LABORATORY
Physiology
of the
Circulatory
System
TEACHER’S MANUAL WITH STUDENT GUIDE
74-6580
74-6581
8-Station Kit
1-Station Kit
10
Units of Measure Useful in AP® Biology
Property Measured
Unit
Symbol
Description
Length
*meter
m
100 cm = 10 2 cm
centimeter
cm
0.01 m = 10 –2 m
millimeter
mm
0.001 m = 10 –3 m
micrometer
μm
10 –6 m = 10 –3 mm
nanometer
nm
10 –9 m = 10 –3 μm
*kilogram
kg
1000 g
gram
g
1000 mg
milligram
mg
0.001 g = 10 –3 g
microgram
μg
10 –6 g
Amount of Substance
*mole
mol
6.02 x 1023 particles (atoms, ions, or molecules)
Concentration of a Solution
mass percentage
%
Mass % = mass of solute/total mass of soln. × 100
parts per million
ppm
ppm of solute = mass of solute/total mass of soln. × 10 6
or 1 ppm = 1 mg solute/L soln.
Mass
Volume (gases and liquids)
molarity
M
Molarity = moles solute/L soln.
kiloliter
kL
1000 L
liter
L
1000 mL = 1 dm3 = 10 –3 m3
milliliter
mL
mL = cm3 = 10 –3 L
microliter
μL
10 –6 L = 10 –3 mL
Temperature (thermodynamic)
*kelvin
K
K = °C + 273
Temperature (common)
Celsius
°C
0°K = –273°C
Force
newton
N
kg•m/s2
Heat or Energy
joule
J
N•m
**calorie
cal
4.184 J
**Calorie (food)
Cal
1000 calories = 1 kcal
*second
s
60 s = 1 min
millisecond
ms
10 –3 s
pascal
Pa
N/m2 = kg/m•s2
**atmosphere
atm
101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 760 torr = 14.7 lb/in2
Bar
bar
105 Pa
**Torr
torr
mm Hg = 133.3 Pa
Time
Pressure
* SI Base Unit
**Non-metric
The materials and activities in this kit meet the guidelines and academic standards of the Advanced Placement
(AP®) Program® and have been prepared by Carolina Biological Supply Company, which bears sole
responsibility for kit contents. Permission is granted to reproduce the Student Guide blackline masters at the
end of this manual for use with the materials provided in the accompanying CarolinaTM AP® Biology kit or
replacement set.
For complete listings of CarolinaTM AP® Science materials, including the Advanced Placement® Biology
Laboratory Manual for Teachers (RN-74-6681) and the Advanced Placement® Biology Laboratory Manual for
Students (RN-72-6682), log on to www.carolina.com/ or refer to the current CarolinaTM Science catalog or the
current CarolinaTM Biotechnology & AP® Biology catalog.
Advanced Placement Program and AP are registered trademarks of the College Entrance Examination Board.
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
Printed in USA
Laboratory 10. Physiology of the Circulatory System
Overview
Objectives
This lab consists of three parts. In Activity A (Measuring Blood Pressure),
students use a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope to measure blood pressure.
In Activity B (Testing Physical Fitness), students count pulse rates under
different conditions to determine their level of physical fitness. In Activity C
(Heart Rate of Daphnia), students observe the heart rate of Daphnia at
different temperatures.
• Use a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope to measure systolic and
diastolic blood pressure
• Observe the response of the human circulatory system to various factors
and use the results to determine the subject’s level of physical fitness
• Investigate the relationship of temperature and heart rate for an
ectotherm
Content
Standards
This kit is appropriate for Advanced Placement® high school students and
addresses the following National Science Education Standards:
Unifying Concepts and Processes
• Systems, order, and organization
• Evidence, models, and explanation
• Constancy, change, and measurement
Science as Inquiry
• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
• Understanding about scientific inquiry
Life Science
• Matter, energy, and organization in living systems
Time
Requirements
Activity A: 30–40 minutes
Activity B: 40 minutes
Activity C: 30–40 minutes
Note that times given above encompass lab activity time only. Time needed to
complete the Analysis of Results sections is not included.
Safety
• Use this kit only in accordance with prudent laboratory safety
precautions, including approved safety goggles, lab aprons or coats, and
gloves. Know and follow all school district guidelines for lab safety and for
disposal of laboratory wastes.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
• If an inflated sphygmomanometer cuff is left on an arm for too long, the
lack of blood supply below the cuff can result in tissue damage.
• Before beginning Activity B, determine if any student has a known
condition that would make participation as a subject undesirable. Any
such individuals can be data recorders only. On rare occasions, a student
may become dizzy or faint upon suddenly standing. Be alert for this, and if
it occurs, seat the student with his or her head lowered between the knees
until the sensation passes.
