RESEARCHONKNOWLEDGE
ANDATTITUDESOFYOUTH
TOWARDSTOTALITARIANISM
Preliminaryreport
–asummaryoftheresearchconductedin2016
(Finalreportwillbeavailablebytheendof2016)
CONCEPTUALRAMIFICATIONS
OFRESEARCHONKNOWLEDGE
ANDATTTUDESOFYOUTHTOWARDS
TOTALITARIANISM
ResearchteamatCardinalStefanWyszyńskiUniversityinWarsaw
Researchteamleader:Rev.Prof.PiotrMazurkiewicz,PhD
Researchteam:
Prof.PawełKaczorowski,PhD
AssociateProf.SławomirSowiński,PhD
AssistantProf.MichałGierycz,PhD
AssistantProf.MariuszSulkowski,PhD
2
Tableofcontents
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................4
1.Definitionofdemocracycomparedtoother‘good’systemsofgovernment;formaland
substantivedemocracy;total/totalitariandemocracy...................................................................6
2.Mechanismsofpoliticaltransformation.Wheredoestotalitarianismstemfrom?An
antidotetototalitariantemptation.Theroleofknowledge,emotions,andawarenessof
themechanismsofpoliticaltransformationsaswellasdominantcultural
patterns...............................................................................................................................................................9
3.Totalitarianismasasubstituteforreligion.................................................................................14
4.PoliticaltransformationsinCentralandEasternEuropefrom1917to
1989....................................................................................................................................................................19
5.Disappointmentanddefianceofyouthversussusceptibilitytototalitarian
bite.......................................................................................................................................................................30
6.Theroleofthememoryofperpetratorsandvictims.Subjectivisationofhistorical
knowledge,relativisationofhistoricalguiltversusresistancetototalitarianism
...............................................................................................................................................................................33
7.Thetrivialisationoftotalitarianismincontemporarydebateandart.Parallelsbetween
thepersecutionoftotalitariantimesandcertainformsofdiscriminationindemocratic
systems…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34
3
Introduction
Nazism,Stalinism,fascismarecommonintheirfeaturesas‘theofficial,all-encompassing
ideologyproclaimingaradicalbreakwiththepast,permanentrevolutionand‘forging’the
NewMan,censorshipandcentrallycontrolledpropaganda;thestatetotallysubordinates
theatomisedsocietyundergoingconstantmobilisation;one-partygovernments;terror
onamassivescalewiththehelpofthesecretpolice;clearlydefinedinternalandexternal
enemies;controlledsocialsupport;monumentalisminart,combinedwithhostilitytothe
forms considered degenerate along with nihilistic or notoriously selective attitude to
tradition’1.
*
Attempts at comprehending totalitarianism in an intellectual manner are
fundamentallyinhibitedastheyrequirearationalconceptualisationofwhatisinherently
non-rational,anattempttoemploygenericconceptsandobjectivecategoriestodescribe
what has become synonymical with political evil. Totalitarianism is negatively
exceptional,abnormal–builtinoppositiontomodernWesternculture,itsimultaneously
deforminglyabsorbeditsmultipleselectedessentialelements.
*
Modern politics, freed from all restrictions, in a totalitarian regime uncovers its
extremevoluntarism,evennihilism,anddisplaysitsdemonicface.
Totalitarianism is a political regime, whose authority extends not only over the
society,asinanystate(thesocietyinthestrictsenseofthiswordisatermderivedin
relationtothestate),butratheronindividuals,groups,andmasses.
Atotalitarianregimepromotesitspolicyofbringingthecommunallifeintoastateof
fullmobilisation,whichinfactisastateoffundamentalinstability,activatingand‘starting’
all that is tangible. Totalitarianism pursues such a policy with the underlying need to
achievefullreadinessandavailabilityofallthemassestowardsagoalenvisionedbythe
regime.Indoingso,theregimetransformsthecommunityintoanamorphousmaterial,
subdued to be further moulded according to its will. Totalitarianism entails politics
interfering incessantly in everything and everywhere. Characteristically, not only does
politicsencompassall,butalsowithintheperimetersofthesocialspherepoliticsisall
andfinal.
Atotalitarianregimeaimstoseizetheabsolutepower,claimingtobebestowedwith
theexclusive‘truth’aboutthehistory,exceptionalandunique.Onlythegovernmentcan
properlycomprehendthistruth,andtheyarestrictlylimitedinnumber,whileothersare
merelygrantedpartialaccesstotheunderstandingthereof.Suchatruthisnotbasedon
knowledge, nor faith, but on populist message, ideology, and quasi-prophecy. Neither
doessuchatruthdescribesomethingthatis,butsomethingthatwillbe;neitherdoesit
1
As cited in: Daniel Grinberg, Encyklopedia PWN, entry: totalitarianism.
4
relatetosomethingknown,butsomethingthatisessentiallynew,whichhasyettotake
finalshape.Again,neitherissuchtruthbasedonreason,argument,persuasion–instead,
such truth is declared, announced, and imposed on the individual by pervasive,
overwhelming, and state-of-the-art propaganda as well as social engineering, with all
otherindependentsourcesofinformationandknowledgebeingeliminatedfrompublic
access.
Thetotalitarianregimestriveshardtocreateafullyintegratedstatebyabolishingthe
divisionbetweenthestateandsociety,practicallyeliminatingtheseparationofpowers,
eradicatingtheexistingindependentinstitutions,suchasassociations,councils,media,
andchurches,seekingtounifytheindividualwiththepoliticaloneness.Theindividualis
thusnotonlyinvoluntarilycompelledtothepoliticaloneness,butevencravingforit.
Atotalitarianregimecreatesanew,perfectsocialworldtofinallyariseinthefuture,
designingeveryaspectoftheNewManandtheirhumanlife,individuallyandcollectively.
The party – or rather the political oneness wherein the masses are planned by the
governmenttoblend–liesatthecoreofthenewsociallife.Foritspart,monumentalism
constitutesthecharacteristicfeatureofitsactivitiesanditsproducts.
