A
B
A
B
10 “Take (‫ )לקח‬my instruction and not silver,
And knowledge rather than choicest gold.
11 “For wisdom is better than jewels;
And all desirable things cannot compare with her.
This pericope is five stanzas: Stanza 1 (v.1) serves as introduction. Stanza 2
(vv. 2-3) is in specifying parallelism to stanza 1, since it more specifically identifies
personified wisdom and understanding in 1A and 1B. Stanza 3 (vv. 4-6) and stanza 4 (vv/
7-9) also continue in specifying parallelism, conveying the speech content of personified
wisdom and understanding. Stanza 5 (vv. 10-11), introduced by ‫כִּי‬, concludes with a
57
summation, and displays terminal deviation as an ending technique so that v. 11 is the
protasis and v. 12 is the apodosis. 18
Conventional parallelism would have 1A and 1B as synonymous. Wisdom and
understanding (‫ )תְּ בוּנָה‬in this synonymous parallel display dual personification for both
wisdom and understanding. Knowledge would be in synonymous parallelism with
instruction in 10A, and wisdom with desirable things in 11B. Knowledge and wisdom
would also be seen in synonymous parallelism in v. 10 and v. 11, comparable to gold and
jewels. While these parallels are useful, they would not account for the merismus of
wisdom and understanding that both opens the pericope in 1A and 1B as well as closes it
(adjusted for terminal deviation) by means of 11A and 10B.
Rather, wisdom and understanding as merismus introduce this pericope,
similar to the way this merismus also introduces other pericopes (Prov 1:2; 2:2; 3:13 and
5:1). This pericope displays a personified ternary system that adds poetic vigor,
immediacy, and drama as they call to the naïve and fools of v.5 with righteous words of
v.8. In verse 5B, ‫( לֵב‬c.f. discussion in Prov 9:4, below) should be glossed knowledge,
since it is in parallel with ‫ע ְָרמָה‬, as a cleverness that can result in, i.e., causes, good or evil
(s.v. ‫ע ְָרמָה‬, HALOT a, 886). The emphasis of stanzas 2 and 3 in 5B and 9B is upon the
causality knowledge as laying interior to the merismus wisdom and understanding of
stanza 1 which is to be captured (‫ )לקח‬and used in 10A and 10B, being derived from
axiomatic wisdom in 11A ( ‫ כִּ ֽי‬may invert v. 11 before 10, as a closure device).
It is also possible here as previously noted for Prov 2:10-11, ‫ כִּי‬may be used to invert a
protasis clause before the apodosis clause. C.f. Waltke and O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew
Syntax, §38.5.4, 641.
18
58
Proverbs 8:12-21 (NAS)
A
12 “I, wisdom, dwell with prudence,
B
A
B
C
A
And I find (‫ )מצא‬knowledge and discretion (‫) ְמז ִ ָמּה‬.
13 “The fear of the LORD is to hate evil;
Pride and arrogance and the evil way
And the perverted mouth, I hate.
14 “Counsel (‫ ) ֵעצָה‬is mine and sound wisdom (‫שׁיּ ָה‬
ִ ‫[ ;)תּוּ‬successful outcome
query]
I am understanding, power (‫ )גְּבוּרה‬is mine.
B
15 “By me kings reign,
And rulers decree justice.
16 “By me princes rule, and nobles,
All who judge rightly.
17 “I love those who love me;
And those who diligently seek me will find me.
18 “Riches and honor are with me,
Enduring wealth and righteousness.
19 “My fruit is better than gold, even pure gold,
And my yield better than choicest silver.
20 “I walk in the way of righteousness,
In the midst of the paths of justice,
21 To endow those who love me with wealth,
That I may fill their treasuries.
In the conventional view, if wisdom and knowledge and understanding are
synonymous and interchangeable, then 12A and 12B are in synonymous parallelism and
intralinear with prudence and discretion. Personified wisdom in 12A is interchangeable
with personified understanding in 14B. Verse 13 furnishes poetic contrastive parallelism
through what is hated, evil, the evil way, and the perverted mouth.
However, an alternate view offering more depth of meaning is that stanzas 2
(vv. 15-16), 3 (vv. 17-18), and 4 (vv. 19-21) are explanatory stanzas of the merismus
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding that opens the pericope in stanza 1 (vv. 12-14).
Wisdom, knowledge and understanding are presented in that progressive order with
59
distinctions associated. Wisdom dwells (‫ )שׁכן‬with prudence, an initial “location,” and is
foundational axiomatic wisdom. Wisdom finds (‫ )מצא‬knowledge, an exploratory and
aggressive causal action for a purpose, included in causality knowledge. Knowledge in
12B is in synonymous parallel with prudence, ‫ ְמזִמָּה‬, a cause of good results. In 14B,
understanding is in intralinear synonymous parallelism with powerful deeds (‫)גְּבוּרה‬,
which powerful deed results are effectual understanding. The progressive extension that
wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce understanding is
presented then in that order in the first stanza, as the ternary system.
Proverbs 9:1-12 (NAS)
A
B
9:1 Wisdom has built her house,
She has hewn out her seven pillars;
2 She has prepared her food, she has mixed her wine;
She has also set her table;
3 She has sent out her maidens, she calls
From the tops of the heights of the city:
4 “Whoever is naïve (‫) ֶ֫פּתִ י‬, let him turn in here!”
To him who lacks knowledge (‫ )לֵב‬she says, 19
5 “Come, eat of my food
And drink of the wine I have mixed.
6 “Forsake your folly and live,
And proceed in the way of understanding.”
A
B
61F
A
B
7 He who corrects a scoffer gets dishonor for himself,
And he who reproves a wicked man gets insults for himself.
8 Do not reprove a scoffer, or he will hate you,
Reprove a wise man and he will love you.
The NAS reads “To him who lacks understanding (‫ )לֵב‬she says” (4B). However ‫ לֵב‬is better
glossed here in 4B as “knowledge,” given Wolff’s discussion of ‫ לֵב‬in “Reasonable Man.” Deut 29:3 reads
“Yet to this day the LORD has not given you a heart to know ( ‫() לֵב לָדַ עַת‬NAS). Wolff says, “Prov 15:14
describes the essential business of the heart in the biblical sense: ‘The wise heart seeks ( ‫)י ְ ַבקֶּשׁ־דָּ עַת‬
knowledge’”(NAS). Wolff also refers to Prov 18:15, “The mind of the prudent acquires knowledge, and the
ear of the wise seeks knowledge” ( ‫( )לֵב נָבוֹן י ִ ְקנֶה־דָּ עַת וְאֹז ֶן ֲח ָכמִים תְּ ַבקֶּשׁ־דָּ עַת‬NAS). Hans Walter Wolff,
Anthropology of the Old Testament (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1974), 47 (emphasis mine).
19
60
9 Give instruction to a wise man and he will be still wiser,
Teach a righteous man and he will increase his learning.
10 The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom,
And the knowledge of the Holy One is the beginning of understanding. 20
A
B
11 For by me your days will be multiplied,
And years of life will be added to you.
12 If you are wise, you are wise for yourself,
And if you scoff, you alone will bear it.
A
B
This is a 5 stanza pericope. Stanza 1 (vv.1-3) expresses the base from which
personified wisdom cries out to the naïve in stanza 2 (vv.4-6). Stanzas 3 (vv.7-8), 4 (vv.
9-10), and 5 (vv.11-12) may function as an apostrophe, as “Lady Wisdom” turns aside to
the on-looking hearers with important addresses about actions and results. There appears
no direct poetic parallel between wisdom in 1A, knowledge in 4B (see fn 15 for
discussion of this gloss) and understanding in 6B. However, in stanza 4, if wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding are held generally synonymous and interchangeable, then
in 10A wisdom is in synonymous parallelism with knowledge and understanding in 10B.
A more comprehensive and explanatory view is that in the opening address to
the naïve, wisdom in 1A and understanding in 6B frame the two opening stanzas as a
merismus (see discussion regarding Prov 3:19-20 above), of which knowledge is the
second element in the ternary system. These two stanzas then express the continuum that
wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce understanding.
20
Verse 10B as translated by Fox. (The NAS reads “And the knowledge of the Holy One is
understanding”). See Fox’s discussion on vv. 7-12 as being insertions. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 306-309.
However, these verses when viewed as apostrophe by personified wisdom (‫ ) ֭ ָחכְמ ֹות‬in 1A seem entirely
integral and not insertions, particularly given that this aside made by ‫( ֭ ָחכְמ ֹות‬at the risk of receiving
dishonor, insults, and hate) is made to one in her audience who might yield to scoffing in 7A, 8A and 12B,
and is duly warned here towards the very end of the father’s instructions to the son. Second, the last words
of the father, following this apostrophe, are to sum up the moral warnings of Prov 1-9 for the potential
scoffer, with the final conclusive dramatic image that the guests of the woman of folly will reside as dead
guests of her in sheol. All of Prov 1-9 as the father’s instructions then seems to end with a sudden silence
for the fear of danger now entirely possible for the listener, as an aposiopesis suitable to end an
introduction to the rest of Proverbs.
61
Axiomatic wisdom personified in 1A constructs the very foundations that are a picture of
those axioms on which all rests. Those lacking lacking causal knowledge are supplied
such in v.5, so that the desired effect, the way of effectual understanding in 6B, can be
made to happen.
Stanza 4 lies in the midst of these three apostrophe stanzas, and here again all
three terms wisdom, knowledge, and understanding comprising the ternary system are
presented and seen in the progressive order of wisdom as the basis for knowledge which
in turn is used to produce understanding. “Knowledge of the Holy One” in 10B of stanza
4 could be objective genitive, as in Num 24:16, Hos 4:1, and Hos 6:6. However, as “the
beginning,” or first steps, of understanding in 10B, “Knowledge of the Holy One” is
better seen as genitive of source or a subjective genitive. The desired results in 11A and
11B are multiplication of days and years and personal reward in 12A. The undesired
results in 12B are the scoffer’s own fault, having been duly warned by Woman Wisdom in
stanza 2.
Therefore, the ternary system occurs twice in this pericope and each time in its
inherent progressive order, indicating choice by the author. The inference is that it should
not be assumed that for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding the lexical association is
synonymity; rather, we may conclude from all the peculiar elements of the collocations of
the three elements of the ternary system that a choice has been made by the author that
supercedes assuming synonymous parallelism. 21 Twice also implies emphasis, consonant
21
Berlin says this about word pairs: “The choice of a word pair can also have an effect on
meaning. In chapter 4 I discussed word pairs as the products of normal lexical association, but one should
not conclude from this that the pairing of terms in parallel lines is a kind of reflex action. An author always
has options when it comes to pairing words, and it is important to note which one of the possible associates
62
with the general meanings derived in chapter 2. The ternary system occurs twice in the
opening pericope, the second of which is in inverse order, perhaps “mirroring” its
introduction so the hearer will take a special notice going forward:
“The Ternary System,” twice in Prov 9, in the conclusion of the father’s instructions to his son
Wisdom
Knowledge
Understanding
1A
4B
6B
10A
10B
10B
“The Ternary System,” twice in Prov 1, in the introduction of the father’s instructions to his son
Wisdom
Knowledge
Understanding
2A
2B
4B
7B
7A
5B
The parallelism of this pericope instead reveals several complex relationships
existing between wisdom, knowledge, and understanding, and choices made by the author
for their presentation, which supports the thesis that these terms have generally
distinctive meanings.
Proverbs 30:1-4 (NAS)
30:1 The words of Agur the son of Jakeh, the oracle.
The man declares to Ithiel, to Ithiel and Ucal:
A
B
2 Surely I am more stupid (‫ ) ַבּעַר‬than any man,
And I do not have the understanding of a man.
A
B
3 Neither have I learned wisdom,
Nor do I have the knowledge of the Holy One.
4 Who has ascended into heaven and descended?
Who has gathered the wind in His fists?
Who has wrapped the waters in His garment?
Who has established all the ends of the earth?
What is His name or His son’s name?
Surely you know!
he chose and what difference an alternative choice would have made.” Berlin, Dynamics of Biblical
Parallelism, 137.
63
With conventional synonymous parallelism, “stupid” in 2A is parallel with the
absence of understanding in 2B. Wisdom and knowledge would then be also in
synonymous parallel in 3A and 3B.
However, in 2A the conjunction ‫ כִּי‬may be seen as inverting the protasis of
verse 3 with the apodosis that is verse 2. 22 Here at almost the end of Proverbs, this novel
inversion provides much attention upon Agur and implies distinctiveness for the terms,
for in contrast with the goals of the Prologue, he has not learned axiomatic wisdom in 3A,
does not “have” the use of causality knowledge in 3B, nor the resultant effectual
understanding in 2A. He does not possess the ternary system, and is not a seasoned
ḥakam (‫ ) ָחכָם‬participant, the “wise man” or “expert.” This is an interesting, informative
situation. 23
65F
Psalm 111:10 (NAS)
10 The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom;
A good understanding (‫שׂכֶל‬
ֶ ) have all those who do His commandments;
His praise endures forever.
Conventional cross-synonymous parallelism would equate the primal step of
wisdom with good understanding (‫) ֶשׂכֶל‬, and doing His commandments with the fear of
the Lord.
Again here and as previously noted for Prov 2:10-11 and Prov 8:11, ‫ כִּי‬may be used to
invert a protasis clause before the apodosis clause. C.f. Waltke and O’Connor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax,
§38.5.4, 641.
22
See the discussion regarding parallelism and the ḥakam in Proverbs 3:13-26, above. This
may be a case where the expectations of parallelism yield novelty. Berlin says: “When a poem reverses
normal syntax, its level of informativity rises, and it becomes correspondingly more interesting.” Berlin,
Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, 134.
23
64
However, with axiomatic wisdom and effectual understanding as merismus,
the progression is presented of wisdom as the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to
produce understanding (‫שׂכֶל‬
ֶ ). This effectual understanding is in synonymous intra-linear
parallelism with the “doing” or effecting of “His commandments,” and are a fruit or
result (s.v. ‫שׂכֶל‬
ֶ , HALOT 3, 1329, translated as “understanding”). This progression is in
conformity with the lexical general meanings for wisdom and understanding proposed in
chapter 2.