• Although it is possible for students to do activities A and B in pairs, we
recommend that students work in groups of four. This arrangement makes
one or two students available to “spot” for each test subject, to catch or
steady the subject if needed.
Preparation
and
Presentation
Photocopy the blackline master Student Guide for each student or group
of students. Photocopy the graph template at the end of the Student Guide
as needed.
If time allows, review AP® Biology Lab 5: Cell Respiration either before this lab
or at some time between the exercises of this lab. A class discussion could help
students make connections between the two labs that they might otherwise miss.
As noted in the safety section, we recommend that students perform activities
A and B as teams of four. This arrangement makes one or two students
available to intervene if a student test subject needs assistance. Moreover,
students can share and even rotate the various responsibilities necessary to
complete the activities. For example, students can assume the roles of test
subject, examiner, data recorder, and timer. You may wish to have students
switch roles and repeat the tests for another member of the group. If your
students are not to work in groups of four, modify these instructions and the
Student Guide content accordingly.
Activity A: Measuring Blood Pressure
Use alcohol swabs to clean the stethoscope earpieces before and after use. To
allow students to hear pulse sounds while taking blood pressure readings, the
noise level in the room should be minimal.
Pulse sounds are medically known as Korotkov (or Korotkoff) sounds. These
sounds are caused by the vibration of the arterial wall as spurts of blood surge
under the sphygmomanometer cuff and by the turbulent flow of the blood
squeezing through the narrowed artery into the fully opened artery below the
cuff. The sounds are used to establish the systolic and diastolic pressure levels
and are recognized through the following five phases:
Phase 1: The first sounds heard are clear tapping sounds that increase in
intensity. Systolic pressure is read as the first regular tapping sound
during deflation of the cuff.
Phase 2: During further deflation, a softer, muffled sound or murmur replaces
the clear tapping sounds of Phase 1.
Phase 3: A less clear but louder tapping sound replaces the murmur of Phase 2.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
Phase 4: A sudden change from the louder tapping of Phase 3 to a muffled,
soft, “blowing” sound can be heard. The muffling of sound at the
beginning of Phase 4 is the point at which diastolic pressure is read.
Phase 5: The sound fades. Diastolic pressure can also be read here, and is
usually closer to the true diastolic pressure. Phase 4 is used for
reading diastolic pressure because it is less variable and gives far
more reproducibility in recording the data. Often after exercise, and
in certain diseased states, the Korotkov sounds never completely
disappear. It has also been shown that it is less difficult for an
examiner to distinguish changes in sound than the disappearance of
sound, especially if there is background noise. If there is a wide
difference between the onsets of the 4th and 5th phases, the
pressure is recorded using both (i.e., 120/82/76).
Note that Korotkov sounds are not heart sounds. Heart sounds can be heard
by placing the bell of a stethoscope over the heart. The heart sounds are a
continuous “lubb-dub” sound. The “lubb” is the sound of vibrations set up by
the closing of the valves between the atria and the ventricles and by the
opening of the valves between the ventricles and the arteries. This occurs
when the ventricles contract. The “dub” is the sound of vibrations set up by
the closing of the valves between the ventricles and the arteries.
Activity B: Testing Physical Fitness
For the step test, students need stools or steps that are 45–50 cm
(approximately18″) high, as well as a stopwatch or other timing device.
Activity C: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Note: This kit includes a coupon for prepaid delivery of a Daphnia magna
culture. Return the coupon two to three weeks prior to the desired delivery
date to ensure timely arrival of the culture. Use the Daphnia culture as soon
after receipt as possible. Daphnia are especially sensitive to metal ions in
solution, so avoid exposing the animals to metal instruments or to water that
has been in metal pipes.
In most cases you will have to cut back the tips of the dropping pipets to
create an opening large enough to admit the Daphnia. The Daphnia should be
large enough that they will become trapped between the two depression slides
and unable to move. If the Daphnia are small enough to swim around in the
chamber formed by two depression slides, it will be necessary to immobilize
them. Do this by adding a few cotton fibers to the water in the depression.
The Daphnia will become entangled in the fibers and unable to move. The
fibers might partially obscure one side of the animal, so students may have to
view both sides of the slide to find the least obstructed view of the heart.
At a minimum, students should have access to water baths of three different
temperatures: room temperature, above room temperature, and below room
temperature. However, access to four or more water baths is better, especially
if you expect students to calculate a Q10 value for Daphnia (see Optional
Activities) If you do not have temperature-controlled water baths, use
insulated containers and thermometers. A temperature range of 5˚C to 35˚C
is suitable for testing Daphnia.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
Station Setup
Following is a list of the materials needed for one group of students to perform
the exercises in this lab. Prepare as many setups as needed for your class.