Achieving ideological, Gnostic, and utopian goals is the calling of the leadership, a
missionrequiringutmostdedication,devotion,andsubordinationfromeachmemberof
thecommunity,justifyingallthemeansofcoercionexertedbytheauthorities,aswellas
theconstantterror,surveillance,andcontrol,towhicheverythingissubjected.
Thenewworldunderconstructionistotalinitsperfectionand,assuch,itexcludesthe
coexistence with whatever foreign or tolerating difference and diversity lasting in its
current form, without being subjected to political transformation. Consequently, a
totalitarianregimestrivestoruleoverthewholeworld.
Buildinganewworldisfundamentallyandpermanentlyhinderedbythepresenceof
a political enemy whose very existence is considered a negation of the existence of a
totalitarian regime. A mortal enemy acting insidiously and surreptitiously. Therefore,
fightingthemisnotsubjecttoanyrestrictions,laws,orrules.Therefore,therealityoflife
isnotshapedbypeace,butwar,anultimateandexistentialstruggle,forallthatmatters
themost.
Inuniversaluse,totalitarianismisprimarilyunderstoodasacontradiction,orrather
a complete and total negation of the following: pluralism, liberalism, individualism,
privateandpublicspontaneity,individualandgroupspontaneity;negationoflifeasaselfdevelopment, the search for your own path, social life as normality and openness,
partnershipandsociability,asanatural,positive,gradual,andunconstrainedgrowth.
Both dictatorship and authoritarianism, compared with a totalitarian regime,
are limited and reduced as phenomena. In essence, these forms of government are
devoidofcommunicationorconsultationwiththesociety–asunlimitedanduncontrolled
authority.Butneitherdictatorshipnorauthoritarianismareutopias,astheirgoalisnot
settobuildanewsocietyandtheNewMan,insteadtheyexerciseviolencepragmatically,
refraining from the use of ideological political gnosis, idealisation of the future, and
omnipresentpolitics.
5
Totalitarianismisusuallyconsideredtobetheoppositeofliberaldemocracy.Itshould
be noted, however, that it would be hard to comprehend a totalitarianism without
political involvement of the masses regarding its activities as the full expression of
freedom. Therefore, totalitarianism can be referred to as degenerate democracy, its
sometimes grotesque, and unfortunately all too often, macabre deformation and
caricature.
Inthispreliminarydiscussion,weshouldalsomentionasyndrome-basedapproach
towards totalitarianism offered in Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy by Carl
FriedrichandZbigniewBrzeziński(1956).Whileeffortstopresentastrictdefinitionof
totalitarianism usually produce either too wide conceptualisation (and consequently,
among others, confusing totalitarianism with authoritarianism), or too narrow one
(whereoneofthecharacteristicsoftotalitarianismisascribedwithconstitutingfactor)2,
the syndrome-based approach outlines a set of interrelated and mutually reinforcing
factors3. C. Friedrich and Z. Brzezinski enumerate five key factors characterising the
totalitariansystem:1)officialideology;2)overwhelmingsingle-partyrulecontrolledby
the oligarchy; 3) government monopoly on weapons; 4) government monopoly on the
media,and5)policesystembasedonterror.Later,centrally-plannedeconomywasadded
asthesixthconstitutingfactor4.However,thisapproachalsodoesnotsufficientlyreflect
the complexity of the problem. The following analysis is aimed to elaborate on the
differentiaspecificaoftotalitarianism.
1. Definition of democracy compared to other ‘good’ systems of government;
formalandsubstantivedemocracy;total/totalitariandemocracy
Democracyvstotalitarianism?
Although in everyday use of the term, democracy is the essential opposite of
totalitarianism, mutual relations of these two system models are much more nuanced.
EvenPlatoinhisRepublicpresenteddemocracyasoneofthesystemicdiseases–thevery
last stage spelling dictatorship5 which, as ‘the ultimately complete and wildest
oppression,’ stems from ‘unbridled freedom’6. It should be therefore noted in the first
placethatnotonlyisdemocracytheonly‘good’formofgovernment,but,ingeneral,has
only become ‘good’ relatively recently. Consequently, secondly, the very concept of
democracy–whichcanbeunderstandablyinterpretedinanumberofdifferentways–
shouldundergothoroughdiscussion.Thirdly,weneedtoindicate,atleasttheoretically,
2
Cf. Giovanni Sartori, Teoria demokracji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1994, pp. 241-253.
Ibidem, p. 244.
4
Ibidem, pp. 243-244.
5
‘One system is widely acclaimed – Cretan and Laconian. The second one in line, and in rank, is called oligarchy
– and deeply flawed is this system. Then, a system different from the previous one, and still resulting thereof, is
called democracy. And, lastly, the noble dictatorship, differing from all the above-mentioned, is the fourth and
ultimate illness afflicting the state’, Platon, State, 544B, transl. into Polish by W. Witwicki, Antyk, Kęty 2003, p.
252. [translator’s note: this and further quotes translated from Polish into English for the purpose of this paper].
6
Platon, State, 564, transl. W. Witwicki, Antyk, Kęty 2003, p. 273.
3
6
such understandings of democracy which are synonymous with totalitarianism, or, in
otherwords,disguisedtotalitarianism7.
Democracyandother‘good’formsofgovernment:republic,monarchy
ForPlatoandAristotle,andfurtherinthelonghistoryofpoliticalphilosophyupto
the Enlightenment, democracy was a synonym of a degenerate system. What they
advocated and strived for was some form of a mixed system in which monarchical,
aristocraticelements,ie.pertainingtotheideal,remainedharmoniouslycombinedwith
democraticelements,thusensuringthedurabilityofthesystem.Forexample,asPlato
pointedoutinhisLaws,inthistypeofsystemtheselectionofstateofficialswouldnotbe
executed exclusively by random assignment (the democratic principle), but also by
election(thearistocratic-monarchicalprinciple)8.Thekeydifference,however,wasthat,
incontrasttodemocracy,inamixedsystemthepurposeofthestatewasnotsomuchthe
goodofthemajority,asthecommongood9.Thetermforthemixedsystempopularised
by Aristotle – politeia – was later renamed by the Romans as res publica, defining the
fundamentalfeatureofthissystem.