Daniel 1:4
4 youths in whom was no defect, who were good-looking, showing intelligence in
every branch of wisdom, endowed with understanding and discerning knowledge, and
who had ability for serving in the king’s court; and he ordered him to teach them the
literature and language of the Chaldeans (NAS)
4 young men in whom there was no blemish, but good-looking, gifted in all
wisdom, possessing knowledge and quick to understand, who had ability to serve in the
king’s palace, and whom they might teach the language and literature of the Chaldeans
(NKJV).
‫ִיל֣ים‬
ִ ‫שׂכּ‬
ְ ‫ֲשׁר אֵ ֽין־בּ ֶ ָ֣הם כָּל־מֻאום֩ וְט ֹו ֵ֨בי מ ְַר ֶ֜אה וּ ַמ‬
֣ ֶ ‫ יְל ִ ָ֣דים א‬4
‫ֵיכ֣ל‬
ַ ‫שׁ ֙ר ֣כּ ֹ ַח ָבּ ֶ֔הם ַלע ֲ֖מ ֹד ְבּה‬
ֶ ‫ִינ֣י ַמדָּ֔ ע ַו ֲא‬
ֵ ‫ְבּכָל־ ָח ְכ ָ֗מה וְיֹ֤דְ עֵי דַ֨ ַע ֙ת וּ ְמב‬
‫שׂדִּ ֽים׃‬
ְ ‫ה ֶ ַ֑מּלֶ� ֽוּ ֲל ַל ְמּ ָד֥ם ֵ ֖ספֶר וּל ְ֥שׁ ֹון ַכּ‬
This famous narrative verse 4 (the NKJV correctly shows the ternary system
word-order as in the Hebrew [‫ִינ֣י‬
ֵ ‫ ] ְבּכָל־ ָח ְכ ָ֗מה וְיֹ֤דְ עֵי דַ֨ ַע ֙ת וּ ְמב‬wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding), which demonstrates that the youths were selected according to three
distinct qualifications to be determined by those executing the orders of the king of the
Chaldeans. The word-order is also in accord with the lexical meanings developed in
chapter 2, and as merismus in chapter 3: wisdom, then knowledge, then understanding.
As distinctive qualifications in an individual (Wisdom as the basis for knowledge which
65
in turn is used to produce understanding), the merismus implies also that there was a
logical and causal relationship between expected future performance with the initial
possession of these three distinctive attributes, so that this presentation is not merely
intra-linear synonymity of three interchangeable terms.
Summary of Meanings and Relationships
The examination of the collocations of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding in Prov 1-9 demonstrates the distinctiveness of the collocated terms
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding by means of comparing their parallel meanings.
These parallel meanings support the general meanings of axiomatic wisdom, causality
knowledge, and effectual understanding developed in chapter 2.
Comparing and contrasting the semantic contexts of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding demonstrates a general distinctiveness in meaning between the terms.
Next, the examination of the poetic parallels of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding in
Prov 1-9 demonstrates the distinctiveness of the collocated terms wisdom, knowledge,
and understanding. The distinctiveness in meanings of the collocated terms support the
general meanings of axiomatic wisdom, causality knowledge, and effectual understanding
developed in chapter 2. Further, these three terms are a merismus that is a ternary system,
that wisdom is the basis for knowledge which in turn is used to produce understanding,
confirming meanings developed lexically and semantically in chapter 2. First, wisdom is
expertise sourced in God for godly living, or axiomatic wisdom. Second, knowledge is
comprehension and utilization of the axiomatic principles as the causation of desired
godly effects, or causality knowledge. Third, understanding is the realized effectuation of
godly actions as the result of applying wisdom and knowledge, or effectual
66
understanding. The axiomatic principles that are the wisdom sourced in God become the
base upon which knowledge as comprehension and utilization of these axiomatic
principles causes effectuation of godly actions, becoming the life of understanding. 24
Importance of the Meanings and Relationships to a Taxonomy for Proverbs
As important foundational terms of the “father’s instructions to his son,”
wisdom, knowledge and understanding as a ternary system form a framework upon which
24
Perhaps Fox approaches this idea of these relationships through the concept of an actconsequence world that is driven by cause and effect in the relationships between wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding, using the terminology of the “conflation” of wisdom and righteousness, saying: “In the
Lectures and Interludes of chapters 1-9, wisdom and moral virtue are bound as cause and effect. The
Exordia of the Lectures insist that hearkening to wisdom guarantees that one will walk the path of
righteousness . . . The conflation of wisdom and moral virtue is explicit in Lecture II. Seeking wisdom (2:14) will bring one to fear of Yahweh and knowledge of Yahweh (v 5) because it is he who gives wisdom (v
6) . . . The causal link is clear and constant: Wisdom (taught by the father and gained with God’s help)
leads to and guarantees righteousness” (emphasis mine). Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 10-31: A New
Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 18B (New York: Doubleday, 2009), 937. Clifford sees
an impersonal world order in which the world is self-righting in retribution: “God made the world in justice
and it is not inert or indifferent to justice or injustice.” However, Clifford does think Proverbs has the basic
idea of “the psychology of the human person as knower and doer . . . as a free and energetic moral agent,”
which fits well with the semantic context of understanding being the resultant of wisdom and knowledge as
worked out by free moral agency. Richard J. Clifford, Proverbs: A Commentary (Louisville, KY:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1999), 19-20. But Waltke sees this act-consequence world as a divine
relationship: “. . . it is more appropriate to speak of personal divine retribution in Proverbs than of an
impersonal world order.” Waltke may come closer to the taxonomic ideas expressed above of axiomatic
wisdom driving causality knowledge producing resultants as effectual understanding with this: “Wisdom
and knowledge are inseparable, for mastery of life’s experience demands knowledge of the divine moral
order, the nexus between cause and consequence. Knowledge is a term co-relative with and inseparable
from the sage’s words (23:12) and instruction (1:7; 19:27), discretion (1:4; 8:12) and competence (or
understanding, 2:6, 11), as well as wisdom (2:6. 10-11; 14:6) and insight (9:10) . . . This transmitted
knowledge, which is now in the disciple’s heart and on his lips, will protect him in temptation (5:2), enable
him to behave wisely and speak well (12:23; 15:2; 17:27), and increase in strength (24:5)” (emphasis
mine). Perhaps this view of Waltke might support the taxonomic idea that wisdom as the axiomatic divine
moral order is the foundation for the causality knowledge mastering life’s experiences, enabling positive
consequences in living, or effectual understanding. Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 115, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004), 75, 178. Waltke has
also argued for wisdom as a fixed, righteous order, saying: “No longer can wisdom be defined
simplistically as the ‘practical application of knowledge.’ Instead wisdom must be thought of as a broad,
theological concept denoting a fixed, righteous order to which the wise man submits his life.” This coheres
with viewing wisdom as axiomatic divine moral order. Bruce K. Waltke, “The Book of Proverbs and
Ancient Wisdom Literature,” BSac 136, no. 543 (July-Sept 1979): 238. For an argument against the
dominance of the act-consequence view, read Peter Hatton, Contradiction in the Book of Proverbs, SOTS
(Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2008), 83-116.
67
to arrange the sayings of Prov 1-9. Such a framework will next be proposed in chapter 4
for classifying these relationships as a taxonomy.
CHAPTER 4
A PROPOSED TRIADIC TAXONOMY FOR PROVERBS
Wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are important terms central to the
hermeneutical key that Prov 1-9 constitutes, as developed in chapter 1. Chapter 2
develops broad general meanings for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding based upon
evaluating their sub-categories of meaning in use and their semantic contexts. Chapter 3
affirms their relative distinctiveness in meaning and apparent relationship by comparing
and contrasting their semantic contexts and evaluating confirmation of these general
meanings through poetic parallelism. Poetic parallelism demonstrates that these three
terms are an ordered merismus that reveals a universal, the ternary system. It is this
ternary system in which the ḥakam (‫) ָחכָם‬, the “wise man” or “expert” comprehends,
utilizes, and achieves Godly success with all three elements. 1
67F
Characterizing the relationships between the three terms as a ternary system
reflects their general meanings: the axiomatic principles that are the wisdom sourced in
God become the base upon which knowledge as comprehension and utilization of these
axiomatic principles is in turn cause of the effectuality of godly actions, the life of
understanding traveling the godly and righteous way the father so much desires for his
son. In this chapter, a triadic taxonomy of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding
emerges. This is useful for the comprehension, structure, teaching, and application of
Proverbs 1-9, which helps the father achieve the end purposes of Proverbs expressed in
the Prologue.
1
C.f. the development of this idea in Chapter 3 regarding Prov 3:13-26.
68
69
To see this taxonomy emerge, the major pericopes of Proverbs 1-9 are first
ordered in this chapter between these three classifying elements. If wisdom, knowledge,
and understanding then are classifying elements, then it should be expected that for both
the breadth and diversity of material that Proverbs indeed is, each major classifying
element would contain a range of subordinate classifications within their broad general
meanings, or “interior hierarchies.” The result is a classifying structure for Proverbs 1-9
that has the dimensionality of three major terms, wisdom, knowledge, and understanding,
and each major term would have its own subordinate classifications as interior
hierarchies. 2
Classification of the Major Pericopes of Proverbs
First, a segmentation of Proverbs 1-9 into twenty-five pericopes is utilized as
a common starting ground. 3 Second, each pericope is then examined by looking
inductively at its individual verses. Each verse is evaluated as to whether its meaning
generally corresponds to the classifying idea of axiomatic truth, causality, or effectuality.
If so, that pericope (or its corresponding portion) is assigned to one of the three
classifying ideas of Proverbs 1-9. Third, given the analysis of the meanings and subcategories for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding in chapters 2 and 3, obviously
some overlap is expected to exist, and in the chart below this overlap is seen where
individual verses have multiple assignments. This overlapping occurs in about ten of the
twenty-five pericopes but only for a limited number of individual verses, so the
2
The conventional view is that no overall classifying structure is possible for Proverbs Part II,
and that the structure for Part I (Proverbs 1-9) is limited generally to the idea of lectures and interludes.
However, Heim argues there is a perceived editorial strategy employed in the construction of Proverbs
through analysis of 96 “variant sets” which in his view employ intentional repetition of terms. 17 of these
96 variant sets occur in Prov 1-9. Knut Martin Heim, Poetic Imagination in Proverbs: Variant Repetitions
and the Nature of Poetry, BBRSup (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 3-9, 45.
3
This segmentation is that developed by the NAS and is comparable to that of both Fox and
Waltke. See the comparison of Fox and Waltke’s segmentation made by Knut Martin Heim, Poetic
Imagination in Proverbs, 40-41.
70
functioning of the classification is not nullified. Fourth, the total verses (which will
include the limited overlaps) are counted for each classification and compared for
balance. Fifth, conclusions are made regarding this method for classifying Proverbs into a
triadic taxonomy:
Table 4-1, Proverbs Pericope Classification and Distribution Chart
Proverbs Pericope
1:1-7
1:8-19
1:20-33
2:1-22
3:1-12
3:13-26
3:27-35
4:1-9
4:10-19
4:20-27
5:1-14
5:15-23
6:1-5
6:6-11
6:12-15
6:20-35
7:1-5
7:6-23
7:24-27
8:1-11
8:12-21
8:22-31
8:32-36
9:1-12
9:13-18
Total:
Wisdom, ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬:
Axiomatic Truths-(vv.)
2,3
20-29
1-5,6-8,10
1,11-12
13,19
Knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬:
Causalities-(vv.)
4,6,7
8,9
29-30
5,6,10
20
33-35
1-9
1
20-24
1-5
24
1-11
12-21
22-31
32-36
1-12
13-18
≈ 101 verses
20-25
3-14
15-23
1-2
6-11
12-14
25-35
5
6-23
25
9-10
12, 14
Understanding, ‫ בִּינָה‬and
‫תְּ בוּנָה‬: Effectuality-(vv.)
2,5
10-19
31-33
2-3,6,7-9,11-22
2-10
13-18, 19, 21-26
27-32
4,7
10-19
26-27
1-2
3-5
15
33-35
4
22-23
26-27
1
14-16
34-36
10
10-12
≈ 90 verses
≈ 98 verses
Several conclusions may be drawn. First, the classifications bear out usefully
a readily apparent distribution between three major meanings of the individual pericopes.
Second, the verse segments within the pericopes tend to lay-out linearly between the
classifications, reflecting no dominances in meaning within the pericopes and therefore
are additionally confirming a taxonomic idea. These pericopes generally are not “all cutup.” Third, the distribution of the total number of verses is balanced among the
71
classifications. No one classification rules. Fourth, so as this classification of Proverbs
horizontally into three major classifications emerges, it would be expected that by next
examining each of the three classifications vertically, that there will inductively emerge
internal sub-classification groupings for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. These
internal classifications, or “internal hierarchies,” are expected since a merismus is a
shortened form of a complete series in which the top-level constituent elements are
reductions of a complete series, 4 as “Merismus, then, is an abbreviated way of expressing
a totality.” 5 Therefore, when these top-level constituent elements of the totality are
examined, the sub-elements that each top-level element has reduced are these interior
hierarchy elements. This yields taxonomic element axes for wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding, as well as groupings of verses for each element. 6
One workable derivation of these sub-classification groupings is shown below
in Table 4-2. This table illustrates how the idea of distinctions in meaning for wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding can yield the concept a three-dimensional triadic structure.
These are not asserted to be the only set for presenting the concept of interior hierarchies
for each top-level element of the triadic structure. Rather, these interior hierarchies are
asserted to be a functional set of elements thoughtfully based and inductively assessed
4
Schökel expresses the idea that a merismus is a shortened form of a complete series in which
its constituent elements are reductions of a complete series. Luis Alonso Schökel, A Manual of Hebrew
Poetics, SB 11 (Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1988), 83-4.