Note: Four classroom blood pressure sets (sphygmomanometer and
stethoscope) are included with the eight-station kit. Two teams of four
students should share each set of instruments. You may wish to have some
groups take and record blood pressure readings (Activity A and Activity B,
Test 1) while other groups begin measuring pulse rates for the physical fitness
tests (Activity B, Tests 2–5).
sphygmomanometer
stethoscope
alcohol swab
*stool or chair
*stopwatch or clock with
second hand
living Daphnia magna
dropping pipet
depression well slide
cotton ball (optional)
petri dish
*rubber band
*cup or beaker
*stereomicroscope
Exercise A
1
1
2
Exercise B
1
1
2
1
Exercise C
1
1
1
1 or 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
*Not supplied.
Troubleshooting
As you might expect, Korotkov sounds are more distinct in larger, more
muscular, more physically fit individuals. It may be difficult to hear Korotkov
sounds when working with a person at the other end of the body-build
spectrum. Although it is unlikely, you may identify a student for whom it is not
possible to obtain blood pressure data under classroom conditions. If so, have
the student record his or her partner’s data and then allow the partner to take
someone else’s blood pressure.
Students may be confused by the scoring of Test 1 in which a higher score is
awarded for an increase in systolic pressure. This is a test for the baroreceptor
response time, which is generally quicker in more physically fit individuals.
Upon standing, blood pressure drops. This is because there is a lag time in the
baroreceptor response to the new position, allowing blood to pool in the lower
part of the body and resulting in a drop in blood pressure. This response time
is shorter in more physically fit people; thus, some students may respond
before their blood pressure can be taken, and they will show an increase in
systolic pressure.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
Counting the heartbeat of Daphnia in Activity C can be challenging. Some
students may not be able to keep track accurately by counting silently. These
students may do better by tapping a pencil point on paper in time with the
heartbeat. At the end of 10 seconds, the number of pencil tics are counted
and multiplied by 6 to give the heart rate.
Sample Answers
to Questions in
the Student Guide
Activity B: Testing Physical Fitness
Analysis of Results
1. What is your age in years?
Answers will vary. Note that age will affect the answers given for maximum
heart rate and target heart rates.
For your age, give the following:
My maximum heart rate is approximately 202 beats per minute.
(220 – 18 = 202)
My target heart rate is between 101 (low) and 152 (high) beats per minute.
(202 × 0.50 = 101); (202 × 0.75 = 151.5)
2. Compare the results of Test 1 with the combined results of tests 3 and 4.
Do you see a possible relationship between these results? If so, explain.
Include the major body structures and organs involved and describe
their roles.
Answers should reflect the data collected. Physically fit individuals should see
that their blood pressure responds rapidly to the change but their pulse rate
changes little, reflecting the greater stroke volume of their hearts. Students at the
other extreme should find the opposite. Major organ systems and organs
mentioned may include the heart, baroreceptors, medulla, arterioles, and veins.
Some may also list the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve systems, adrenal
gland, kidney, and liver.
3. List the variables you tested in Activity B and their effect(s).
• Body position: standing vs. reclining. Answers should reflect the data collected
and should include effects on blood pressure and pulse rate.
• Change in body position from reclining to standing. Answers should reflect the
data collected.
• Effect of exercise on pulse rate. Answers should reflect the data collected.
4. Why is it important that the subject’s arm be at heart level when taking
blood pressure measurements?
Altering the position of the arm would introduce another variable. If the arm is
elevated above the heart, this might decrease the measured blood pressure
because the blood is being pumped upward against the pull of gravity. If the arm
is lowered, blood may tend to pool in the arm, increasing the pressure. Students
may also argue that raising the arm will increase the blood pressure because the
heart must pump the blood to a higher point. (Note: A class discussion can
help students realize that blood pressure is not the same in all parts of the
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
circulatory system, something that they might not otherwise grasp.
Students could design and conduct an experiment to test this variable.)
5. Consider two large mammals: a giraffe and a rhinoceros. If both animals
were standing and relaxed, which would you expect to have the higher
blood pressure? Explain your answer.
The giraffe would have the higher blood pressure because its heart must pump
blood upward to the head, which is elevated far above the heart. In contrast, the
rhino’s head is carried at about the level of its heart.
6. An astronaut’s pulse rate on the day before launch is 65 beats per minute.
After three weeks in orbit, the astronaut returns to earth. Would you
expect the astronaut’s pulse rate to have changed? Explain your answer.
In orbit, the astronaut’s heart will not have to beat forcefully enough to
overcome gravity; thus, the heart will weaken slightly over the three-week
period. Upon returning to earth, the heart must beat more quickly to supply the
same amount of blood as before. Some students may argue that the astronaut
can offset this effect by exercising vigorously while in space. Students may also
be aware of other factors such as the loss of blood volume that results from
prolonged weightlessness. (Note: The effect of prolonged weightlessness on
the cardiovascular system has been a subject of intense study, and a huge
amount of information is available on the Internet. This would be a good
subject for a report.)