Itshouldbeemphasisedthattherepublicanidealacquiredanewsignificancewith
theinfluenceofChristianityandtheideaofhumandignity10relatedthereto,radically–in
relationtotheancienttimes,whenslaverywasundisputedlyaccepted–expandingthe
groupofpeoplecontributingtothe‘commonwealth’.Consequently,thisparadigmshift
solidifiedthebeliefthatdemocracy,andthereforethesysteminwhich‘thepeople,asthe
body,wieldthehighestauthority’canonlyeffectivelybeimplementedonalimitedarea11.
AgainstsuchmeaningofdemocracytheAmericanFoundingFathersopposedtheconcept
of the republic. Madison understood it as a ‘system including a system of
representation’12,andconsequently,asystemallowing–incontrasttodemocracy–‘the
extension of its authority over a greater number of citizens and wider area of the
country’13. In this new conceptualisation, created at the threshold of modernity, the
distinctionbetweendemocracyandrepublichaslostitsdifferenceinmeaningdenoting
onlyaformaldifference:directformofgovernment(democracy)orindirect(republic).
Ineithercase,itwasthewillofthepeoplethatlegitimisedtheauthorisationtoexercise
politicalpower,whilethecommongoodformeditspurpose.Suchdifferentiationmarked
7
Cf. Encyklika Centesimus annus Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II do czcigodnych braci w episkopacie, do kapłanów
i rodzin zakonnych, do wiernych Kościoła Katolickiego i wszystkich ludzi dobrej woli w setną rocznicę encykliki
Rerum novarum (dalej Centesimus annus), in: Encykliki Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II, Wyd. św. Stanisława BN i
wyd. m, Kraków 1996.
8
Cf. M. Filipczuk, Koncepcja państwa zawarta w Państwie Platona oraz koncepcja systemu idealnego opisanego
w Prawach. Próba porównania.
9
P. Jaroszyński, Zachodnia demokracja - szanse i zagrożenia, „Człowiek w kulturze” No. 20, p. 5.
10
Cf. P. Mazurkiewicz, Europeizacja Europy, IP UKSW, Warszawa 2001.
11
Cf. eg. A. Hamilton Pożytki z Unii jako zabezpieczenia przed wewnętrznymi fakcjami i powstaniami, in: Eseje
polityczne Federalistów, Znak, Kraków 1999, p. 82.
12
J. Madison, Esej 10, in: Eseje polityczne Federalistów, Znak, Kraków 1999, p. 92.
13
Ibidem.
7
aparadigmshift14,takingintoaccounttheconstitutionalstandardsoftheera,whenthe
monarch,anointedbyGod,exercisedsupremesovereignauthority.
Itisworthemphasisingthenthatmuchasthemoderndemocracy,toalargeextent,
adopted the classic republican ideal, the modern monarchy embraced democratic
standards.Inotherwords,theprocessofdemocratisationwastheprocessoferadication
oftheelementsofmonarchyfromtherootsofEuropeansystemsofgovernment.Thisdid
notalwaysresultintherenouncementoftheinstitutionoftheking15,however,italways
entailed the change of legitimisation of power which since the nineteenth century has
beenvestedexclusivelyinthehandsofthepeople,alsoinformalmonarchies.Sucharule
wasconstitutionallysecuredwithasystemofinstitutionsandprocedures,rangingfrom
periodicfreeelectionstouniversalsuffrage.
Democracy–approachestodefinition
Theaforementionedfindingsleaddirectlytocontemporarytheoriesofdemocracy.S.
Huntingtondistinguishesthreekeyapproachestodefiningdemocracy.Thefirstmodeto
describethemeaningofdemocracyisfocussedonthesourceofpowerexercisedbythe
powers that be. In such terms, as it were, in relation to ancient conceptualisations of
democracy,itisconsequentlyemphasisedthatthisformofgovernmentischaracterised
by the will of the people. Location of sovereignty would then constitute its defining
feature.Inthesecondmode,relatingtotherepublicantradition,thestressislaidonthe
purpose of government. In this case, common good would constitute the distinctive
featureofdemocracy(viderespublica)16.Lastly,inthethirdmode,proceduresutilisedin
theelectionprocessareparamountofimportance.Whatdefinesasystemdemocraticis
thefactthat‘themostprominentdecision-makersinpubliclifeareelectedinequaland
fairperiodicelectionswhereintheyfreelycompeteforvotesandwhereinvirtuallythe
entirepopulationhastherighttoattend’17.
Insomeworks,thesethreeapproachesareexaminedjointly.Bycombiningtheissues
ofsourcesandproceduresofdemocracyintoone,authorsthendiscusstheprocedural
andsubstantialdimensionsofdemocracy,statingthatthe‘majorityruleandtheruleof
thelaw,understoodassubordinationofallthepowerofthepeopletothenaturallaw,are
equally significant for democracy’18. In such terms, the people ruling according to the
majorityrulearethesovereign.Suchsovereigntyis,however,conceptualisedclassically,
consequentlyasstatedbyBodin,limitedbythelawofGod,whoseorderdelineatesthe
fundamental rules, understood as ‘necessary relations resulting from the nature of
things’19.Insuchterms,itisconsequentlyunderstoodthatauthenticdemocracyisonly
14
As noted by P. Jaroszyński: ‘such a programme was initiated by Levellers, a political group, slanting toward
socialist and liberal values’, striving to separate politics from religion, in: Zachodnia…, p. 7.