5
Wilfred G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques (London: T & T
Clark International, 2001), 321. See chapter 3 of this thesis for the development of the idea of wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding as a merismus, and with reference to the views of Honeyman, Watson,
Kugel, Berlin, Orton, and Schökel regarding merismus in general.
6
This idea of a dimensionality in Proverbs is not entirely new. Gerhard von Rad coined the
term “stereometric” for the idea of wisdom. Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, trans. James D. Martin,
reprint, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972), 13. Waltke elaborates on this idea of von Rad’s with what
could be stylized a three dimensional portrayal supporting a taxonomic concept, by using the dimensional
terms “extension,” “conceptual range,” “realms,” and “dimension.” Waltke discusses “the fear of the
Lord” using the terms horizontal axis and vertical axis, with interrelationships for wisdom and knowledge.
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2004), 77-78, 181.
72
from broad scriptural ideas of God’s moral order and related to three basic theological
principles of Israel’s wisdom literature which appear included here in the prologue and
motto of Prov 1:1-9. 7 These ideas of interior hierarchy are reasonably correlated with
Heim’s categorization of the variant sets of Proverbs 1-9, to provide elements of
additional substantiation for the concept:
Table 4-2, Dimensionality Concepts for Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
Wisdom Axis
Fear of the Lord
Related Variant Sets as developed by
Heim, 8 for Prov 1-9
Set 1: Prov 1:7a//9:10a//15:33a (cf.
18:12) [51].
The universal beginning point, as a “first
step” of the progression of wisdom.
Useful Grouping Principles Found
Within Proverbs 9
“The starting point of wisdom”
(Prov 1:7; 9:10, fn 20sn). The idea of
a beginning point for all three axes
implies its progression and
linearity. 10
7
These three axes correlate well with Jenks’ assertion of three basic theological
presuppositions or principles of Israel’s wisdom literature: “That this is an orderly world, ruled by Yahweh,
its wise Creator . . . That knowledge of this order is possible to the person who opens himself to wisdom . .
. That the wise man who thus aligns himself with God’s order will experience good things, while the fool
will suffer for his folly.” Jenks refers to these as “the principles of ‘order,’ ‘knowability,’ and ‘justice.’”
Alan W. Jenks, “Theological Presuppositions of Israel’s Wisdom Literature,” HBT 7 (June, 1985): 44.
Jenks’ “principles of ‘order’” relate to axiomatic wisdom; “knowability” in aligning relates to causality
knowledge; and “justice” as an expression of communal godly living relates to effectual understanding.
VanDrunen also appears to find what might be these three axes in the natural moral order, saying: “God’s
wise formation of the world has instilled it with an orderly regularity (wisdom) that penetrates both the
cosmic and the human social realms. Wise human beings seek to appropriate this divine wisdom and thus
to perceive the natural order (knowledge) and to conduct themselves in a way that befits it”
(understanding)” (the insertions in italics are mine to bring out the impact of his insight). David
VanDrunen, “Wisdom and the Natural Moral Order: The Contribution of Proverbs to a Christian Theology
of Natural Law, JSCE 33 (Spring/Summer 2013): 156.
8
Heim, Poetic Imagination in Proverbs, 51-148. Brackets are the page number where the
variant set is presented.
9
NET Bible, (n.p.: Biblical Studies Press, 2001). The referenced verses with footnote numbers
in the following table are cited within the table as a convenience to the reader.
10
Weeks envisions wisdom as a continuing state or process, which would be in line with the
idea of progression along an axis incorporated here. Stuart Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 118.
73
Torah/Instruction
Set 2: Prov 1:8//6:20 [61]
One does not ignore or disobey
instruction, torah. 11
Discipline of the
LORD
Set 5: Prov 1:25//Prov 1:30 [74]
Calamity falls on those who reject.
Hatred of evil
Set 12: Prov 3:7b//16:6b [116]
Through fear of the LORD one turns
away from evil.
Avoidance of sin
Set 6: Prov 2:1//Prov 7:1 [78]
A life of avoiding sin is made possible.
Moral Skill and
creativity
Set 4: Prov 1:9a//Prov 4:9a [70]
Wisdom gives a reward from its inherent
moral skill and creativity.
“In Proverbs the noun ‫תּוֹרה‬
ָ often
means ‘instruction’ or ‘moral
direction’ rather than ‘law’ (BDB
435 s.v. 1.a)” (Prov 1:8, fn 15tn). 12
“The fear of the LORD is the
foundation for wisdom (9:10) and
the discipline leading to wisdom
(15:33).” (Prov 1:7, fn 4tn).
(The fear of the LORD) is expressed
in hatred of evil (8:13)” (Prov 1:7, fn
4tn). 13 In parallel, the fear of the
Lord is wisdom; to depart, or to
shun, evil is understanding (Job
28:28).
(The fear of the LORD) is expressed
in . . . avoidance of sin (16:6)” (Prov
1:7, fn 4tn).
“The noun ‘wisdom’ (‫ ָח ְכמָה‬,
khokhmah) could be nuanced ‘moral
skill.’ It refers to ‘skill’ that
produces something of value . . . In
the realm of moral living, it refers to
skill in living – one lives life with
moral skill so that something of
lasting value is produced from one’s
life.” (Prov 1:2, fn 8sn).
78F
11
According to the later Midrash Rabba 15:19 which states concerning Torah, “I was the
architectural instrument of the Holy One,” wisdom is identical with Torah. Shimon Bakon, “Two Hymns to
Wisdom: Proverbs 8 and Job 28,” JBQ 36, no. 4 (October-December 2008): 226. Harris supports the
incorporation of Torah in Proverbs. Scott L. Harris, Proverbs 1–9: A Study of Inner-Biblical
Interpretation, SBLDissS 150, ed. Michael V. Fox and Pheme Perkins (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1995),
1. Lenzi views Wisdom as a prophet speaking from God to man, and a priestly role of man in
understanding and skillful living. Alan C. Lenzi, “Proverbs 8:22–31: Three Perspectives on its
Composition,” JBL 125, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 687–714. Porteous includes wisdom as the words of the king
and identification with Torah. Norman W. Porteous, “Royal Wisdom,” in Wisdom in Israel and in the
Ancient Near East: Presented to Professor Harold Henry Rowley by the Society for Old Testament Study in
Association with the Editorial Board of Vetus Testamentum in Celebration of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday, 24
March 1955, 246–261, ed. M. Noth and D. Winton Thomas, VTSup 3 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1955), 252-255.
Schipper argues that “the book of Proverbs exhibits numerous inner references and contains diverse
allusions to other Old Testament traditions, especially to the so-called Deuteronomic-Deuteronomistic
tradition.” Bernd U. Schipper, Hermeneutik der Tora. Studien zur Traditionsgeschichte von Prov 2 und zur
Komposition von Prov 1–9, BZAW 432 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012; with English summary 291-99), 291.
Overland connects the Shema and Proverbs 3. Paul Overland, “Did the Sage Draw From the Shema? A
Study of Proverbs 3:1–12.” CBQ 62, no. 3 (July 2000): 424–440.
12
Complete divorcement of instruction from the Law in Proverbs does not seem appropriate.
Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, WBC 22 (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 276. Harris argues that the
parental instruction in Prov 1:8-19 is intentionally composed from the story of Joseph and his brothers in
Gen 37. Scott L. Harris, “‘Figure’ and ‘Riddle’: Prov 1:8–19 and Inner-biblical Interpretation,” BR 41
(1996): 58–76.
13
Williams argues for hatred of evil as the main theme of Prov 1-9. Daniel H. Williams,
“Proverbs 8:22–31,” IBC 48, no. 3 (July 1994): 277–279.
74
Knowledge Axis 14
Fear of the
Lord/Comprehending
His causes
Formal causality
Set 1: Prov 1:7a//9:10a//15:33a (cf.
18:12), [51]
The universal beginning point, also as a
“first step” of the progression of
knowledge.
Set 7: Prov 2:2//4:20//5:1 [82]
Paying attention to foundational words
that are supernatural in their origin and
ability to cause. 15
Set 14: Prov 3:21a//4:21a [126]
Proverbs overall is an organizing plan for
life. Sound advice and shrewdness will cause
the correct decision of the heart as a plan.
“the first step in acquiring moral
knowledge . . . (is) preferred because
1:2-6 focuses on the acquisition of
wisdom” (Prov 1:7, fn 6tn). The
noun , (da‘at, ‘knowledge’) refers to
experiential knowledge, not just
cognitive knowledge, including the
intellectual assimilation and practical
application (BDB 394 s.v.) (Prov
1:7, fn 6tn).
“The noun ‫( רוּ ַח‬ruakh, ‘spirit’) can
have a cognitive nuance . . . It is
used metonymically for ‘words’(Job
20:3) and ‘mind’ (Isa 40:13); Exek
11:5; 20:32; 1 Chr 28:12; see BDB
925 s.v. ‫רוּ ַח‬, 6). The ‘spirit of
wisdom’ produces skill and capacity
necessary for success Isa 11:2; John
7:37-39)” (Prov 1:23, fn 27tn). The
implication is that wisdom uses the
supernatural causality and
transmission of understanding by
‫רוּ ַח‬. God supernaturally
communicates and blesses by prayer
(Prov 15:8; 15:29).
“The noun ‫’( ע ְָרמָ ה‬aremah) ‘prudence,
shrewdness, craftiness’ (BDB 791 s.v.)
or ‘cleverness’ (HALOT 886 s.v. 1)
refers to a shrewd plan of action, viewed
positively or negatively . . . Proverbs
provide a morally shrewd plan for life”
(Prov 1:4, fn 6tn) to the naïve youth
(Prov 1:4, fn 7tn).
14
Maimonides and later Thomas Aquinas developed the idea of God as “First Cause.”
Aristotle developed the ideas of the four classical elements of causality: formal, final, material, and
instrumental. These causalities are included by induction in the idea of causality knowledge. By this it is
not claimed that ancient Israelites thought explicitly in this manner. Barr points to the Greek emphasis on
contemplation. James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (London: SCM Press, 1961), 12-13. Fox
leaves room for applying ‘modern’ philosophical terms to Hebrew thought: Michael V. Fox, “The
Epistemology of the Book of Proverbs,” JBL 126, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 675-76. Blanshard discusses ideas
of the relation of Hebrew wisdom and Hellenistic thought. Brand Blanshard, “Wisdom,” Encyclopedia of
Philosophy 8, ed. Paul Edwards (New York: The Macmillian Company & The Free Press, 1972), 322-4.
Berman and Logan, citing a concise bibliography, trace the development in Jewish thought of this same
four-fold classification of Aristotelian causality as well as God being Final Cause, “since it provided the
fullest possible account of the various kinds of factors that explain existing things. Ultimate explanations,
however, would necessarily have to identify that cause or group of causes on which all else depends. Thus,
Maimonides finds that God alone satisfies this requirement” as First Cause. Lawrence V. Berman and
Barry Kogan, “Causation,” Vol. 4 of Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd ed, edited by Fred Skolnik, (Farmington
Hills, MI: Macmillian Reference USA, 2006), 457-459.
15
For Weeks, “knowledge of God . . . is a product of the internalization of the Law.” Weeks,
Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, 116.
75
Final causality
Material causality
Instrumental causality
16
Set 9: Prov 2:16//5:2B
(restored)//6:24//7:5 [94]. Prov 5:2B
(restored by Heim) reads “to keep you
from the strange/evil woman, from the
smoothness of a foreign tongue.”
To be saved from an ‘evil woman,’ both
metaphorical and actual, as end purpose
and greatest danger. Metaphorically, it
may refer to foreign, evil wisdom, or
correlate with the end purpose to walk in
God’s light. 16
Set 15: Prov
3:31a//23:17a//24:1a//24:19a [131]
The negative unwise moral plan is to
envy violent and evil men and their
company, causing a curse of the LORD
on their house and no hope and no future
to their plans.
Set 17: Prov 5:7//7:24//8:32a [141]
Riddles contain invisible truth that must
be revealed by study. This is a
noumenal, or non-tangible, process of
internalizing proverbs which cause
happiness as a result
Set 8: Prov 2:3//8:1 [90]
Instruction is the instrument. Woman
Wisdom can be seen as instrumental
cause.
Set 16: Prov 4:4c//7:2a [137]
Proverbs are the tangible, phenomenal
manifestation of a cause to be seized,
guarded, and whose obeyed commands
cause life.
The end purposes, its final causality,
of Proverbs are provided by the five
purpose clauses of Prov 1:2a, 2b, 3a,
4a, and 6a. ‘To learn wisdom and
moral instruction,’ ‘to discern wise
counsel,’ ‘to receive moral
instruction in skillful living,’ ‘to
impart shrewdness to the morally
naïve,’ and ‘to discern the meaning
of a proverb and a parable’ (Prov
1:2, fn 6tn).
“Here the nouns ‘knowledge and
plan’ ( ‫דַּ עַת וּ ְמזִמָּה‬, da’at umezimmah)
form a hendiadys; knowledge of how
to form and carry out a morally wise
plan for life” (Prov 1:4, fn 10tn). The
‘stuff’ that is used to formulate the
result, understanding, is knowledge.
“By studying proverbs the reader
will discern the hermeneutical key to
understanding more and more
proverbs” (Prov1:6, fn 18tn). The
noun ‫חִידָה‬, (khidah, ‘riddle’)
designates enigmatic sayings whose
meaning is obscure or hidden, such
as a riddle, . . . allegory, . . .
perplexing moral problem . . .
perplexing question . . . or
ambiguous saying . . . The sayings of
the wise often take the form of
riddles that must be discerned” (Prov
1:6, fn 3tn).
“The noun ‫( מוּסָר‬musar) has a threefold range of meanings: (1) physical
or parental: ‘discipline;
chastisement’ (2) verbal: ‘warning;
exhortation’ and (3) moral:
‘training:; instruction’ (BDB 416 s.v.