Activity C: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Sample Table 3: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Temperature ˚C
Heartbeats/10 sec
Heart rate in beats/min
(Heartbeats/10 sec × 6)
7
25
150
12
38
228
15
53
318
18
61
366
24
72
432
Analysis of Results
Graph the temperature and heart rate data of Daphnia. Title the graph and
supply the following information:
a. The independent variable is temperature (°C).
b. The dependent variable is heart rate (beats/minute).
Plot the independent variable on the x-axis, and the dependent variable on
the y-axis.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
Sample Graph
Daphnia Heart Rate at Different Temperatures
Daphnia Heart Rate at Different Temperatures
Title: ___________________________________________________________________________
Heart Rate (beats/min)
500
400
300
200
100
5
10
15
20
25
30
Temperature (˚C)
1. Write a hypothesis that this experiment is designed to test.
The heart rate of Daphnia will increase as temperature increases.
2. From your graph, how much must the temperature rise to double the heart
rate of Daphnia? Round your answer to the nearest 1°C.
Answers will vary according to the data collected (i.e., ~10°C).
3. Why does temperature change affect the heart rate of Daphnia?
The body temperature of ectothermic organisms increases as environmental
temperature increases. As body temperature increases, the rate of chemical
reactions and physiological activities within the organism increase. Students may
discuss the rate of enzyme reactions vs. temperature. The rate of cellular
respiration increases, requiring more oxygen and producing more carbon dioxide.
This requires an increased flow of blood, which is pumped by the heart.
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
4. Suppose that you repeated this experiment by measuring the heart rates of
a person immersed in water at different temperatures, and then graphed
the results. Predict how the graph might compare to your graph of
Daphnia heart rate.
The test subject’s heart rate would show little change, so there would be little
slope to the graph. Humans are endotherms and regulate their internal
temperature at a relatively constant level, so a person’s heart rate would not
change significantly with environmental temperature change. Some students may
be aware of the human “diving reflex” and take that into account in their
answer. Some might argue that the shock of being immersed in cold water would
cause an increase in the heart rate. Some might argue that if the person were
immersed in cold water long enough to affect core body temperature, then
metabolism and heart rate would increase. All of these arguments, if presented
in a logical manner, are acceptable.
5. Give at least three examples of how being ectothermic affects the behavior
of reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles, etc.).
Ectothermic organisms accomplish thermoregulation primarily through changes
in behavior. They move to warm areas when it is necessary to raise their body
temperature and they move to cool areas when it is necessary to lower their body
temperature. For example, many desert lizards spend the night in cool
underground burrows and raise their body temperature each morning by sitting
in the sun and absorbing solar radiation. If their body temperature rises too high,
they will move to the shade or return to their burrow. Water turtles often bask in
the sun to raise their body temperature so they can actively swim in cold water.
Most reptiles hibernate during winter when temperatures are too low for them to
be active. Other examples are possible.
Optional
Activities
Perhaps more than any other AP® Biology lab, this one lends itself to the
genesis of independent student research projects. Here are a few as examples,
but student discussion should generate many more.
Question 4 of Activity B considers the effect of raising or lowering the arm
being used to take blood pressure. Students can design an experiment to test
this effect. An interesting related question is whether or not raising the other
arm would have an effect. Would supporting a weight with the other arm have
an effect? What about pedaling a stationary bike or doing curls with a
dumbbell while having blood pressure taken?
Does improved physical fitness really bring about the changes implied by the
tests in Activity B? This would require a commitment of several weeks, if not
months, by a student or students in the mid- or lower-range of the fitness
rating, but the results would certainly be enlightening.
Students could be challenged to select one of the tests from Activity B and
redesign it as a scientific experiment.
Question 4 of Activity C explores the effect on heart rate of placing a person
in water of different temperatures. Although this might not be practical, would
there be any effect from placing a hand in ice water, room temperature water,
and warm water? Would the effect diminish over a period of several minutes or
would it persist?
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Laboratory
10.
Physiology
of
the
Circulatory
System
Daphnia has been used to test for the effects on heart rate of a bewildering
variety of substances. A brief Internet search will likely turn up dozens of
ideas, everything from aspirin to zinc oxide.
The Advanced Placement® Biology Laboratory Manual for Teachers recommends
calculating a Q10 value from the data collected in Activity C. It gives two
methods for a Q10 determination. The examples shown here are based on the
Sample Graph given above for heart rate at 10°C and 20°C.
Note that the first method works only when the difference between the higher
and lower temperatures is 10°C.