15
Frequently, it resulted in the ultimate eradication of the institution of monarchy, as it happened in Austria,
Germany, Italy, Romania, and Portugal.
16
As noted by Gordon Wood, durin the American Revolution the ‘sacrifice of personal interests in the name of a
greater good of all citizens formed the essence of republicanism’, as quoted in: R.A. Dahl, Demokracja i jej krytycy,
Aletheia, Warszawa 2012, p. 424.
17
Vide: Huntington, Trzy fale demokratyzacji, PWN, Warszawa 2006, p. 17.
18
P. Mazurkiewicz, Kościół i demokracja, PAX, Warszawa 2001, p. 98.
19
Ch. Monteskiusz, O duchu praw…, Vol I, Chapter I, p. 11.
8
possible provided the correct conceptualisation of the human being, delineating the
directionsindefiningthecommongood20.
In other works, procedure-based democracy is highly emphasised. According to
Schumpeter,relyingtheresearchapproachonthesourceandthepurposeofdemocracy
is charged with ‘gross ambiguities and inadequacies’21, and he further regards such an
approachasunworthyoffurtherscientificanalysis22inthenameofpurportedinvalidity
oftheexpectationforthecommondecisionstoservethecommongood23.Inotherwords:
sincetheteleologicalidealisconsideredimpossibletoimplementinapluralisticsociety,
democracycanonlybeidentifiedthroughtheproceduraldimension.
Totalitariandemocracy?
Purely process-orientated approach to democracy neglecting its substantial
dimension,despite–perhaps–beinghighlyapplicableinresearch24,pavesthewaytothe
severance of the connection between the republican idea and the democratic idea, a
featuresosymptomaticofthemodernconceptualisationofdemocracy.Substantially,toa
significant extent, this marks a return to the ancient idea of democracy, also its flaws
describedbyancientphilosophers.Theyaddressedthekeyproblemof–toquotePlato
again–theissueofthe‘unbridledfreedom’leadingtowards‘theultimatelycompleteand
wildestoppression’.Inthecontemporarycontext,itcanthereforebestatedthatethical
relativism can pose a threat to democracy. For, ‘when there is no transcendent truth,
through obedience of which people acquire full identity, either is there no safe rule
securingjust relations betweenpeople’;nocriterionsecuring common good.In sucha
situation, the only normative institution is a state, competent and absolute. Thus, it
acquiresthecompetencepreviouslyexclusivelyattributabletoGod,whiletheforceoflaw
isreplacedbythelawofforce(respectively,exercisedandexertedbythemajority).This
inexorablyleadstototalitariandemocracy,describedbyTalmon,wherepoliticsusurps
therighttocontrolallelementsoflifesoasto‘encompassthehumanexistenceinfull25.
2. Mechanisms of political transformation. Where does totalitarianism stem
from? An antidote to totalitarian temptation. The role of knowledge,
emotions,andawarenessofthemechanismsofpoliticaltransformationsas
wellasdominantculturalpatterns
Mechanism of political transformation. Where does totalitarianism stem from?
Seekinganeffectiveantidote.
20
Cf. John Paul II, Centesimus annus, nr 46, w: Encykliki Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II, wyd. św. Stanisława BM,
wyd. m, Kraków 1996.
21
Vide: Huntington, Trzy fale demokratyzacji…, p. 16.
22
Ibidem.
23
Cf. R.A. Dahl, Demokracja i jej krytycy…, p. 423.
24
Cf. vide: Huntington, Trzy fale…, p. 16-18.
25
Jacob L. Talmon, O demokracji totalitarnej, Znak No. 443/1992, p. 67.
9
StartingfromtheseventhbookofPlato’sRepublic,politicaltheoryhasbeendominated
by the conviction that political systems are unstable and systematically replaced with
other forms of government. In modern times, it was superseded with ‘philosophies of
progress’which–inalinearvisionoftime–regardedpoliticalhistoryasalineofprogress
leadingtoitshistoricaldestination,ie.–dependingontheversion–aglobalrepublicof
republics, a global communist state, or the Thousand-Year Reich. Upon the fall of the
communist regime, some authors even proclaimed ‘the end of history’, deeming the
’victory’oftheliberaldemocracyovercommunismasreachingthefinalstageofprogress
thereof. The idea of conducting research on the ‘future of totalitarianism” (or similar
forms of government) assumes the repudiation of the linear political timeframe
(HegelianismandNeo-Hegelianism)inexchangeforaversionofthecyclicalconceptof
time,mostpresumablyforthesakeofthevisionofspiralchanges(recurrenceofthesame
phenomenon,butinanewform).
Various theories describing the ‘circulation of systems’ offer their disparate
subsequence.Theysharetheconvictionthat,asarule,theworstsystempossiblehaunts
history following a disintegration of the best system possible, ie. democracy,
simultaneouslybeingthemostmorallydemanding.Shouldthentotalitarianismreappear
onthepoliticalscene,itwouldmostlikelyariseasaproductofaliberaldemocracy.It
does not follow that it would result therefrom directly. Rather, it would possibly be
preceded by temporary non-totalitarian/ authoritarian dictatorships. It should be,
however,takenintothoroughconsiderationthatintheInterwarperiodinsomeEuropean
states(eg.Poland,Portugal)authoritarianismblockedtotalitarianpartiesfromascending
topower,posinganundemocraticalternativetowardthem26.
Thetotalitariansystemsknowninhistoryemergedasaresultofdegenerationofa
nativedemocraticsystem(Germany,Italy–incompletetotalitarianism),inducedbyan
external revolution against a democratic rule (Russia), or following occupation of a
statebyothertotalitarianstate(CentralEurope).
By nature, totalitarian ideology does not feature any slant, be it right- or left-wing,
barring totalitarian. Historical examples prove that the totalitarian approach preys on
boththeleft-aswellasright-wingmentality,withanequalease.