‫ ;מוּסָר‬HALOT 557 s.v. ‫ )מוּסָר‬. . . This
instruction consists of wisdom
acquired by observing the
consequences of foolish actions in
others and developing the ability to
control the natural inclination to
folly. This sometimes comes through
experiencing chastisement from
God. Sensing something of this
nuance, the LXX translated this term
Prov 6:23a within Set 9 reads “For the commandment is a lamp and the reaching is light.”
Weeks notes that “the word of God is described, using the same terms, in Ps 119:105. More generally, God
is to send out a light that guides in Ps. 43:3, and Jacob is to walk in God’s light in Is. 2:5.” Weeks,
Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, 211.
76
with the Greek word for ‘childtraining’” (Prov 1:2, fn 9tn). (cf.
Prov 1:3, 5).
The noun translated “proverb” (‫) ָמשָׁל‬
“can mean an object lesson based on
or using a comparison or analogy . . .
here it means an object lesson setting
out courses of action. It helps one
choose the course of action to follow
avoid” (Prov 1:1, fn 1tn).
Understanding Axis
Fear of the LORD by
living in that
relationship
Distinguishing moral
options and steering a
righteous course
Living a selfdisciplined life
Set 1: Prov 1:7a//9:10a//15:33a (cf.
18:12), [51]
Also the universal beginning point, as a
“first step” of the progression of
understanding in relationship with
God. 17 “The fear of the LORD is the
beginning of wisdom, And the
knowledge of the Holy One is the
beginning of understanding.” (Prov
9:10) 18
Set 3: Prov 1:8a//Prov 4:1a (cf. Prov
6:20) [65]
Understanding as righteous living in
correct moral decisions is the result of
the sound teaching and instruction. 19
The path taken in Proverbs is a choice
taken from among many. 20
Set 13: Prov 3:15//8:11 [121]
The resulting greatest value in a
disciplined life yielding no fear or
entrapment.
The fear of the LORD is parallel to
hating the evil way (Prov 8:13) as
well as “acknowledging the Holy
One is understanding” (Prov 9:10).
This fear is connected to a long
useful life (Prov 9:11, fn 24tn) as
well
The term ‫( בִּין‬bin, ‘to discern’) refers
to the ability to make distinctions
between things . . . the verb refers to
the ability to discern between moral
options” (Prov 1:2, fn 10tn).
“Skillful living” in Prov 1:3 as
“discipline of prudence” describes
“the results of a self-disciplined life”
and “focuses on acting prudently”
and “on the results of acting
17
The idea of understanding as the result of a ternary system incorporating a progressive
relationship with God that discerns righteousness and justice based upon wisdom and knowledge (Prov 2:810) appears inherent in Prov 2. Commenting on Prov 2:10, Weeks says: “In Ps. 40:9 (ET, 8), the psalmist
declares that, with God’s Law in his heart, he delights to do the divine will, while in Is. 51:7, God himself
addresses the people as those who know righteousness and have the Law in their heart.” Weeks, Instruction
and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, 112. Viewing Cuppi’s analysis, it also appears that understanding is about
doing the wisdom of God: Lorenzo Cuppi, “Concerning the Origin of the Addition Found in ProvLXX 1:7,”
in XIV Congress of the IOSCS, Helsinki, 2010, SBLSymS 59, ed. Melvin K. H. Peters, 93-103 (Atlanta,
GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013), 93, 99.
18
Verse 10b as better translated literally by Fox. (The NAS reads “And the knowledge of the
Holy One is understanding”). Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 308. Therefore, putting it all together in this
dimensionality table, the fear of the LORD is: the beginning of wisdom; the beginning of knowledge; and
the beginning of understanding.
19
Weeks notes the pervasive path imagery in Prov 1-9. Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in
Proverbs 1-9, 76.
20
Abigail Pelham, “Metaphorical Paths and the End of Wisdom in the Book of Job,” WW 31,
no. 4 (Fall 2011): 381-88.
77
Working righteousness,
justice, equity and the
right way
Set 11: Prov 3:3b-c//7:3 (cf. 6:21) [109]
The virtues of kindness and constancy
are an intimate part of virtuous decisionmaking in living.
Blessings of security
and prolonged useful
lives 21
Set 10: Prov 3:2//4:10//9:11 [104]
Added life and prosperity result. 22
prudently” (Prov 1:3, fn 14tn).
Righteousness, justice, and equity
describe “the ways in which the
disciplined prudent activity will be
manifested: ‘in righteousness,
justice, and equity’” (Prov 1:3, fn
1tn). “The Hebrew noun translated
‘equity’ comes from the root ‫יָשָׁר‬
(yashar) which has the basic idea of
‘upright, straight, right’ . . . Wisdom
literature often uses the motif of the
straight path to describe a morally
‘straight’ life” (Prov 1:3, fn 4sn).
“(The fear of the LORD) results in
prolonged life (10:27; 19:23)” (Prov
1:7, fn 4tn). 23
The verses of the individual columns in Table 4-1 for wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding may now be classified by these interior hierarchy elements, as shown in
subsequent Tables 4-3, 4-4, and 4-5:
21
Waltke looks past death, to eternal life and sure rewards. Waltke, Proverbs1-15, 107-109.
Fox argues for a view of natural, precipitate death, or premature temporal death. Michael V. Fox, Proverbs
10-31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 18B (New York: Doubleday, 2009),
511, 560 and 586.
22
Ross states that “elsewhere in Proverbs the fear of the Lord . . . results in a prolonged life
(10:27)” (emphasis mine). Allen P. Ross, “Proverbs 1:1-19,” in Learning from the Sages: Selected Studies
on the Book of Proverbs, ed. Roy B. Zuck. 171-177 (Grand Rapids, MN: Baker Books, 1995), 175.
23
Cook argues that “yiqtol frequently expresses a sense of inevitability, except for the
ambiguous examples that might be interpreted as describing either inevitabilities or typicalities.” Cook’s
“inevitability” examples in Proverbs include Prov 11:4, 11, 31; 13:13, 20; 14:11; 17:2, 20; 19:5, 9; 21:11;
27:18; 29:23. These examples point to inevitable rewards for right actions, or inevitable detriment for
wrong actions; and this idea would support the concepts in the understanding axis as effectual results. John
A. Cook, Time and the Biblical Hebrew Verb: The Expression of Tense, Aspect, and Modality in Biblical
Hebrew, LSAWS 7, ed. Cynthia L. Miller-Naudé and Jacobus Naudé (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns,
2012), 222-23 and fn54.
78
Table 4-3, Interior Hierarchy for Wisdom
Interior Hierarchy Elements Derived for Wisdom,
‫ָח ְכמָה‬
1. Fear of the LORD
2. Torah/Instruction
3. Discipline of the LORD
4. Hatred of evil
5. Avoidance of sin
6. Moral skill and creativity
Axiomatic Truth Elements as Distributed within
Proverbs Wisdom Pericope Classifications
1:29; 2:1-5,6-8,10; 9:10
1:2,3; 1:20-29; 3:1; 4:1-9; 5:1; 6:20-22; 7:1-3,24
3:11-12; 6:23; cf. 15:32
8:12-21; cf. 11:21; 12:2; 14:16; 15:3; 15:26; 24:20
1:10; 3:7; 6:24; cf. 14:16; 16:6; 7:4-5; 9:13-18
2:6-8; 2:10; 3:13; 3:19; 8:1-11, 22-31, 32-36; 9:1-9,
11-12
Table 4-4, Interior Hierarchy for Knowledge
Interior Hierarchy Elements Derived for
Knowledge, ‫דַּ עַת‬
1. Fear of the LORD/Utilizing His causes
2. Formal Causality, i.e., organizing principles
3. Final Causality, i.e., end purpose intended
4. Material Causality, i.e., constituent elements,
including unseen causality such as prayer,
associated with relationship with God
5. Instrumental Causality, i.e., efficient causality,
including object lessons to be observed
Axiomatic Truth Elements as Distributed within
Proverbs Knowledge Pericope Classifications
1:6-7, 29; 2:5, 6; 8:12,14; cf. 10:8; 11:27; 13:10;
24:5
1:4; 5:3-14;8:34-36
6:12-14 [vs. devises evil]; 7:5; 7:25
1:30; 2:10; 3:33-35; 4:20-25; 6:1-2; 8:9-10
1:8-9; 3:20; 4:3-14; 4:15-23; 6:6-11; 6:25-35; 7:623; 9:10
Table 4-5, Interior Hierarchy for Understanding
Interior Hierarchy Elements Derived for
Understanding, ‫בִּינָה‬
1. Fear of the LORD and relationship
2. Distinguishing moral options and steering a
righteous course
3. Self-disciplined life
4. Results in righteousness, justice, equity, right
path
5. Blessings of security and prolonged useful lives
Axiomatic Truth Elements as Distributed within
Proverbs Understanding Pericope Classifications
2:2-3, 6; 8:1, 14-16 [Table 3-2]; 9:10
1:2; 4:4,7; 5:1-2; 6:3-5; 7:22-23,26-27
1:5,10-19; 3:27-32; 6:33-35; 7:4
2:11-22; 3:2-10; 4:10-19,26-27
1:31-33; 2:3,7-9; 3:13-18,21-26; 6:15; 9:11-12
79
A Proposed Triadic Taxonomy
The generally discrete meanings and interior dimensionalities for wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding engender a system of classification of qualities and
relationships between the components of the system of classification to emerge. The
classifications of qualities and relationships that emerge constitute a taxonomy chosen to
be represented in three dimensions, reflecting the complexity of Proverbs. The taxonomy
is called triadic since the three elements of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding stand
in dimensional relationship to each other and constitute by their use and context
developed in chapters 1 through 4, their importance within the hermeneutical key to
Proverbs.
This triadic taxonomy is represented along three axes. The linear X axis
extends the constancy of axiomatic wisdom in its progressive interior hierarchy,
“Axiomatic Wisdom.” The linear Y axis represents the variably derived element of
effectual causality of knowledge in its progressive interior hierarchy, “Causality
Knowledge.” The third-dimension Z axis represents the resultant, the effectuality of
understanding in its progressive interior hierarchy, “Effectual Understanding.” The
interaction of Axiomatic Wisdom with Causality Knowledge produces Effectual
Understanding and may be viewed as a universal idea, a ternary system, though certainly
not mechanistic in form:
Table 4-6, The Three Axes of the Triadic Taxonomy
X, Axiomatic Wisdom
1. Fear of the LORD
2. Torah/Instruction
3. Discipline of the LORD
4. Hatred of evil
5. Avoidance of sin
6. Moral skill and creativity
Y, Causality Knowledge
1. Fear of the LORD/Utilizing
His causes
2. Formal Causality, i.e.,
organizing principles
3. Final Causality, i.e., end
purpose intended
4. Material Causality, i.e.,
constituent elements, including
unseen causality such as prayer,
associated with relationship with
God
5. Instrumental Causality, i.e.,
effectual causality, including
object lessons to be observed
Z, Effectual Understanding
1. Fear of the LORD and
relationship
2. Distinguishing moral options
and steering a righteous course
3. Self-disciplined life
4. Results in righteousness,
justice, equity, right path
5. Blessings of security and
prolonged useful lives
80
Figure 4-1 illustrates this resulting depiction of a triadic taxonomy which
visually summarizes the solution to the problem addressed by this thesis: 24
Figure 4-1, A Triadic Taxonomy for Proverbs 1-9
Knowledge
Y5 Instrumental, i.e., efficient causality
Y4 Material Causality, i.e. seen and unseen constituents
Y3 Final Causality, i.e., end purpose intended
Y2 Formal Causality/Organizing Principles
Y1 Fear of the LORD/Utilizing His Causes
X1 Fear of the LORD X2 Torah/Instruction X3 Discipline X4 Hatred Evil X5 Avoid. Sin X6 Moral Skill/Creativity
Wisdom
Z1 Fear of the LORD by Living in that Relationship
Z2 Distinguishing Moral Options and Steering a Righteous Course
Z3 Living a Self-disciplined Life
Z4 Working Righteousness, Justice, Equity, and the Right Way
Z5 Receiving Blessings of Security and Prolonged Useful Lives
Understanding
This diagram may be seen as an extended metaphor, a teaching tool useful for
organizing the mind of the teacher as he approaches the student. It is a systematic set of
generally differentiated meanings to be organized in one’s mind to enable becoming a
24
So far as I know, these concepts and this presentation are new and unique to me. However,
it is not altogether improbable that others might have drawn similar conclusions which I have not yet
encountered or explored.
81
person pleasing to God. Wisdom is the axiomatic field of expertise in all things God; but
this field cannot be applied without knowledge, the cause of your expertise applied for
resultant understanding. Understanding reflects back upon itself and discerns more
wisdom and knowledge from the results achieved, learning from the discipline involved,
readjusts, and achieves a better cycle the next time through. It is truly a life-long process
of interaction with a ternary system of divine relationships.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
The overall purposes of Proverbs in the Prologue point to encouraging young
men in accomplishing a continued state of righteous living and life through instruction in
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. These purposes are founded upon and aided in
their instructive component through comprehending that the meanings of wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding in Proverbs are generally distinct. This is the argument
developed in chapters 2-3, which examined the terms in their use in discourse to develop
lexical meanings and sub-categories of meaning which were also compared in their
respective OT semantic contexts. Examination of the poetic parallels of wisdom,
knowledge and understanding in Prov 1-9 concluded that these terms are a merismus,
expressing a universal idea, the ternary system. It is within this ternary system that the
ḥakam (‫) ָחכָם‬, the “wise man” or “expert,” comprehends, utilizes, and achieves Godly
success with all three elements:
General Meanings for Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding
A four-step structured approach in chapter 2 investigated the general
meanings for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Major lexical references were
compared. Based upon an assessment of their use and context of each occurrence, a
revised lexical entry emphasizing their use in Proverbs was developed for each word. OT
semantic contexts for each use demonstrate additional differences and similarities in
meaning. Last, wisdom, knowledge, and understanding are determined to have dominant
general definitions as each is used in Proverbs.
82
83
For wisdom, the dominant use in Proverbs is axiomatic wisdom. The dominant
use relates to comprehending wisdom as God’s axiomatic principles behind His plan for
the universe and being the base for all thought and action. A less frequent use is
foundational to exercising judgment for good or ill in the human decision-making
process. The general definition in Proverbs for wisdom is expertise sourced in God for
godly living.