Q10 =
Rate at higher temperature
Rate at a lower temperature
=
385
= 1.97
195
The more general formula, which can be used for any temperature interval is:
Q10 =
k2
k1
(10 / t 2 – t 1 )
where
t1 = lower temperature
t2 = higher temperature
k1 = rate at temperature t1
k2 = rate at temperature t2
From this formula the Q10 for the interval between 10°C and 20°C is
calculated as follows:
⎛ 385 ⎞
Q10 = ⎜
⎟
⎝ 195 ⎠
(10/20 – 10)
⎛ 385 ⎞
= ⎜
⎟
⎝ 195 ⎠
(10/10)
= (1.97)1 = (1.97)
Students may also be able to use data collected in Lab 5 to calculate a Q10 for
oxygen consumption by germinating seeds.
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Name/Group #
Date
Student Guide
AP® Biology Laboratory 10
Physiology of the Circulatory System
Objectives
• Use a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope to measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure
• Observe the response of the human circulatory system to various factors and use the results to
determine the subject’s level of physical fitness
• Investigate the relationship of temperature and heart rate for an ectotherm
Background to Activity A
The survival of any organism depends on its ability to establish an internal environment that will keep
individual cells alive and healthy. The maintenance of this internal environment in a steady state is called
homeostasis. In complex organisms such as humans, homeostasis can only be maintained with a transport
system that meets a wide range of needs. The blood, heart, and circulatory vessels carry out the necessary
transport function. Contraction of the ventricles of the heart forces blood into the arteries and causes an
increase in blood pressure. As the ventricles relax, blood pressure drops. As a result, blood pressure cycles
between a high and a low. The highest pressure reached in the cycle is called the systolic pressure and the
lowest pressure reached is the diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is expressed as the height in millimeters
that it will raise a column of mercury (mm Hg). The systolic pressure is written first and the diastolic
pressure second (e.g., 120/80 mm Hg). Baroreceptors located in the carotid arteries and aortic arch
constantly monitor blood pressure and send nerve impulses to the brain. The brain sends nerve impulses
to the heart, arterioles, and other organs to increase or decrease the blood pressure as needed.
It is standard medical procedure to take blood pressure
readings in the brachial artery of the arm, at the level
of the heart. Blood pressure is routinely measured with
a sphygmomanometer (Figure 1). The
sphygmomanometer consists of an inflatable cuff, a
pump, a gauge graduated in millimeters of mercury,
and an exhaust valve with a screw control. The cuff is
wrapped around the upper arm just above the elbow
and then inflated. The examiner listens for sounds
from the brachial artery by placing the bell of a
stethoscope on the inside of the elbow below the
biceps. When the pressure in the cuff exceeds that in
the artery, the artery collapses and blood flow stops.
The pressure in the cuff is allowed to fall gradually by
Figure 1. Using a sphygmomanometer
opening the exhaust valve. As the pressure in the cuff
drops, it reaches a point at which the pressure of the blood forces the artery open slightly, allowing a
turbulent flow of blood to pass. The turbulence sets up vibrations in the artery that are heard as sounds
in the stethoscope (called Korotkov sounds). When the sound first becomes audible, it is a sharp
thumping. The cuff pressure at which the sound is first heard is read as the systolic blood pressure. As
pressure in the cuff decreases, the sharp thumping sound becomes louder and then muffles. The cuff
pressure at which the sound disappears is read as the diastolic pressure.
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-1
Activity A: Measuring Blood Pressure
Materials
Sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, alcohol swabs, timer.
Introduction
For this activity, you will work in groups of four and will take turns measuring each other’s blood
pressure using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope. One of you will serve as the test subject, one as
the examiner, one as the data recorder, and one as the timer. Then you will switch roles and repeat the
activity. Note: These lab results are determined for experimental purposes only. They are not a substitute for
regular, professional health care and diagnosis.
Procedure
Timing is important, so read the instructions before you begin the activity. The test subject should be
seated, with sleeves (if any) rolled up. The experimenter should:
• Clean the earpieces of the stethoscope with an alcohol swab before and after use.
• Never leave an inflated cuff on anyone’s arm for more than a few seconds.
1. Inspect the sphygmomanometer. Be certain that the exhaust valve is open and that the cuff is
completely deflated.
2. Wrap the cuff snugly, but not tightly, around the upper arm 2 to 3 cm above the bend in the elbow.
3. Place the bell of the stethoscope directly below the cuff in the bend of the elbow.
4. Close the exhaust valve of the bulb (pump) and rapidly inflate the cuff by squeezing the bulb until
the pressure gauge goes past 200 mm Hg.
5. Open the exhaust valve just enough to allow the pressure to drop slowly, by about 2–5 mm Hg/sec.
6. As the pressure falls, listen with the stethoscope for the first appearance of a clear thumping or
tapping sound. The pressure at which you first hear this sound is the systolic pressure. Record the
systolic pressure in Table 1.