Examiningthepossiblerecurrenceoftotalitarianism,itismostcompellingtostudy
howaliberaldemocracytransformsintoatotalitariansystem.Whatmechanismsleadto
thedecay/demiseofdemocracy?Whatarethefeaturesofapre-totalitariansociety?
Doesthetransformationoccurasa‘groupofcriminals’managestoseizethepowerover
thecompletelyunawarenation27,orratherasaresultofalmostallmembersofsociety
being‘deluded’byacriminalideology28intotheprocess?AccordingtoHannahArendt,
26
Cf. K. Chojnicka, W. Kozub-Ciembroniewicz (ed.), Doktryny polityczne XIX i XX wieku, Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2000, p. 374.
27
‘(…) I am standing here (…) as a son of the German nation – a son of this nation over which a group of criminals
seized power by delusional promises of grandeur, reinstating dignity and meaning to the nation, painting a prospect
of welfare but at the same time also imposing terroristic intimidation in order to make use of the nation as a tool
for their desire for annihilation and overwhelming command.’ (Pope Benedict XVI, Speech in AuschwitzBirkenau, May 28, 2006, w2.vatican.va).
28
‘“What are then states devoid of justice if not huge gangs of criminals?” — said once St. Augustine. We, the
Germans, know it from our own experience that these words are not spoken in vain. For we endured the cessation
10
Hitler’sascenttopowerandfurtherexpansion,consideredlegalbythestandardssetby
themajorityrule,wouldnothavebeenpossible,hadtotalitarianleadersalsonotenjoyed
thepopularityofthemasses29andasignificantpartoftheelites.Whatthenmakesboth
themassesandtheelitesalikepronetototalitarianseduction?
Totalitarian ideology, as it appears, plants its seed on a fertile ground, where the
societyaboundswithpeoplegenerallydissatisfiedorevendistraught,aconditioninduced
by eg. rampant inflation contributing to the pauperisation of significant numbers of
citizens,gallopingunemployment,frustrationatmilitarydefeatssufferedbythestate.All
thiscankindlethefeelingofinsignificanceanduselessness,aswellasindifferenceamong
vastmassesofpeople.Theirlifeexpressesrejectionandredundancy.Inmostcases,they
disengage themselves from democratic procedures, morphing into a flock of politically
inactivecitizens30. This is thestateofapre-revolutionarypassivity. For such people,
having–totheirminds–nothingtolose,theyarereadytosacrificeforagreatercause,to
undertakeheroicdeeds(evencriminal),totakepartinmomentousevents‘takingplace
onceeverytwomillennia’soastogodowntohistoryandelevatetheirlives,even by
negatingtheirentireexistence.Wilfullysubmergingintosuperhumanpowers,evenif
suchpowersweredestructive,appearsassalvationfromautomaticsubordinationtopreset social functions, as a jailbreak from prison imposed on them by the seemingly just
state31. And since democracy, normally, is based upon acquiescence towards passive
masses,thecapacityforreachingsuchmasseswithitsideologyandshakingthemofffrom
apparent passivity into activity helps totalitarian ideology to completely remodel the
politicalscene.
What is undoubtedly characteristic of a mass pre-totalitarian movement is the
completelackoftrustforotherparticipantsthereof.Hencetheresultingcreationreferred
to as the atomised mass, a phenomenon providing a fuller comprehension at further
stagesoftheprocessofthetotalisationofsociety.Theauthoritiesinatotalitarianstate
aim not only to gain control over all available social activity of the individual, but also
‘terrorising people from within’32, ie. controlling their integrity. Hence the utmost
significance attached to propaganda and the need to exercise overwhelming media
control33.Constantreinterpretationofthedoctrinemakesiteverhardertodistinguish
thecurrentlypoliticallycorrectversionfromapunishableone.Asaresult,theisolated
individual,strivingtoguaranteethemselvesasenseofsecurity,mustprovetotalloyalty
not much towards the doctrine, as towards the very party. In a society based on
denunciation,whereeverybodycanbeprosecutednotonlyforthewrongdeeds,butalso
of the rulers from law, the political leadership contravening and tarnishing the law so that the state served as a tool
to destroy the law — and it became a well-organised gang of criminals, who could threaten the whole world and
led it towards the brink of destruction.’ (Pope Benedict XVI, Speech in Bundestag, September 22, 2011,
w2.vatican.va).
29
Cf. H. Arendt, Korzenie totalitaryzmu, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2008, Vol 2, pp.
30-31.
30
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 38-43.
31
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 63-65.
32
Ibidem, p. 56.
33
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 66-67.
11
for‘potentialcrimes’,or‘wrongcontacts’,peopleareafraidofthemselves.Attimes,they
evenfeeltheneedtoincriminatethelifeofotherpersonforfearoftheirown34.
Surprisingasitmayseem,masstotalitarianmovementsattracted,inparticular,welleducatedpeoplewhosesophisticationandindividualismfailedtosecurefrommelting
intothehoipolloi35.Withinthechoiceofaconceptofa‘goodlife’,therepresentativesof
theelitesarenomorecompetentthantheordinarycitizens.Toprovethisthesis,Chantal
Delsol invokes the attitude towards Nazism adopted by Martin Heidegger and Carl
Schmitt36.
Atotalitarianideologyisdistinctiveofnihilism,ie.contemptfortraditionalmoral
principles,includingthevalueofhumanlife,appearingtobescientificinbeingso.Prior
todesigningtheplanofthemassexterminationofJewsandother‘inferior’humanraces
inhabitingMid-EasternEurope,theideologistsdevelopedaeugenics-basedconceptofa
relativised value of human life. It was also evidenced with institutionalising hostility
towardspeopleregardedas‘objectiveenemies”–intermsofraceorclass.Thepursuit
for total control over the society lead to denationalising potential enemies (the state
preferslosingitscitizenstoallowingforopposition37)andfurtherplanstocompletely
exterminatethem(withpeopletreatedasanomaly).Itmeansthattheriskofunflinchingly
totalitarian governments is real only in sufficiently large populations where the
authorities can neutralise citizens without leading to catastrophic depopulation.