For knowledge, the dominant use in Proverbs is causality knowledge. The
dominant use relates to utilization of knowledge for causation of God’s purposes. This
dominant meaning encompasses the causation of good, the causation of positive moral
effects, the support of God’s intentions, and fundamentally used as a practical moral
instrument. The general definition in Proverbs for knowledge is comprehension and
utilization of the godly causation that achieves desired godly effects.
For understanding, the dominant use in Proverbs is resultant effectual
understanding. This dominant use appears well distributed across the very consistent
concept that godly results are achieved through action by application of causality
knowledge based upon axiomatic wisdom. This functions as a system, but is not seen as
mechanistic. The general definition in Proverbs for understanding is effectuation of godly
actions.
The triadic taxonomy that expresses the relationships among these distinctions
in meaning is specified in chapter 4 and its interior hierarchies inductively assessed:
A Triadic Taxonomy for Proverbs 1-9
A triadic taxonomy emerges in chapter 4 that reflects wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding as generally distinct terms. These terms are important to the father’s
instructions in Prov 1-9. These terms classify all verses of the twenty-five pericopes of
84
the father’s instructions into their three corresponding axes as shown in Table 4-1. The
axes are Axiomatic Wisdom, Causality Knowledge, and Effectual Understanding.
Major grouping principles developed from evaluating the Prov 1:1-9 and
supported by the related “Variant Sets” of Prov 1-9 identify progressive elements of each
hierarchy. Table 4-2 displays these axes and interior hierarchies. The associated pericope
verses assigned in Tables 4-3, 4-4 and 4-5, support each axis is and its interior hierarchy.
Dimensional X, Y, and Z axes configure the dimensionality and inter-relationship of
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding as a triadic taxonomy, shown in Figure 4-1. The
driving forces of causality knowledge based upon foundational axiomatic wisdom cause
the resultant righteous life reflecting effectual understanding (see Figure 4-1)
These conclusions are contrary to the conclusions that would result from the
conventional view addressed by this thesis in chapter 1, which is that these three terms
are generally held as interchangeable and synonymous. If indeed the terms are merely
poetically and lexically interchangeable and synonymous, then there can ultimately be no
ternary system and no triadic taxonomy and no instructional tool as a universal idea with
which the father approaches the son to aid his development into a wise man, or expert.
Usefulness of a Triadic Taxonomy for Proverbs 1-9
The system reflected in this taxonomy is that a human intellect founded upon
God’s wisdom and driven by His knowledge effects supernatural results when applied
with discernment. The way of a righteous life is this positive result called understanding.
This taxonomic system displays the inter-relationship of the required necessary steps as a
process of gaining theological and ethical skill-sets which are then employed for living a
righteous life before God with positive results. If we are to know the truths that the book
85
of Proverbs has for us, then we need to know the causes, and by implication, the
originating principles upon which the causalities rest which in turn drive the godly
results. This taxonomy is useful for comprehending, appropriating, applying, and
benefiting from God’s providence of His wisdom towards that end, that we might live
righteously.
Proverbs is designed to be taught, and takes life and reflects its inherent divine
value in being used so. The ideas that have emerged here from these distinctive meanings
for wisdom, knowledge, and understanding must have practical application for the
instruction of young men if they really are to have the value that their divine nature as
canon entails. These conclusions therefore require incorporating these different general
meanings of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding into steps to achieve important
practical application:
Practical Application of a Triadic Taxonomy for Instruction
Proverbs is wisdom genre. The proverbs of the book, especially the father’s
instructions to the son found in Prov 1-9, are to have practical instructional application. 1
Hearers of Proverbs must apply it to their own lives, grow in their own comprehension,
achieving results, and then actually teach others. The proverbs are intended to achieve
beneficial results, including warning of the dangers confronting young men that can lead
1
Proverbs is instruction, and that purpose must be incorporated into its explication. Reflecting
on Prov 1-9 in light of the goal of instruction, Murphy says: “For it is an instruction, and that intent must be
kept in mind . . . The goal is praxis: how to live (savoir faire/savoir vivre). To this end the educators, whom
the text identifies as father/mother, lay out a lifestyle that must be followed, if one is to avoid folly
(=death).” Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, WBC 22 (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 62. Perhaps Fox
says it best, emphasizing the use of Proverbs as instruction in the home, saying: “. . . the intimate, down-toearth teaching of the home, which strives to imbue the growing child with the hard but simple lesson of
moral character and fear of God, is an instance, perhaps the most important, of the grand and sublime
power that pervades all creation. As an introduction to the collections of ancient proverbs, the fusion of the
two voices tells us that in the adages and observations of Israel’s sages we hear at once the echo of
transcendental wisdom and the reverberations of the wisdom taught in the home.” Michael V. Fox, “Ideas
of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9,” JBL 116, no. 4 (Winter, 1997): 633.
86
to death, as well as the benefits that lead to long, useful, and rewarding lives. Wisdom,
knowledge, and understanding are important terms the father uses in accomplishing this
task. The triadic taxonomy that emerges from this analysis and investigation should
enhance accomplishing this task. These cumulative ideas of wisdom, knowledge,
understanding, and their associated triadic taxonomy can be applied profitably by a
teacher for instruction of young men in the following manner:
First, convey the message of Proverbs 1-9 as built upon three words having
generally distinctive meanings: axiomatic wisdom, causality knowledge, and effectual
understanding. The baffling diversity that can be Proverbs yields to a more
comprehensible solution for the listener who can first segment the riddles and sayings
into these three piles, or concepts.
Second, emphasize the interaction of these three concepts. Actions founded
upon God’s principles produce positive results. Proverbs does communicate a fearsome
act-consequence system of God. But the idea that God has an act-consequence system at
work in the universe becomes alive in a much more positive enabling manner when the
hearer comprehends that God has also provided principles that work to benefit the
faithful and obedient participant in that system. God’s system of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding is not a mechanistic system of invariable results. But, it is a system of
relationships that God has ordained to accomplish His good. These first two teaching
points can be taught drawn from chapters 1, 2 and 3.
Third, make the interaction of these three key terms and concepts as a triadic
taxonomy that the father uses in the instruction of the son in Prov 1-9. Each pericope
contains interaction of these three key terms and can be discussed in this way. Each key
term is also construed as an individual axis with its own interior hierarchy, and can be
discussed and then applied in that fashion. Visual representation of the triadic pericopes
help convey these instructional points, as shown in Figure 4-1. These teaching points can
be drawn from chapter 4.
87
Fourth, as a teacher pursue the goal of developing in the hearer the ability to
incorporate into their life’s decision-making processes a discernment and appropriation of
the ability to apply the first three instructional goals built on chapters 1 through 4. This
goal can include not only an incorporation into their own lives, but developing the ability
to teach them to others. This last teaching point is a summary drawn from chapter 5. May
the Lord enable and bless now this investigation and discussion of His Words in
Proverbs, to the profitable use and eternal good of many fathers and sons, now and to
come.
88
APPENDIX A
APPROACHES TO WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND UNDERSTANDING AND
THEIR SYNONYMITY IN MEANING
Waltke 2
Shupak 3
“The foundational axiom
“…in the Biblical wisdom
“According to the book’s
Fox 1
Ethics and the
Primary Axiom
of Proverbs’ ethics is that
the exercise of the human
mind is the necessary and
sufficient condition of
right and successful
behavior in all reaches of
life: practical, ethical,
and religious. This is the
central axiom of Socratic
ethics as well” (2:934.
Emphasis author’s).
“[Wisdom] is the power
of the human mind, both
in its intellectual faculties
and in the knowledge it
can gain, hold, and
transmit. Wisdom both
transcends the individual
mind and resides within
it. God possesses it and,
we are taught, it can be
ours as well” (1:3).
‘motto’ (Prov 1:6-7), its
primary axiom is ‘the fear
of the LORD is the
beginning of knowledge’ . .
. but it should be
emphasized that this
beginning is on the vertical
axis on which all else
depends—the initium and
principium—and not on the
horizontal axis and can be
left behind” . . . “Trust in
the LORD, however, is a
platitude; it cuts no ice in
one’s thinking, unless Lord
is qualified as the one who
reveals wisdom through
inspired sages. In sum, the
exercise of a pious heart in
accepting and memorizing
the sage’s teachings is the
necessary and sufficient
condition of right and
successful behavior in all
reaches of life: practical,
ethical, and religious”
literature wisdom is
conceived primarily as
didactic and as something
which is taught, while
wisdom granted by God
and wisdom acquired
through life experience
take second and third place.
Thus, for the acquisition of
wisdom, the means which
stands out above all others
is mental effort. Sapiential
activity requires a mental
effort or a definite
investment. An
examination of the various
terms shows that some of
them entail an amount of
active engagement and
reflect great mental effort,
while others involve the
more passive state of mere
absorption and acquisition,
the effort thereby being
minor” (254).
1
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB
18A (New York: Doubleday, 2000). Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 10-31: A New Translation with Introduction
and Commentary, AB 18B (New York: Doubleday, 2009). Page numbers are referenced. Note that
throughout this thesis I do not attempt to standardize the various author’s transliterations of Hebrew.
2
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15 and Chapters 15-31. Bruce K.
Waltke, Review of Proverbs 10–31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary by Michael V.
Fox, RBL/SBL, February, 2010. Page numbers are referenced.
3
Nili Shupak, Where Can Wisdom be Found? The Sage’s Language in the Bible and in
Ancient Egyptian Literature, OBO 130 (Fribourg, Switzerland: University Press, 1993). Page numbers are
referenced.
89
90
Epistemology of
Wisdom
Thought
Revelation and
Inspiration
Relationship
between
Wisdom,
Knowledge, and
Understanding
Meaning of
Wisdom
Not empirical or personal
experience, but
“experience that
reinforces a known
principle” (2:966, 977).
“The epistemology
underlying Wisdom
thought—the
unverbalized ‘philosophy’
of knowledge—is not
empiricism but a
coherency theory of truth”
(2:921). “The
propositions, stated and
assumed, of the sayings
and epigrams in Proverbs
receive their validation by
virtue of consistency with
the integrated system of
assumptions that inform
the book” (2:968).
“Wisdom is not
communicated by divine
revelation. Some thinkers
insisted on the necessity
of revealed Torah, and for
that reason wisdom
became progressively
identified with, then
subordinated to, Torah.”
(2:921). “Divine
revelation is not
mentioned anywhere in
didactic Wisdom prior to
Ben Sira” (2:951).
“For all practical purposes
synonymous” (2:963)
“Capacity of the human
mind to determine the
right course of behavior
and to apply this
knowledge in achieving a
successful life. But
(Book Review, n.p.).
“The basis for the book of
Proverbs’ epistemology and
theological reflections is
not natural theology, but
special revelation through
inspired spokespersons (see
30:5-6)” (1:81-2). Within
the frame of Israel’s
covenants (55), including
the Mosaic covenant (81).
Emphasizes a “deeddestiny” nexus (54) of
“personal divine retribution
. . . [rather] than of an
impersonal world order”
(75).
Both through experience
and bestowed by God (72;
242).
“. . . the sage’s inspiration
differs in their appeal to
creation to teach wisdom,
and they claim to be
inspired and to possess
canonical authority as
much as other contributors
to canonical literature (cf.
Prov 1:1; 2:1-8; 22:17-21;
25:1; 20:1-6)” (55). Not an
impersonal created order
(80).
“Wisdom in the summary
statement of the book’s
purpose (1:2) entails all the
other virtues listed in its
preamble” (i.e., knowledge,
insight, prudence, cunning,
discretion, learning,
guidance; also in 1:25:
counsel, understanding or
competence,
resourcefulness, and heroic
strength). “These virtues
come packaged with
wisdom (8:12-14)” 77.
“‘Wisdom’ (Heb. ḥokmâ)
means generally ‘masterful
understanding,’ ‘skill,’
‘expertise’” (76). “Wisdom
is inseparable from
knowledge (dā‘at) . . . In
Synonymous (232-3) with
bînâ and ḥokmâ (239-47;
253-4; 256).
“ḥokmâ is multifaceted
and encompasses various
walks of life. It can
designate technical skill or
manual work . . . legal
acumen and leadership
91
Meaning of
Knowledge
Meaning of
Understanding
4
different periods
understand this capacity
differently” (2: 921). “A
high degree of knowledge
and skill in any domain”
(1:32). “The nearest
English equivalent that
encompasses its semantic
range is ‘expertise.’ The
ḥakam is the possessor of
ḥokmah, an expert.
‘Expertise’ has different
connotations from
ḥokmah . . .with the
proviso that one may be
an ‘expert’ in right living
and good character, the
two terms are
comparable.” (1:32-33).
“Ḥokmah is not inert
knowledge.” (1:33; 348).
Da‘at is the broadest of
the wisdom words. It
appears that everything
designated by any of
those words could also be
called
da‘at . . . Da‘at is
cognition itself—any
cognition, from minimal
awareness to elevated
sagacity.” (1:31).
Bînāh designates the
faculty of intellectual
discernment and
interpretation, the
exercise of that faculty,
and the product thereof, in
words or deeds. Unlike
tebunah, bînāh is not
necessarily practical . . .
Bînāh includes reason, the
intellectual faculty used in
solving problems and
deducing truths, as well
as intellect, the ability to
Proverbs, ḥokmâ mostly
denotes mastery over
experience through the
intellectual, emotional, and
spiritual state of knowing
existentially the deeddestiny nexus—that is, to
act on moral-spiritual
knowledge out of its
internalization (1:2; 2:1-5),
thereby enabling its
possessor to cope with
enigma and adversity, to
tear down strongholds, and
thus to promote the life of
an individual and/or
community (12:22; cf.
25:5; Eccl. 7:19; 9:13-16)”
(77). Not Greek
philosophical theory or
rhetorical sophistry (77).
“Wisdom is inseparable
from knowledge (dā‘at).