7. Continue to listen as the pressure falls. The sound will become muffled and then louder. When the
sound disappears, note the pressure. Record this measurement in Table 1 as the diastolic pressure.
8. Open the exhaust valve to completely deflate the cuff. Allow the subject to relax for 30 to 60
seconds before proceeding.
9. Repeat steps 1 through 8 two more times, to complete trials 2 and 3. Determine the subject’s
average systolic and diastolic pressures.
Table 1: Blood Pressure While Seated
Systolic
Diastolic
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Total
Average
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-2
Background to Activity B
At rest, a human heart beats about 72 times each minute and pumps 5–6 liters of blood. As a person begins
to exercise, tissues need more oxygen. The heart responds by increasing its beats per minute and thus
increasing the volume of blood circulated. Eventually the heart reaches a point at which it is physically
impossible for it to fill with blood and contract any faster. This is its maximum heart rate. Because all
normal hearts have the same structure and are made of the same tissues, the maximum heart rate is much
the same for everyone at the same age. As we grow older, our heart tissues become less elastic, and the
maximum heart rate decreases. Your maximum heart rate is approximately 220 minus your age.
Because the heart is largely muscle, activity causes it to increase in strength and size. This increases its
stroke volume, the amount of blood ejected per beat. Consider two people running around a track at the
same pace. They are identical in age, gender, body mass, and so on, but one is more physically fit than
the other. Their hearts must pump the same volume of blood per minute, but the more physically fit
heart can accomplish this with fewer beats. As the two run faster, their heart rates will increase until
they reach their maximum rates. Although both hearts have the same maximum rate, the less physically
fit heart will reach its maximum sooner, because it pumps less blood per beat. Thus, over a distance, the
more physically fit heart will allow its owner to win the race.
Target heart rates are used as a way to pace your efforts when you exercise. Pacing yourself is especially
important for sedentary individuals beginning a new exercise program. Your target heart rate is 50–75%
of your maximum heart rate. By periodically monitoring your pulse as you exercise and by attaining your
target heart rate, you can effectively and safely receive the benefits of being physically active. When
beginning an exercise program, aim at the lowest part of your target zone (50% of your maximum heart
rate). Gradually build up to the higher part of your target zone (75% of your maximum heart rate). After
six months or more of regular exercise, you might be able to exercise comfortably up to 85% of your
maximum heart rate, if you wish—but you do not have to exercise that hard to stay in good condition.
Activity B: Testing Physical Fitness
Materials
Sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, alcohol swabs, timer.
Introduction
Physical fitness involves many components and can be defined in many ways (a champion gymnast, for
example, might perform poorly in a marathon). The following tests are chosen to determine the ability of
your cardiovascular system to adapt to change. This is one measure of general physical fitness. As you
proceed, be alert to signs of dizziness or faintness in the test subject and be ready to steady or catch the
subject if you are needed. Notify your teacher of any medical condition that might make it inadvisable
for you to participate in any of these tests.
Procedure
Figure 2. Taking the pulse rate
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
You will work in groups of four. One student will
serve as the test subject, one as the examiner, one
as the data recorder, and one as the timer.
Familiarize yourself with the procedures before you
begin. Test 1 involves taking systolic pressure with a
sphygmomanometer. The other tests require taking
the pulse rate. The pulse can be taken at the wrist
as shown in Figure 2.
S-3
Test 1: Systolic Blood Pressure From Reclining to Standing
1. The subject should recline for five minutes. After five minutes, take the subject’s systolic pressure
and record it in Table 2.
2. The subject should remain reclining for two minutes after Step 1 and then stand up with arms down
at the sides. Immediately take the systolic pressure and record the data in Table 2.
Caution: It is possible to become dizzy after standing in this manner. If the test subject becomes unsteady,
becomes pale, or complains of feeling faint, seat them at once. Instruct them to lower their head between
their knees and keep it down until the sensation passes.
3. Determine the change in systolic pressure by subtracting the reclining systolic pressure from the
standing systolic pressure. Record this data in Table 2.
Table 2:
Change in Systolic Pressure From Reclining to Standing
Reclining Systolic Pressure
Standing Systolic Pressure
Change in Systolic Pressure
(Standing – Reclining)
Score points for Test 1:
Change (mm Hg)
Points
rise of 8 or more
3
rise of 2–7
2
no rise
1
fall of 2–5
0
fall of 6 or more
–1
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-4
Test 2: Standing Pulse Rate
1. The subject should stand at ease for two minutes after completing Test 1. During this time, the
subject should avoid moving his or her legs.
2. After two minutes have passed, count the subject’s pulse rate for 30 seconds. Multiply the rate by 2
to get beats per minute.