Germany,foritspart,wouldfaceitonlyaftersuccessfulfinalisationofthewar.
The advocates of totalitarian ideology did not try to hide its inhuman character.
Rather, they assumed that committing evil deeds is appealing by nature38. Violence,
cleansingandregeneratingthesociety,issometimeseventreatedassacred39.Thecultof
violence has borne fruit in societies at the stage of pre-revolutionary upheaval.
Frustrationandbeliefthatasocietybasedonliberaldemocracyishypocriticalinduces
citizenstowillinglysupporteverythingbannedbyuniversallyacceptedrules,elevating
crueltytotheleveloftheultimatevirtue,asthe‘negationofhumanitarianandliberal
hypocrisy’40.
Thedisseminationoftotalitarianideologyisaccompaniedwithinstitutionalchanges
inthestructureofthestatewhichareregardedbytherulingpartyasprivateproperty41.
Onthebasisofreasoningresultingfromthe‘doctrineofthestateofemergency’,some
civilrightsaretemporarilysuspended,oppositionpartiesareeliminatedandsinglepartylegalmonopolyisinstated,alongwithincorporatingconstitutionalmonoparties
intothestate,introducingacharismaticpartyleaderasthecommander-in-chiefofthe
state,aswellasarealunionofadministrationandcentralisedbureaucracyoftheparty.
However,Arendtreiteratesthatitisnotasmuchcharacteristicfortotalitarianismstotake
34
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 53-54.
Cf. Ibidem, p. 44.
36
Cf. C. Delsol, L’âge du renoncement, Paris 2011, pp. 227-228.
37
Cf. H. Arendt, Korzenie totalitaryzmu, t. 1, p. 388.
38
Cf. H. Arendt, Korzenie totalitaryzmu, t. 2, p. 31.
39
Cf. p. Filipowicz, Historia myśli polityczno-prawnej, Arche, Gdańsk 2001, pp. 362-365.
40
H. Arendt, Korzenie totalitarianism, vol. 2, p. 63.
41
Cf. Ibidem, p. 48.
35
12
overkeypositionsinastatebureaucracybypartyelites,asitisforthetwosourcesof
power – the party and the state – to coexist, in a peculiar doubling of positions,
practicallyleadingtothecoexistenceofapuppetgovernment(constitutional)andreal
(party-based)government 42.Legalchangesdonot,however,playasignificantrole,as
ultimatelythewilloftheführerconstitutesthesupremelaw43.
Atotalitarianideologyisalwaystypicalofaglobalcharacter,aimingattheultimate
conqueringofthewholeworld.Arendtemphasisesthatatotalitarianideologypreyson
the state of permanent instability (permanent revolution), while if it limited its
ambitions only to the dimension of a nationalist state, it would instantly lose its
momentumand‘totality’,thusdyinganaturaldeath44.Aglobalideologyclaimsthatglobal
crisesshouldbeaddressedonagloballevel,hencethenecessityofconductingaworldscalerevolutionandinstatingaworld-scalegovernment.
Searchingforanantidotetothetotalitariantemptation,weshouldjettisonthemuch
too simplified conviction nurtured in the Enlightenment as if social evil chiefly results
fromthelackofknowledgeanditshouldgraduallydiminishprovidedthedissemination
thereof. Being aware of dramatic historical events, even negative emotional attitude
towardsthemdonotseemtoconstitutesufficientimmunologicalbarrierforthefuture.
Afterall,itwouldbehardtoaccusesuchthinkersasHeideggerorSchmittofinsufficient
knowledge.ItisalsohardtobelievethatthereasonwhythesocietyoftheThirdReich
wasgenerallysympathisingwithHitlerwassupportedwiththefactthatitlackedproper
information.Similarly,nowadaysitiseasytoimagineagroupofyoungpeopleofaright-
or left-wing inclination properly conversant with totalitarianism and expressing a
negativeattitudetowardstheThirdReichandtheSovietUnionas‘alien’systems,andstill
sympathising with authoritarianism or totalitarianism. It seems that on the level of
knowledgeitisequallyimportanttobeawareofbasichistoricalfactsastounderstand
themechanismsofsystemictransformationsandtheresultingabilityofearlydetection
of changes directed towards a pre-totalitarian society. It applies to institutionally
guaranteed human rights, but as we learn from the experience of Nazi Germany, or
communistandseeminglydemocraticconstitutions,formalandlegalmeasuresarenot
sufficient to secure the state from totalitarianism. It becomes all the more significant
withinthecontemporarydebateoverthepossibilityoftransformingliberaldemocracyin
the direction of a totalitarian democracy45, a system still embracing shell democratic
institutions, in actuality, is a form of a disguised totalitarianism. Cultural paradigms
dominant in a particular society seem then to serve an essential antidote. Namely, the
commonbeliefoftheirrevocabledignityofeverysinglehumanpositingthatthereareno
better and worse humans in this world: the latter would then be destined to be
exploited, ‘used’ and ‘spat out’46; more precisely and practically, the attitude towards
abortion, euthanasia, racism, the disabled, the sick, the handicapped, the needy; the
42
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 144-147.
Cf. Ibidem, p. 142.
44
Cf. Ibidem, pp. 57, 139.
45
Cf. J. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy, Penguin Books 1986.
46
Cf. Francis, Miłosierdzie to imię Boga. Rozmowa z Andreą Tornellim, Wydawnictwo Znak, Kraków 2016, pp.
68-69.
43
13
natural,substantiallimitationsontheprerogativesofpoliticalpower(mostfrequently,
coupledwiththebeliefofanexternaltranscendentauthority),aswellasthenecessityof
avoidingviolenceinregulatingsocialrelations.