The Wright brothers flew
the first airplane because
they had first figured out
the laws of aerodynamics; a
mechanic repairs a car
skillfully because he know
the construction of its
motor.” (77).
qualities in the king . . . or
knowledge, i.e., fear, of
God” (239-242). “ . . .in the
Biblical wisdom literature
wisdom is conceived
primarily as didactic and as
something which is taught,
while wisdom granted by
God and wisdom acquired
through life experience
take second and third place.
Thus, for the acquisition of
wisdom, the means which
stands out above all others
is mental effort” (254).
“Ascribed directly to God
(Job 4:12ff. and Prov. 8)”
(41)
“Bînāh is the conceptual,
interpretative activity of
thought, operating in the
field of meaning; it aims at
perception and
comprehension” . . . “the
faculty of intellectual
discernment and
interpretation, the exercise
of that faculty, or the
product thereof, in words or
acts” (96 and 177). 4 “In
this book perceptive and
competent people have
Mental discernment (242)
and mental ability (247). In
the semantic field of
didactic, taught wisdom,
and endowed charismatic
wisdom (255).
Da‘at is “primarily wisdom
gained by learning and
intended for practical
purposes” (235). It can also
be a “divinely endowed gift
(Prov 2: 6-7)” (234). In the
semantic field of didactic,
taught wisdom (255).
Waltke quotes from Fox. Fox adds: “Binah is the BH term closest to English ‘understanding’
(the usual rendering), in the sense of the comprehension of meanings and a perception of causes,” and
“almost inevitably engenders moral action” (emphasis mine). Fox, “Words for Wisdom,” ZAH: 154. See
also Fox’s detailed discussion of eight words in the semantic field of wisdom and knowledge, and six
words in the semantic field of folly words. Martin V. Fox, “Words for Wisdom,” ZAH 6 (1993):149-69.
Martin V. Fox, “Words for Folly,” ZAH 10 (1997): 4-15
92
comprehend meanings
and perceive relations and
causes . . . Bînāh is a
mental power or activity,
not an inherently moral
virtue” (1: 30).
Who is the
ḥakām?
“The ḥākām is the
possessor of ḥokmah, an
expert” (1:32)
Wisdom
Personified
“Lady Wisdom
symbolizes the perfect
and transcendent
universal . . . Like a
Platonic idea, the
wisdom-universal exists
objectively and not only
as an abstraction or
mental construct” . . .
God’s wisdom and man’s
wisdom, though
incomparable in
magnitude, are in essence
the same” (1:356).
Fear of the
Lord/Beginning
of Wisdom
“The motto in 1:7 states
an axiom of the
epistemology of Proverbs,
though not of Israelite
thought in general.
Proverbs 1:7 and similar
statements (2:5; 9:10)
affirm wisdom’s religious
validity by subordinating
it in various ways to the
fear of God. The fear of
God is the sphere within
which wisdom is possible
insight into the moral order
and a social conscience that
molds their activity. They
have a cool spirit (i.e., selfcontrol; 17:27), are patient
(14:29), hold their tongues
(11:29), can plumb the
depths of another’s heart
(20:5), and keep a straight
course (15:21). Fools find
no delight in this moral
imperative (18:2), and
tyrants lack it (28:16)” (9697).
The wise person (ḥākām)
possesses and exhibits the
traits of wisdom (ḥokmâ) in
its religious-social-ethical
sense” (94).
“Woman Wisdom herself is
transcendent, before and
above all things” (79). “ . . .
Wisdom in all her various
guises, especially as a
heavenly mediatrix,
personifies Solomon’s
inspired wisdom, the
communication of which is
the book’s aim and
rationale (1:1-2). There is
every reason to think that
‘Wisdom’ has the same
meaning, intention, and
source as in his opening
statement, and none to
think otherwise. She
equates her reproof with
‘knowledge’ and the ‘fear
of the LORD’ (1:29; cf.
1:7)” (86).
“‘Fear of the Lord’
involves both rational and
non-rational aspects at the
same time” . . . Its rational
aspect entails an objective
revelation that can be
taught (cf. Ps. 34:11ff.
[12ff.]) and memorized. In
Ps. 19:7-9 [8-10] ‘fear of
the LORD’ is a coreferential term to ‘law,’
‘statutes,’ ‘commands,’ and
‘ordinances’of the Lord . . .
“The ḥakām is one who has
acquired knowledge, who
uses his knowledge in
everyday life and is able to
impart it to others. As the
transmitter of knowledge,
the sage is the teacher”
(236).
“Personification of a divine
quality” (268). Modeled on
Ishtar or Ma‘at (269).
93
and can be realized, the
precondition for both
wisdom and ethical
behavior” (1:69).
Death
Temporal, “natural,
precipitate death” (2: 511,
560). “. . .belief in an
afterlife (is) not attested
in the Bible before Daniel
12 (ca. 170 B.C.E.) or in
Israelite Wisdom
Literature before the
Wisdom of Solomon (first
century B.C.E.—first
century C.E.)” (2: 586).
Relationship to
Torah
Wisdom in Proverbs (the
earliest portions dating
from eighth and seventh
centuries B.C.E.) is
subordinated to Torah
which Torah was issued
later in the time of Josiah,
622-521 B.C.E. and
subsequently expanded.
“Rather than identifying
wisdom with Torah,
Deuteronomy sets Torah
above wisdom and makes
wisdom one of its
benefits” (2:952-3).
‘Fear of the LORD’ also
entails a nonrational aspect,
an emotional response of
fear, love, and trust . . .
found through heartfelt
prayer and diligent seeking
for the sage’s words” (100101; Prov 2:1-5) and
humility (15:33 and 22:4).
Life and death in Proverbs
are not “respectively living
to an old age and to a
premature death. For justice
to be done, as Proverbs
assures it will be (e.g.,
3:31-35; 16:4-5), Abel and
the innocent traveler must
be vindicated and delivered
from death in a future that
lies beyond their clinical
deaths. If their clinical
death is the last word for
the waylaid innocent, then
the first lecture, along with
other biblical stories about
the deaths of martyrs,
deconstruct the Bible’s
claim that God upholds
justice . . . if these promises
could be validated by
experience, why does the
father command the son to
trust in the LORD (3:5)”
(1:109)
“If, however, one accepts
that the book of
Deuteronomy (ca. 620
B.C.E.) records the history
of the making of the book
of the law by Moses (ca.
1250 B.C.E.), as the book
claims, the social context
for the book’s assumption
is the so-called Mosaic
covenant . . . The book of
Proverbs seems to assume
this history by (1)
identifying Solomon son of
David as king of Israel
(1:1) and Hezekiah as king
of Juday (25:1); (2)
referring to God as YHWH
. . . Israel’s covenantkeeping God; (3) its
theological harmony with
Torah, albeit without citing
“In the first stage tôrâ and
miṣwâ refer to the authority
of a father or a wise man,
and the instruction is set
within a familial
framework (real or
fictional). In the second
stage, which includes
sentences identifying God’s
Law with wisdom (Prov
1:7; 9:10; Job 28:28), the
terms tôrâ and miṣwâ refer
to God’s Law” (41).
94
it; (4) Agur’s confession
that he composed his
sayings within the context
of Israel’s developing
canon” (Book Review, n.p).
95
APPENDIX B
USE AND CONTEXT FOR WISDOM, KNOWLEDGE, AND UNDERSTANDING IN
THE OLD TESTAMENT
‫ דַּ עַת‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
All 90 usages of ‫ דַּ עַת‬were examined in their discourse (use) and in relation to
other words (context) for segmentation of meaning. Sub-categories 1 and 2 appear
consistent in their conventional appellation, though usages in their categories in Proverbs
do not occur significantly:
Sub-category 1: a) Knowledge in general. Knowledge expressed as the cause of attaining and securing
valuable property (Prov 24:4). b) Technical knowledge, ability, for the selection and purpose of devising
sacred works (Exod 31:3 and 35:31; I Kgs 7:14)
Sub-category 2: Knowledge about a subject. Intentionality or not in causing a death (Deut 4:42; 19:4; Jos
20:3,5); God’s supernatural knowledge of Job’s inner morality (Job 10:7).
Sub-category 3: Narrowed from a more general idea of knowledge about transcendental ideas concerning
God, or about good and evil, or that given and revealed by the Spirit, to
a) Knowledge of God’s royal majesty and power to cause His effects in the universe displaying
inherent causality relationships. Tree of knowledge/knowing causing good and evil, genitive of effect (Gen
2:9, 17); but ‘windy words’ as empty knowledge causing nothing to happen (Job 15:2); no one can teach
God what He does, i.e., as a cause (Job 21:22); knowledge as insight into the uprightness of the heart, TNK
(Job 33:3); Job speaks without knowledge, i.e., without prudence for the effects of his words (Job 34:35);
Job opens his mouth to no purpose, i.e., without knowledge (Job 35:16); dying without knowledge, i.e., by
not listening to the causality instruction, they die without comprehending the cause of their own deaths (Job
36:12); knowledge as revelation of God’s royal majesty and power (Ps 19:2); God knows all and causes all
(Ps 139:6); knowledge and discernment/understanding are by the decree of God and granted by Him (Prov
2:6); the natural and caused functioning of nature by God (Prov 3:20); stored knowledge causes success
(Prov 10:14); the Lord safeguards the effectiveness of Godly knowledge (Prov 22:12); knowledge as what
God is doing, in this case judgment upon Judah (Isa 5:13); the divine seven elements of the Lord’s spirit
upon the root of Jesse, as knowledge of God’s power to cause His effects in the universe (Isa 11:2; this is
genitive of effect, as it is the Spirit that causes knowledge); 5 God makes nonsense of the knowledge of the
secular sages (Isa 44:25).
b) Knowledge used as metonymy of cause for effect for God’s purposes. The first temporal
step of knowledge is the fear of the Lord (Prov 1:7); sinners hate knowledge, a cause of good, and the
antonymic effect is more sin (Prov 1:22); the fool who will not respond to God’s rebuke in v. 22 hated
knowledge (Prov 1:29); knowledge as cause for effect (Prov 2:5; cf. fn 26tn p. 1080 NET: “knowledge is
often used metonymically (cause) for obedience. See Prov 3:6 and s.v. ‫דַּ עַת‬, BDB 395. See also fn 26tn p.
1080 NET, “The term ‫[ דַּ עַת‬da‘at, knowledge] goes beyond cognition; it is often used metonymically
[cause] for obedience [effect]; see, e.g. Prov 3:6, ‘in all your ways acknowledge him,’ and BDB 395 s.v.
5
Waltke, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 9.5.2c.
96
This means that the disciple will follow God’s moral code; for to know God is to react ethically and
spiritually to his will); knowledge will be attractive to you because you will see the result in decisions of
the heart (Prov 2:10); as supernatural cause ‘by His knowledge the deeps were broken up, and the skies drip
with dew’ i.e. God causes all creation’s effects, in the vernacular as “God is in control” (Prov 3:20); as
foresight of from what causality lies destruction by ‘Lady Folly’ (Prov 5:2); the words from Wisdom
Woman are all straightforward to him who understands/experiences the effects, and right to them who
find/discover knowledge, i.e., what causes the good outcome the Father is communicating (Prov 8:9);
instruction equals knowledge equals cause (Prov 8:10); the knowledge of the holy is the cause of
understanding, even as the fear of the Lord [cause] is the first temporal principle of wisdom (Prov 9:10);
the righteous are delivered from destroying their neighbor by the means of knowledge (Prov 11:9);
knowledge causes one to love the beneficial effects of discipline and correction (Prov 12:1); the prudent
sensible man ‘stores up, treasures, keeps covered’ knowledge, knowing the beneficial results from the use
of knowledge wisely (Prov 12:23); a prudent man utilizes knowledge, but a fool displays the opposite
uselessness, folly (Prov 13:16); the understanding man can reason backwards to knowledge, so that a
discerning person can easily live a Godly effectual life by knowing the causes of that life (Prov 14:6);
neither wise counsel, instruction, nor knowledge will originate in a foolish person: “ ‘Lips’ is the
metonymy of cause, and ‘knowledge’ is an objective genitive [speaking ‘knowledge’] or attributive
genitive [knowledgeable speech]” per NET fn 28tn, 1118 (Prov 14:7); the reason ‘he who restrains his
words has knowledge’ is he knows the spiritual power of knowledge through the effect [restraint] for cause
[knowledge] (Prov 17:27); knowledge as the five divine causal acts of God in Prov 30:4--first,
ascend/descend to and from heaven; second, controls the created realm/winds; third, controls the
hydrological cycle which drives nurture and hence life on earth/waters; fourth, created all people and the
earth; and fifth, named Himself and His son (Prov 30:3); by knowledge (means) shall my righteous servant
justify many, i.e., may be taken prophetically as forensic justification, with metonomy of the shed blood as
the actual cause. [See fn 7tn NET, 1357, where this can be taken and translated as “by his knowledge”
understanding the preposition as instrumental and suffix as objective] (Isa 53:11); the ‘lips of the priest’
keep, preserve knowledge which is the message causing benefice based on the Torah of God who rules
over all as first cause (Mal 2:7).