Standing pulse rate = ___________ beats/minute
Score points for Test 2:
Beats/min
Points
60–70
3
71–80
3
81–90
2
91–100
1
101–110
1
111–120
0
121–130
0
131–140
–1
Test 3: Reclining Pulse Rate
1. The subject should recline for five minutes. (Note: After this test, the subject should remain
reclining for the beginning of Test 4.)
2. After five minutes have passed, count the subject’s pulse rate for 30 seconds. Multiply the rate by 2
to get beats per minute.
Reclining pulse rate = ___________ beats/minute
Score points for Test 3:
Beats/min
Points
50–60
3
61–70
3
71–80
2
81–90
1
91–100
0
101–110
–1
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-5
Test 4: Pulse Rate From Reclining to Standing
1. Have the subject (still reclining from Test 3) stand up.
2. Immediately take the subject’s pulse. Count the number of beats for 30 seconds, then multiply the
rate by 2 to get beats per minute.
Pulse rate immediately upon standing = ___________ beats/min
3. Now, subtract the reclining pulse rate determined in Test 3 from the pulse rate immediately upon
standing to get the pulse rate increase upon standing.
_________________ – _________________ = ________________
pulse upon standing – reclining rate, Test 3 = pulse rate increase
Score points for Test 4:
Reclining
Pulse
(beats/min)
Points
Pulse Rate Increase Upon Standing (# beats)
0–10
11–18
19–26
27–34
35–43
50–60
3
3
2
1
0
61–70
3
2
1
0
–1
71–80
3
2
0
–1
–2
81–90
2
1
–1
–2
–3
91–100
1
0
–2
–3
–3
101–110
0
–1
–3
–3
–3
Test 5: Step Test
1. Have the subject stand in front of a bench that is 45–50 cm high. On command the subject steps up
onto the bench, first with one foot, then the other. The subject then steps down in the same manner.
Allow three seconds for each complete up-and-down movement. Repeat five times in rapid succession.
2. Immediately after the fifth down-step, take the subject’s pulse rate for 15 seconds and record it below
in the space for “Pulse beats for the 0-to-15-second interval.” Repeat at the intervals given below
(16-to-30, 31-to-60, and so on) and record the data, then determine the beats/min for the interval
counted. Note that the first two intervals are 15 seconds long (multiply by 4 to get beats/min) and
the others are 30 seconds long (multiply by 2 to get beats/min). Then, use this data to determine the
pulse rate increase for each interval.*
Pulse beats for the 0-to-15-second interval: _________ × 4 = _________ beats/min
Pulse rate increase = _________
Pulse beats for the 16-to-30-second interval: _________ × 4 = _________ beats/min
Pulse rate increase = _________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-6
Pulse beats for the 31-to-60-second interval: _________ × 2 = _________ beats/min
Pulse rate increase = _________
Pulse beats for the 61-to-90-second interval: _________ × 2 = _________ beats/min
Pulse rate increase = _________
Pulse beats for the 91-to-120-second interval: _________ × 2 = _________ beats/min
Pulse rate increase = _________
*Pulse rate increase = beats/min for interval – standing pulse rate (from Test 2)
Score points for Test 5 based on the pulse rate increase:
Standing
Pulse Rate
(beats/min)
Points
Pulse Rate Increase (# beats)
0–10
11–20
21–30
31–40
41+
60–70
3
3
2
1
0
71–80
3
2
1
0
–1
81–90
3
2
1
–1
–2
91–100
2
1
0
–2
–3
101–110
1
0
–1
–3
–3
111–120
1
–1
–2
–3
–3
121–130
0
–2
–3
–3
–3
131–140
0
–3
–3
–3
–3
Now, score points for Test 5 again, this time on the basis of time required for the pulse rate to
return to the level recorded in Test 2:
Seconds
Points
0–30
4
31–60
3
61–90
2
91–120
1
*121+
0/–1
*If 1–10 beats above standing pulse rate, score 0 points.
If 11–30 beats above standing pulse rate, score –1 point.
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-7
Fitness Score: Add your scores for all of the tests (remember that there are two scores for Test 5) and
record your total score here:
Total Score = _________ points
Analysis of Results, Activity B: Testing Physical Fitness
Use your Total Score to identify your relative fitness level:
Total Score
Relative Fitness
18–17
Excellent
16–14
Good
13–8
Fair
7 or less
Poor
1. What is your age in years? _________ Refer to “Background for Activity B.” For your age,
give the following:
My maximum heart rate is approximately _________ (220 – your age) beats per minute.
My target heart rate is between _________ (low) and _________ (high) beats per minute.