Tosumup:changingademocraticsystemintoatotalitarianoneisprecededbythe
dissemination of a totalitarian ideology relating to its overwhelming pan-movement,
establishing short-term authoritarian dictatorship, ‘temporary’ suspension of selected
civilrights,eliminationofoppositionparties,constitutionalisationofasingle-partyrule,
establishing party structures parallel to the structures of state administration,
coexistence of puppet government and real government. The mere knowledge on the
essenceoftotalitarianismandhistoricalcrimesperpetratedinthenameoftotalitarian
ideologydoesnotseemtoconstituteanantidotetothevirusoftotalitarianism.Itshould
necessarilybecoupledwiththeknowledgeofmechanismsofsystemictransformation,
also including the possible transformation of a liberal democracy into a totalitarian
democracy.Thekeyantidote,however,seemstobeofferedbythepredominantculture
basedonthebeliefoftheirrevocabledignityofeachandeveryhumanbeing,substantial
limitation of political power in its prerogatives, as well as the necessity of avoiding
violenceinsocialrelations.
3. Totalitarianismasasubstituteforreligion
Totalitarianismandreligion
Identifyingitsquasi-religiouscharacterconstitutesoneoftheemblematicaspectsof
the theory of totalitarianism. Totalitarianism is therefore not only a practical
subordinationofanindividualstate.Formalelementsofthetotalitarianstate,accurately
distinguishedbyFriedrichandBrzeziń ski,areaimedatovertakingthehumanbeingina
way‘fromwithin’.WhatquintessentiallydifferentiatesatotalitarianstatefromothernondemocraticstatesisaimingatthecreationoftheNewMan,a‘completetransformationof
thehumanbeingandthesocietyaccordingtoparadigmsprovidedbyideologyandutopia
so as to ultimately, in a more or less clearly defined future, lead humanity to a perfect
state’47.Theconvictionofpossessingknowledgeonaperfectsocialorganisationcapable
ofeliminatingeviltransformspoliticsinto“secularreligion”,‘deludingitselfthatitisthus
buildingaheavenonearth’48,aswellasjustifyingtheapplicationofallavailablemeans,
including violence and lying in order to fulfill its goals49. Such a religion is therefore
secularnotonlyinthemeaningofofferinga‘secularrevelation’,butalsointhemeaning
ofimmanentisingtheeschaton.
Identifyingthequasi-religiousdimensionoftotalitarianismcompelsustoposeseveral
questions. Firstly, due to the fact of negating the eschatological distance, we should be
concerned about the types of religiousness or mindsets imitated or expressed by
47
P. Jaroszyński, Totalitaryzm.
Ibidem.
49
John Paul II, Encyklika Centesimus annus Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II do czcigodnych braci w episkopacie,
do kapłanów i rodzin zakonnych, do wiernych Kościoła Katolickiego i wszystkich ludzi dobrej woli w setną
rocznicę encykliki Rerum novarum (further Centesimus annus), No. 25, in: Encykliki Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła
II, Wyd. św. Stanisława BN i wyd. m, Kraków 1996, p. 490.
48
14
totalitarianism.Secondly,weshouldprobeontheintellectualandculturalground,fertile
forthegrowthofatotalitarianmindset.Thirdly,andlastly,takingintoconsiderationthe
fact of the existence of totalitarianisms in Europe of the twentieth century, we should
examinetherelationbetweenChristianityandtotalitariantendencies.
3.1 Gnosis,fundamentalism,totalitarianism
A classic answer to the first question is provided by the works of Eric Voegelin. He
seekssourcesofMarxism,communism,aswellasNationalSocialismingnostictradition
implanted in the womb of Christianity by the works of Joachim of Fiore50. Voegelin
differentiates six key features of the gnostic thought describing the essence of every
politicalgnosis.Suchfeaturesshouldbediscussedjointly.Theseare:dissatisfactionatthe
current situation; belief that a bad situation results from the badly organised world;
negatingtheweaknatureoftheman;beliefthattheworldcanbesavedfromevilinthe
courseofhistorybyhumanaction;beliefthatknowledgeiskeytoestablishanew,proper
world order and to achieve salvation51. In a nutshell, the core of political gnosis is
secularised promise of salvation on earth through taking political actions. A gnostic
person–beingfullyconvincedthatacquiringsuchknowledgeisproclaimedbyaprophet
preaching‘thetruth’onthemodeofsalvationofthehumankind52.Suchapromise–as
notedbyVoegelin–wasofferedbyMarxism,fascism,andNationalSocialismalike53.He
underlinesthoughthatpoliticalgnosisisnotacompletechapterinhistory,asaspiritual
illness,acancerrottinginsidetheclassicalandChristiantradition,remainsthecoreof
gnosticpolitics54.
Other, though in key elements convergent with Voegelin’s findings, array of
interpretations of religious inspirations derived from totalitarianism, is provided by
researchonfundamentalism.Thewidevarietyoffundamentalistformsofreligiousness
compelsresearcherstostatethatitisnotthecontents,uponwhichfundamentalismis
shaped,muchastheattitudetowardssuchcontentswouldbeacriticalfactortodetermine
whetherornotareligionisfundamentalist55.Inthisconceptualisation,itisstressedthat
fundamentalismisanattitudetowardstheworld,amodeof‘evaluating’reality.Suchan
evaluation is impacted by three components: cognitive, emotional (affective), and
behavioural56.
50
His thought follows the stances emblematic of some early Christians awaiting imminent Second Coming
portending a thousand years of the reign of the kingdom of God on earth, governed by Christ along with saints. In
the thirteenth century, he then revives the idea of the transubstantiation of the society, proclaiming the advent of
the era of the Holy Spirit, when no law will be needed, neither the Church nor sacraments will ever be necessary,
as people – owing to the Spirit – will become perfect.
51
Cf. E. Voegelin, Namiastka religii, Człowiek w kulturze, No. 17 (2005).
52
Ibidem, pp. 273-274.