Sub-category 4: Narrowed from an idea of knowledge as general discernment or
understanding about God’s commandments or His intents and purposes, to
a) moral and ethical discernment from comprehending wisdom or understanding in relation to
knowledge. Knowledge as the means of functioning of Wisdom’s house (Prov 24:4); my mind has
observed/tested a wealth of wisdom and knowledge (Eccl 1:16); to whom do the results of labor and
knowledge go (Eccl 2:21, 26); knowledge provides protection from premature death or calamity (Eccl
7:12); God’s human economy dependent upon wisdom and knowledge does not function in the grave (Eccl
9:10); cause of the stability of times (Isa 33:6); the path of justice (Isa 33:6); no one can teach God
knowledge ( Isa 40:14); idols cause nothing (Isa 44:19) ; Babylon’s so-called wisdom and knowledge has
only had the effect of perverting her (Isa 47:10); discerning knowledge causes (Dan 1:4).
b) as discernment of God’s intentional plans. Baalam ‘knew the knowledge,’ the ultimate
purposes of God for Israel (Num 24:16); Man’s obscure view of God’s plans caused by lack of knowledge
(Job 38:2 and 42:3); knowledge as revelation of God’s plans to his own, in which Job gave no quarter to
another (Job 13:2); just as surely only God can give man insight into His purposes, so God has knowledge
of man’s (Ps 94:10); God’s commandments are efficacious for moral and ethical discernment; see TNK (Ps
119:66); knowledge parallels the deliberative plan of God (Prov 1:4); knowledge is to be guarded or
reserved for its revealed intentional use (Prov 5:2); the knowledge of God that yields justice for the poor is
ignored (Isa 58:2); Jer 22:16 (knowledge of God as the right and just that caused the beneficial effects for
Josiah (Jer 22:16); knowledge as that totally consumed for God, versus totally consumed burnt offerings
(Hos 6:6).
c) knowledge as a practical moral instrument for divine purposes. Knowledge is found or
discovered from wisdom (Prov 8:12); the shrewd/prudent possesses knowledge (Prov 14:18); the tongue of
the wise produces knowledge (Prov 15:2); the lips of the wise disperse, i.e., plant/use for effect, knowledge,
whereas the decision making of the fools builds on no ‘good seed’ (Prov 15:7); the heart/decision making
of him who has understanding seeks knowledge to use (Prov 15:14); as an intentional act, the prudent
gets/acquires knowledge and the wise man tests out knowledge in Godly living ( 2x in Prov 18:15); the
97
discerning person that is corrected will gain knowledge as a result (Prov 19:25b); if you stop listening to
instruction then you will stray from the words of knowledge (Prov 19:27); words of knowledge are
recognized as very valuable for intentional use (Prov 20:15); the instructed wise person gains knowledge in
return (Prov 21:11); knowledge implied from God (Prov 22:17); God causes and utilizes sayings through
sages (Prov 22:20); knowledge is gained by hearing, i.e., obedience (Prov 23:12); a man of knowledge
increases/causes power in war (Prov 25:5); impassioned effect, zeal, without proper means, knowledge, is
dangerous (Prov 19:2); means of functioning of Wisdom’s house (Pr 24:4); the wicked can make no
connection between knowledge and the desired effects of the rights of the poor (Prov 29:7); given that with
knowledge one knows the results deriving from what causes, affliction is experienced equivalent to grief
from sin (Eccl 1:18); the seven-fold spirit resting upon the root out of Jesse); those devoid of knowledge
make idols as their causative gods (Jer 10:14); all idolators are without knowledge because his idols are a
fraud and can do nothing, cause nothing (Jer 51:7); contrasted with human knowledge that increases for no
purposeful ends (Dan 12:4); knowledge causes faithfulness and loyalty, as otherwise there is only cursing,
lying, murder, stealing, adultery, violence, and bloodshed. With “no knowledge’ thus the land mourns, the
inhabitants perish, the creator God does not exist for them (Hos 4:1); two usages; “my people are destroyed
for lack of knowledge” which is the rejected Torah of God, and their destruction is the effect of the cause,
the lack of knowledge (Hos 4:6).
‫ בִּינָה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
All 38 usages of ‫ בִּינָה‬were examined in their discourse (use) and in relation to
other words (context) for segmentation of meaning:
Sub-category 1: The faculty of intellectual discernment and interpretation, the existence of
which implies a purpose. To know what to do (1 Chr 12:32); the cunning to build (2 Chr 2:11-12); hear this
[wise logic for ruling] (Job 34:16); where were you when God created the earth (Job 38:4); Do not rely on
your own devices or thoughts, i.e., understanding, in your actions, but rely on God’s wisdom and
knowledge for your actions (Prov 3:5); intentionally get understanding along with wisdom for the good
results of divine protection (Prov 4:5, 7); claim its close benefit as a protection from going evil ways (Prov
7:4); get understanding, not useless commercial money, that directs you upon the right way or path (Prov
16:16); get understanding, as wisdom and instructive knowledge in use brings joy to your teachers, the
cause of that understanding (Prov 23:23; this is genitive of effect, i.e., the Spirit that causes
understanding); 6 Agur has it not and is purposeless (Prov 30:2); rests on the branch, the root of Jesse, for
ruling (Isa 11:2); for comprehending a language (Isa 33:19); clearly understanding God’s action purposed
in the latter days (Jer 23:20).
Sub-category 2: The exercise of that intellectual faculty of discernment and interpretation as a
way of life or action. Do the statutes (Dt 4:6); the men of Issachar had an understanding of the actions and
morality the times called for (I Chr 12:33); to keep the Law of the Lord (1 Chr 22:12); causes Zophar to
give answer to an unjust reproof (Job 20:3); understanding to the decision-making mind is equivalent to the
flooding result of tipping over the water-jars of heaven (Job 38:36); live the instruction of a father (Prov
4:1); the first temporal principle for understanding is knowledge of the Holy One (Prov 9:10); cease from
the consideration of wealth as a legitimate result in understanding, for it is ephemeral (Prov 23:4); an
exercise/action dependent on God having given it else it is useless and it vanishes (Isa 29:14); right
decision making for living versus committing an error in spirit (Isa 29:24). Compare the parallel and
inherent idea of this sub-category with a good understanding, ‫שׂכֶל‬
ֵ , is possessed by all those who do the will
of the Lord (Ps 111:10).
6
Waltke, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 9.5.2c.
98
Sub-category 3: The product of that intellectual faculty of discernment and interpretation in
word or deed as achieving godly results, or not. To depart from the practice of evil is understanding (Job
28:12, 20, 28); the labor of the ostrich is in vain, without understanding, and produces no results (Job
39:17); hawks fly, a result (Job 39:26); metaphorical as speech for achieving the resulting purposed word
and deed of understanding (Prov 1:2); the product of the faculty understanding discovers knowledge,
elsewhere called a covered treasure stored up (Prov 2:3); parallel as the effect of sound counsel from
wisdom and knowledge (Prov 8:14); walk in the way of understanding as the result of forsaking folly (Prov
9:6); the product and results of no understanding is iniquitous living and no mercy from God(Isa 27:11); as
the product of Daniel’s understanding of visions and dreams, sourced in God [Dan 1:17] versus that of the
magicians and astrologers (Dan 1:20); Dan 8:15 (understanding as the product in word for the meaning of
an end-time vision (Dan 8:15); the vision of the 70 weeks given as the product of that faculty (Dan 9:22);
the vision of the ‘latter days’ given as a product of that faculty (Dan 10:1).
‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
All 42 usages of ‫ תְּ בוּנָה‬were examined in their discourse (use) and in relation
to other words (context) for segmentation of meaning:
Sub-category 1: The faculty of intellectual discernment and interpretation, the existence of
which implies a purpose. The skill effectual in cunning sacred works (Exod 31:3; 35:31; 36:1; 1 King
7:14); effectual creative skill attributed to God (Ps 136:5); infinite understanding of the poor and the proud
(Ps 147:5); God gives the faculty of understanding for a purpose, walking uprightly (Prov 2:6); the LORD’s
understanding is invincible (Prov 21:30); the LORD’s understanding is unfathomable (Isa 40:28); the
negative skill faculty in devising idols (Isa 44:19; Hos 13:2).
Sub-category 2: The exercise of that intellectual faculty of discernment and interpretation as a
way of life or action. An unwise generation devoid of correct living (Deut 32:28); the exercise of
understanding in the role of ruler (1 King 4:29); the exercise of God’s understanding shatters sea-monsters,
i.e., resistance (Job 26:12); the exercise of thought, ridiculed by Elihu (Job 32:11); the decision-making
heart meditates in understanding (Ps 49:3); the skillful exercise of leadership (Ps 78:72); the exercise of the
will as understanding (Prov 2:2); synonymous with ‫ בִּינָה‬in exercising Godly qualities in life (Prov 2:3); the
ear of obedience is inclined in exercise of understanding (Prov 5:1); the implied exercise of understanding
for the right way (Prov 8:1); exercising appropriate silence (Prov 11:12); exercising slowness to anger
exalts wisdom (Prov 14:29); the exercise of an unruffled spirit (Prov 17:27); the sinful rebellious fool seeks
to air his own opinion, the opposite exercise of understanding (Prov 18:2); good Godly counsel is retrieved
through the exercise of understanding (Prov 20:5); the extortionate leader lacks as understanding as a way
of life and rule (Prov 28:16); the way of understanding inherent within God’s character (Isa 40:14); the
exercise by God in the extension of the heavens (Jer 10:12; 51:15); in the negative, the lack disables
discernment of traps in life (Oba 1:7); in the negative, the lack of understanding in the tribe of Esau brought
God’s judgment (Oba 1:8). Also, compare the parallel and inherent idea of this sub-category with a good
understanding, ‫שׂכֶל‬
ֵ , is possessed by all those who do the will of the Lord (Ps 111:10).
Sub-category 3: The product of that intellectual faculty of discernment and interpretation in
word or deed as achieving godly results, or not. The product of those with understanding is long life (Job
12:12); counsel and understanding are a product from God (Job 12:13); the product of understanding will
watch and guard (Prov 2:11); accomplishes understanding, a product including days and riches (Prov 3:13);
the orderly product of the arrangement of the heavens (Prov 3:19); the product from doing wisdom (Prov
10:23); expressed in walking uprightly (Prov 15:21); the product of understanding is to fare well (Prov
19:8); the establishment of an expanding righteous household, first founded in wisdom (Prov 24:3); the
negative ungodly products of fallen understanding (Ezek 28:4).
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Basic Meaning and Categorical Usage of ‫ָח ְכ ָמה‬
‫ ָח ְכ ָמה‬in the Old Testament and Proverbs
All 149 usages of ‫ ָח ְכמָה‬were examined in their discourse (use) and in relation
to other words (context) for segmentation of meaning:
Sub-category 1: Practical expertise for tangible and technical results. The purpose of the
exercise of this practical expertise in Exodus is probably the phenomenological expression of eternal truths
emanating from God expressed in worship premises physicality (Exod 28:3; 31:3,6; 35:26,31,35; 36:1,2);
Hiram of Tyre with expertise in bronze, especially for the bronze laver for cleansing sacrifices (1 Kgs
7:14); God made His works, the earth and all it possesses (Ps 104: 24); sailors reel helplessly in their skills
as seamen confronted with tempest (Ps 107:28); the Lord laid earth’s foundation (Prov 3:19); Wisdom
builds a “house”, i.e. probably metaphorical for initiation of the household’s relationship with God (Prov
24:3); God made the earth by His power (Jer 10:12; 51:15).
Sub-category 2: Expertise sourced or assessed in reading and culture, an expertise not so used
in Proverbs. Solomon’s wisdom exceeded that of the men of the East, and Egypt (1 Ki 4:30 3x); men of all
nations came in homage to the greatness of Solomon’s expertise (1 Kgs 4:34 2x); the assessments and
comparative explanations of the Queen of Sheba (1 Kgs 10:4, 6, 7, 8, 23, 24); comparative accolades from
the Queen of Sheba (2 Chr 9:3,5,6,7); the assessment that Solomon’s wisdom exceeded all the kings of the
earth in wealth and wisdom, expressed in homage from the kings of the earth (2 Chr 9 :22,23); Solomon
compares his wisdom against contemporary culture and history of those before him in Jerusalem (Eccl 1:16
2x); the wisdom found of their pagan wise men will be ‘hid’ versus the revelation of God (Isa 29:14).
Sub-category 3: Expertise in interpreting signs and text. The rewards of wisdom are both
present and future, perhaps reflecting both temporal and eschatological as used here (Prov 24:14); Agur has
not learned the wisdom from God, here parallel with knowledge of the Holy One (Prov 30:3); reflecting in
interpretation of all things done ‘under heaven’ (Eccl 1:13); interpretation of a matter, here deemed
transcendental (Eccl 8:1); human wisdom and divination deludes men from comprehending/seeing God’s
coming judgment as they feel secure in their wickedness (Isa 47:10); the human wise men who reject the
word of the Lord have no wisdom (Jer 8:9); the wise man is not to glory in his wisdom, i.e., his human
interpretation versus that of God in which God delights (Jer 9:22); in contrast to the ‘Prince of Tyre,’ a
man, there is the mysterious transcendental ‘King of Tyre’ with the ‘seal of perfection’ equilibrated to the
‘full of wisdom’ who corrupted his wisdom in profane use and was judged (Ezek 28:12, 17); underlying
basis of visions and dreams (Dan 1:17); Daniel had a power superior to the astrologers and magicians of the
king (Dan 1:20).
Sub-category 4: Expertise in formulating plans and strategies. Wisdom enabled Joshua in his
role as administrative and battlefield conqueror (Deut 34:9); the stratagem of corporal punishment drives
wisdom (Ps 29:15); as opposed to the one walking in his own mortal insights, the wise will be delivered
(Prov 28:26); the father is made glad by the son who exercises wisdom in his life, as opposed to wasting
with harlots (Prov 29:3); the skill and stratagems of the ingenious saved a city(Eccl 9:13, 15); these skills
and stratagems of the ingenious are better than military valor (Eccl 9:16 [2x]); these skills and stratagems
of the ingenious are better than weapons of war (Eccl 9:18); calamity comes upon Edom as God mocks
their ‘wisdom’, i.e., warfare wisdom against His judgment to be exercised (Jer 49:7 [2x]); the ‘Prince of
Tyre,’ a man, by evil exercise of his skill and shrewdness has gotten his wealth by that ‘wisdom’ (Ezek
28:4, 5, 7).