2. Compare the results of Test 1 with the combined results of tests 3 and 4. Do you see a possible
relationship between these results? If so, explain. Include the major body structures and organs
involved and describe their roles.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-8
3. List the variables you tested in Activity B and their effect(s).
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Why is it important that the subject’s arm be at heart level when taking blood pressure
measurements?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. Consider two large mammals: a giraffe and a rhinoceros. If both animals were standing and relaxed,
which would you expect to have the higher blood pressure? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. An astronaut’s pulse rate on the day before launch is 65 beats per minute. After three weeks in
orbit, the astronaut returns to earth. Would you expect the astronaut’s pulse rate to have changed?
Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-9
Background to Activity C
The metabolism of many animals does not enable them to maintain a constant body temperature
independent of their environment. Such animals are called ectotherms. From approximately 5˚C to
35˚C, the rate of metabolism in these animals increases as environmental temperatures increase.
Activity C: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Materials
Stereomicroscope, timer, cup or beaker, 2 rubber bands, 2 depression well slides, petri dish, dropping
pipet, living Daphnia magna.
Introduction
Daphnia magna is an ectotherm. It is a small crustacean commonly found in freshwater ponds and lakes.
It uses its large antennae like oars, propelling its body rapidly forward as the antennae snap backwards.
This jump-like movement gives Daphnia its common name, the water flea. Daphnia is highly transparent
and all of its internal organs are visible. Its heartbeat can be observed with a stereomicroscope.
Procedure
In this exercise, you will use Daphnia to study the effect of environmental temperature on the heart rate of
an ectotherm. Your teacher has set up water baths at different temperatures for you to use in your tests.
1. Obtain two concave-depression well slides. Place the slides side-by-side on your workspace with
their concavities facing upward.
2. Add a Daphnia to the concavity of one slide, in a small volume of culture fluid.
3. Pick up the second depression slide and flip it over. Place this slide, concavity side down, on top of
the first slide so that their matching concavities form a shallow pool that holds the Daphnia. Use
rubber bands to secure the slides together tightly (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Secured, combined concavity slides
4. Place the combined slides in a petri dish. Place the dish on the stage of a stereomicroscope.
5. Observe the Daphnia. Refer to Figure 4. Identify and note the position of the organism’s heart,
dorsal to the intestine. Do not confuse the motion of the second antennae with the beating of
the heart.
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Rostrum
Exopodite of Antenna
Compound eye
Supraesophageal ganglion
Right midgut caecum
Antenna abductor muscle 1
Esophagus
Antenna abductor muscle 2
Antenna levator muscle
Shell gland
Heart
Intestine
Egg
Brood sac or chamber
Roof of food groove
Median dorsal process
Midgut, posterior portion
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Caudal seta
Hindgut
Anus
Abreptor
Trunk appendage V, medial lobe
Caudal furca
Trunk appendage IV, endite
Carapace
Trunk appendage III, endite
Metepipodite
Trunk appendage II
1st maxilla
Mandible
Trunk appendage I
Chemosensory setae
Eye muscle
Figure 4. Daphnia anatomy
6. Use a cup or beaker to obtain a sample of room temperature water. Record the water temperature in
Table 3. Slowly pour water into the petri dish until the bottom of the dish is covered. Stop before
water covers the top of the upper slide.
7. Working together, one student should count heartbeats while another keeps time. Count the
heartbeat for 10 seconds and record the data in Table 3.
8. Discard the water in the petri dish.
9. Obtain a sample of water with a different temperature. Repeat steps 6 through 8 using water with a
different temperature each time. Continue until you have tested water from all the water baths or
you reach a temperature at which the heart beats too rapidly for you to count.
10. For each water temperature, determine heart rate in beats per minute and record the data in Table 3.
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-11
Table 3: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Temperature ˚C
Heartbeats/10 sec
Heart rate in beats/min
(Heartbeats/10 sec × 6)
Analysis of Results, Activity C: Heart Rate of Daphnia
Graph the temperature and heart rate data of Daphnia. Title the graph and supply the following
information:
a. The independent variable is ________________________________________.
b. The dependent variable is ________________________________________.
Plot the independent variable on the x-axis, and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
1. Write a hypothesis that this experiment is designed to test.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. From your graph, how much must the temperature rise to double the heart rate of Daphnia? Round
your answer to the nearest 1°C. _________ °C
3. Why does temperature change affect the heart rate of Daphnia?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-12
4. Suppose that you repeated this experiment by measuring the heart rates of a person immersed in
water at different temperatures, and then graphed the results. Predict how the graph might compare
to your graph of Daphnia heart rate.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. Give at least three examples of how being ectothermic affects the behavior of reptiles (snakes,
lizards, turtles, etc.).
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-13
Label (y-axis): ___________________________________________
Title: ___________________________________________________________________________
Label (x-axis): ___________________________________________
©2007 Carolina Biological Supply Company
S-143
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