Sub-category 5: Expertise in exercising good judgment in administration and practical
matters. Joab’s cunning wisdom traps David into bringing back Absalom again (2 Sam 14:20); nobody’s
100
fool, the old woman has Bichri’s head lopped off and tossed over the wall to Joab, the practical warrior (2
Sam 20:22); David in his old age sees clearly now the ramifications of Joab, and turns the tables on Joab (1
Kgs 2:6); Solomon and the sword versus the baby claimed by two women (1 Kgs 3:28); the encompassing
nature of Solomon’s actions and reign as King (1 Kgs 11:41); the basis for a king to lead his people (2 Chr
1:10, 11, 12); men unfortunately die in the course of their lives without having wisdom (Job 4:21); mortals
exercise (Job 12:2); comes with age (Job 12:12); silence equals wisdom, probably speaking to dependence
on God (Job 13:5); men think narrowly of wisdom as sourcing in themselves (Job 15:8); Bildad lacks the
wisdom to give wisdom to another (Job 26:3); the erroneous idea that wisdom comes with age, used as a
form of insult (Job 32:7; cf. Job 12:12); men’s assessment of Job (Job 32:13); Elihu presumes to teach (Job
33:33); fools despise wisdom (Prov 1:7); wisdom is on the lips of the discerning (Prov 10:13); wisdom
becomes inherent within a man of understanding (Prov 10:23); the mouth of the righteous emits wisdom
(Prov 10:31); the humble have it (Prov 11:2); wisdom resides with the well-advised (Prov 13:10); the
scorner can’t find it (Prov 14:6); with wisdom, men can find their way (Prov 14:8); wisdom resides in the
decision-making process of him who has understanding (Prov 14:33); fools can’t buy it, they trust not God
(Prov 17:16); wisdom is in the presence of the understanding one (Prov 17:24); the virtuous woman
dispenses wisdom in kindness (Prov 31:26); wisdom clumped in with the negative human expression with
madness and folly (Eccl 1:17); wisdom seen through human lens as much wisdom equals much grief (Eccl
1:18); Solomon applies his wisdom to know folly, a negative pursuit of judgment (Eccl 2:3); wisdom
remains with Solomon even in his negative expression(Eccl 2: 9, 12); in comparison, the exercise of good
judgment excels folly (Eccl 2: 13); one dies and leaves the fruit of good judgment in practical matters to the
unworthy (Eccl 2:21); wisdom in the negative to infer former days the better, i.e., apply your human
wisdom to today (Eccl 7:10); as with an inheritance (Eccl 7:11); as knowing that wisdom equals protection
and life (Eccl 7:12 [2x]); as knowing that wisdom is better than a city ruled by ten rulers, i.e., “so what”
their collective human intelligence (Eccl 7:19); even the exercise of human wisdom cannot test all that
comes into your reflection and testing and living (Eccl 7:23); a human decision of the heart to seek out
wisdom (Eccl 7:25); as a negative encouragement from knowing that there is no wisdom in sheol (Eccl
9:10); foolishness is so powerful an anti-type to wisdom that only a little taints and outweighs wisdom
(Eccl 10:1); wisdom is required for success like having first a sharpened axe (Eccl 10:10); foundation for
administration exercised and evident as wisdom (Dan 1:4)
Sub-category 6:
a) Expertise sourced in God for right living. So that the nations would call them a wise and
understanding people (Deut 4:6); Solomon’s wisdom given by God in great measure and associated with
accomplishing God’s divine plan; see “from the lips of God to me,” Job 23:12; Ps 17:4; Mal 2:6-7 (1 Kgs
4:29); given from God to Solomon (1 Kgs 5:12); 1 Chr 28:21 (Levites assisting and exercising duties in the
Temple for Solomon (1 Chr 28:21); the secrets of wisdom are from God (Job 11:6); wisdom with God (Job
12:13); Job 28:12 (wisdom from God); this wisdom from God is priceless (Job 28:18); from God (Job
28:20); the fear of God equals wisdom (Job 28:28); wisdom from God (Job 38:36); only God possesses the
wisdom to be able to count the clouds, perhaps a metaphor for the intangible vaporous mysteries of all
noumenal and phenomenal creation (Job 38:37); God chooses not to endow the ostrich with wisdom, a
metaphorical comparison to his precious gifting to man such basic aspects of wisdom as those the ostrich
lacks, and as the last use in Job may be significant (Job 39:17); wisdom emanates from the mouth of the
righteous of God (Ps 37:30); God made David know wisdom (Ps 51:6); God teaches us with the result we
gain a heart of wisdom (Ps 90:12); the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Ps 111:10); given by
God so that the nations would call them a wise and understanding people (Deut 4:6); the secrets of wisdom
are from God (Job 11:6); God made David know wisdom (Ps 51:6); sourced in God (Prov 1:2 and see 2:6);
be attentive to wisdom and its source in God (Solomon as a teacher is a proxy for its ultimate source in
God, Prov 2:2; again see Prov 2:6); the Lord gives wisdom (Prov 2:6); one is blessed to find wisdom from
the Lord (Prov 3:13); get wisdom from the father and mother (Prov 4:5, 7 [2x]); be attentive (Prov 5:1);
wisdom has a way which is taught (Prov 8:11); the fear of the Lord the beginning of wisdom (Prov 9:10);
the fear of the Lord is the instruction for wisdom (Prov 15:33); wisdom is better than gold, i.e., better than
the most valuable non-divine source (Prov 16:16); wisdom is a bubbling brook, metaphor for divine source
(Prov 18:4); wisdom is supreme with God, there is no human opposition possible (Prov 21:30); get wisdom
from God (Prov 23:23); God gives wisdom to the one who pleases Him (Eccl 2:26); human wisdom cannot
fathom the activity done on earth, i.e., but God can (Eccl 8:16); by means of wisdom, it is God who judges
101
the earth (Isa 10:13); wisdom from God resting upon the stem from Jesse (Isa 11:2; this is genitive of
effect, the Spirit that causes wisdom); 7 a wealth of wisdom from God is the stability of their times (Is 33:6).
b) Expertise sourced in personified Wisdom for right living. Wisdom called my sister,
personified (Prov 7:4; 8:1); whose value is above rubies (Prov 8:11); and who dwells with prudence (Prov
8:12). [Note that ‫ ָחכְמוֹת‬occurs six times in the OT, with four times in Proverbs (Judg 5:29; Ps 49:4; Prov
1:20; 9:1; 14:1; 24:7). Weeks states: “this abnormal form, whether it be an archaic, a foreign or an intensive
form, is apparently used to highlight the personification of Wisdom when she makes her speeches.” Stuart
Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 195-96].
7
Waltke, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 9.5.2c.
102
APPENDIX C
Sub-Categories of Wisdom, Knowledge, and Understanding by Fox, Waltke, and Shupak
Table G-1 ‫ָח ְכמָה‬
Fox
Broad definition: “Capacity of the
human mind to determine the
right course of behavior and to
apply this knowledge in achieving
a successful life. But different
periods understand this capacity
differently” (2: 921). It is a
“global intellectual power that
can be called upon in all
endeavors and that is inherently
righteous and almost always
effective” (1:33)
1. A high degree of knowledge
and skill in any domain [that]
combines a broad faculty
(including the powers of reason,
discernment, clearness) and
knowledge (communicable
information, that which is known
and can be learned). (1:32).
Waltke 8
Broad definition: “‘Wisdom’
(Heb. ḥokmâ) means generally
‘masterful understanding,’ ‘skill,’
‘expertise’” (1:76). “He [God]
gave the law in theophanies to
Moses, his interpretation of that
law in visions and auditions to
prophets, and his wisdom to
supplement it through the keen
observations, cogent reflections,
and faith of the wise.” (1:76).
Shupak
Broad definition: “ḥokmâ is
multifaceted and encompasses
various walks of life. It can
designate technical skill or
manual work . . . legal acumen
and leadership qualities in the
king . . . or knowledge, i.e., fear,
of God” (239-242).
Ḥokmâ has a religious dimension,
for its wisdom includes
knowledge of the Holy One
himself (see 9:10; 30:3). (1:78).
“Wisdom consists in transcending
the fallen human world and
participating in the divine, the
holy” (1:442). “Wisdom as
defined in this book is dependent
on a personal relationship with
God, who stands apart from the
restrictions of finitude and
depravity (cf. 2:1-5).” (2:470)
Knowledge, i.e., fear, of God
(239). Wisdom in two stages:
“The early wisdom in Israel, too,
was multifaceted: natural
wisdom, possessed by certain
human beings . . . and also
among animals . . . technical and
professional wisdom, the talent
of the craftsman . . . and wisdom
learned through proverbs,
encyclopaedic lists, and songs.
But already in the early stage this
wisdom is determined by God:
‘There is no wisdom (ḥokmâ) nor
understanding (tebûnâ) nor
counsel (‘ēṣâ) against Yahweh . .
. Man, then, may have his own
inner thoughts, but his external
conduct is ultimately decided by
God’ . . . by the end of this
process wisdom is identified with
religious belief. ‘The fear of
Yahweh is the beginning of
wisdom.’” (Prov 21:30; 16:9;
16:1; 16:2; 19:21; 20:24). (272).
2. Expertise . . . with the proviso
that one may be an ‘expert’ in
right living and good character.
(1:33)
3. Wisdom as manifested in the
8
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004), 76-78.
103
domains of knowledge. (1:33)
(a) Craftsmanship (“skill”)
Technical and artistic skills (1:76)
Technical skill or manual work
which relate to the common folk
(239). Practical wisdom, as
technical skill (240).
(b) Knowledge gained through
the study of books and lore
(“learning;” “erudition” if
extensive)
(c) The ability to understand the
implications of situations and
interpret signs and text
(“perceptiveness,” astuteness,”
“reasoning ability”)
(d) Skill in devising strategems
and plans (“cleverness”)
Of government and diplomacy
and war (1:76)
Legal acumen and leadership
qualities in the king and his
aides. (239). Practical wisdom as
the capacity for administration,
the ability to rule and dispense
justice: This wisdom is in the
possession of the king the prince
and the advisor. This is the
wisdom granted to the messianic
king at the end of days (Isa. 11:24). (240).
Cleverness, wit (240-41),
including the natural wit of
animals. In the wisdom books
intelligence in the sense of
‘cleverness’ always has a positive
connotation, but not outside of
them, where ‘wisdom’ may be
invested with a negative tone,
especially in political situations
(241).
Understanding of trade and the
accumulation of property (240).
(e) Good judgment in practical
and interpersonal matters (“good
sense,” “prudence”; equivalent to
tebunah)
The wisdom (or skill) to judge or
to separate the guilty from the
community and so rule a nation;
wisdom also gives rulers the
cleverness to master people and
situations. (1:76)
(f) Wisdom, knowledge of right
living—“right” in both the ethical
and pragmatic senses. This aspect
of wisdom is close to English
“sagacity.”
Personified
The possession of wisdom
enables humans to cope with life
and to achieve what would
otherwise be impossible.(1:76-77)
Personified
Of the arts of magic (1:76)
Personified (267-270)
104
Table G-2 Da‘at
Fox 9
Broad definition: “Da‘at is cognition
itself—any cognition, from minimal
awareness to elevated sagacity.”
1. “Knowledge of specific facts,
propositions, or entities, such as good and
evil” . . . can mean “’knowing’ Him to
the extent of understanding his manifest
behavior and demands.”
2. Cognition as the entire range of
knowledge, including “ordinary, easily
accessible knowledge that all can have.”
3. “‘Knowledge of God’ is . . . awareness
of how God behaves in human affairs,
and it is available to all and required of
all . . . which is not true of ḥokmah.”
4. “Can be knowledge on the high end of
the spectrum and overlap ḥokmah, both
as erudition and as sagacity in living . . .
Da’at . . . means “wisdom” no less than
ḥokmah does.”
5. Knowledge can be (a) “beyond one’s
scope”; (b) “esoteric”; (c) “erudition”; (d)
“artisan’s skill” and can “be
indistinguishable from ḥokmah in that
sense.”
6. “It can occasionally refer to an innate
faculty, a capacity one may have prior to
gaining knowledge.”
Waltke 10
Broad definition:
“Wisdom is
inseparable from
knowledge
(dā‘at).”
Shupak 11
Broad definition: Da‘at is “primarily
wisdom gained by learning and
intended for practical purposes: ‘by
knowledge are the righteous delivered,’
asserts the author of Proverbs (11:9; cf.
19:2)”
1. “Knowledge is identified with ‘the
fear of Yahweh,’ a motif that has no
parallel in the Egyptian wisdom” (234)
2. “Knowledge acquired by learning
and experience” (234)
3. “A divinely endowed gift” (234)
4. “May signify knowledge of
prediction, wisdom of magicians and
astrology” (234). (Num 24:16; Isa
47:10; Dan 1:4).
9
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB
18A (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 31.
10
Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004), 77.
11
Nili Shupak, Where Can Wisdom be Found? The Sage’s Language in the Bible and in
Ancient Egyptian Literature, OBO 130 (Fribourg, Switzerland: University Press, 1993), 233-35.
105
Table G-3 ‫בִּינָה‬
Fox 12
Broad definition: The faculty
of intellectual discernment and
interpretation, the exercise of
that faculty, and the product
thereof, in words or deeds
Waltke
Broad definition: The conceptual,
interpretative activity of thought,
operating in the field of meaning; it aims
at perception and comprehension (here
Waltke quotes Fox from “Words for
Wisdom,” ZAH 6 (1993) 154). (1:96)
Reason, the intellectual faculty
used in solving problems and
deducing truths
Intellect, the ability to
comprehend meanings and
perceive relations and causes
As a raw faculty, intelligence,
though not innate
Knowledge produced by ‫בִּינָה‬,
whether one’s own or another’s
Insight into the moral order and a social
conscience that molds their activity (1:96)
The faculty of reason and intelligence
applied to the content of the sage’s
teaching (1:177)
Special knowledge,
interpretation or a particular
interpretation, of esoteric
messages
Refers to the substance of wisdom and is
equated with wisdom and the “fear of the
LORD” (1:177)
12
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 30.
Shupak
Broad definition: Mental
discernment (242) and
mental ability in man
(247). Exclusive to the
wisdom books (253).
A capacity for careful
thought and intelligent
consideration . . . acquired
by study (249).
Stresses the capacity for
mental discernment and the
reliance of the sage on his
intellectual qualities (245)
Listening precedes
understanding (67)
The father’s instruction
(Prov 4:1) is also
designated bînâ (247)
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