53
In his reflection, Voegelin differentiates three modes of conceptualising the earthly salvation: as a process of
becoming perfect, as a state of being perfect, and third example combining the two former, referred Voegelin to
as activist mysticism. Within the first, Voegelin includes all ideologies based on progressivism, belief in progress
(eg. Condorcet’s programme), within the second – utopias, within the third – examples of movements stemming
from Auguste Comte and Karl Marx.
54
E. Voegelin, Gnostycka polityka, Człowiek w kulturze nr 16 (2004), p. 250.
55
E. Wnuk-Lipiński, Świat międzyepoki, Znak, Kraków 2004, p. 273
56
E. Aronson, T. Wilson, R. Alert, Serce i umysł, transl. A. Bezwińska, Zysk i s-ka, Poznań 1997, p. 315
15
In the light of theoretical analyses of fundamentalism57, fundamentalists can be
distinguished from the ‘rest of the world’ primarily with a specific mentality (‘the
fundamentalistmind’),characteristicofabsolutism(theconvictionofpossessingandfully
comprehendingthetruth),selectiveness(negatingorthodoxy)58,aswellasManichaeism
(dividingtheworldbetweenthegoodandthebad).Consequently,onanaffectivelevel,
fundamentalistsarecharacterisedwithafeelingofanxiety(fear)andobjection,bordering
onhostilitytowardsanythingtheyperceivealienandnegatingtheirtruthontheproper
state of human affairs59. Simultaneously, fundamentalism – irrespective of its variant–
allows the feeling of security and commitment within its own group. The specific
perspectiveofcognitiveandemotionalpolarisationtranslates,onabehaviourallevel,in
the first place, into the activism in an effort to transform the world according to its
professed beliefs. Fundamentalists, convinced of possessing knowledge on the proper
worldorderasexpectedbyGod,socialandpoliticalgovernance,beingpersonallyopposed
totheactualstateoftheworld,atthesamesituatethemselvestimeonthepositionofthe
prophet and the king. They reveal the ‘divine ideal’ and feel responsible for its
implementation.Therefore,inessence,theystrivetothefulfillmentofmessianicpromises
in temporality; to bring the kingdom of God closer to the earth. Transformation of the
world,aimingatfulfillingtheidealworld,constitutestherealgoaloffundamentalists60,
astheiractionsarealwaysmarkedwithutopianfeatures,almostmakingitimpossiblefor
fundamentalistgroupstoformalliances61.
Theaforementionedfindingsindicateaclosecorrelationwiththefindingspresented
by researchers studying political gnosis, demanding us to address the question on the
existenceofsecularfundamentalists.InPolishresearch,EdmundWnuk-Lipiń skiproved
in his analyses the validity of regarding communism as an expression of secular
fundamentalism62. As he posits, a communist logic reveals all the features of a
fundamentalistattitude:convictionofpossessingofthetruth,selectivityintheapproach
tothe‘sacredtexts’;rebellionagainsttheexistingorderandthedesiretocreateaperfect
world; the admiration for the leader and hatred for the ‘enemies of the system’, the
activism in an effort to transform the world, etc.63. Therefore, totalitarianisms can be
reasonablyconsideredformsofsecularfundamentalism.
3.2 Anthropologicsourcesoftotalitarianism
57
Further elaboration on this topic in: M. Gierycz, Fundamentalizm, in: idem, P. Burgoński [ed.], Religia i polityka.
Zarys problematyki, Elipsa, Warszawa 2014.
58
Jonatan Jansen reiterates, however, that ‘in such a kingdom the literal truth of the divine book will constitute a
less significant and less obvious detail’. This, somewhat sarcastic, note is quite meaningful. Fundamentalists – as
it has been noted – are not orthodox by nature. To the contrary, as if by definition they (re)interpret the doctrine.
The aim of the reinterpretation is fulfilling the expected order of this world.
59
J. Haynes, Religijny fundamentalizm…, p. 162 Characteristically, as in case of the cognitive component,
fundamentalists can diametrically differ in their evaluation of danger. They can equally oppose a secular state
(Islamists), as well as the Sharia law (Hindu fundamentalists).
60
In consequence, fundamentalists are ready to reject all they regard as ‘alien’, even universal values.
61
Cf. E. Wnuk-Lipiński, Świat…, p. 280
62
Cf. E. Wnuk-Lipński, Świat międzyepoki, Znak, Kraków 2004, p. 9.
63
Ibidem.
16
Whenanalysingreligiousinspirationsofsecularreligionsinagnostictraditionora
fundamentalist mindset, we should pose a question on the cultural and intellectual
sources of the ‘totalitarian bite’ in modernity. According to Thomas Sowell, the
contemporarypoliticsisrootedintheexperienceofthetworevolutions:Americanand
French.64 The former resulted in the introduction of a limited government, respecting
religions in the public sphere; the latter, in a way forecasting totalitarianisms of the
twentiethcentury,organisedterrorinthenameofdemocracycoupledwithanopenwar
against Christianity.65 Undoubtedly, this radical difference in approaching political
features affects modern political history, being rooted in two diametrically different
visionsofmeta-politics,understoodastheidealtypesintheWeberiansense:limitedand
unlimited66. The former is orientated towards the attempt at balancing conflicting
interestsandconvictionsofwhatcanbeconsideredtobesocialgood,whilethelatteris
oriented at the implementation of a comprehensible and identifiable social good – the
highestvirtue(forexample,theMarxistidealofclasslesssociety)67.
Divergentcomprehensionandmoderationofthedynamicsofsocialprocessesstem
from divergent concepts on the political reason in adherents of both visions. The
advocatesoftheunlimitedvisionbelieveinthepossibilityofdefiningarationalanswerto
allproblemsandchallenges,ifonly‘thepowersofintelligenceandvirtuetriumphedover
ignoranceanddisgrace’68.Inconsequence,theunlimitedvisionseeks,byanintellectual
reflection,asolutiontoapoliticalproblemanddevelopingaformofaperfectorder.Every
socialchange,ifonlyenablescomingclosetotheideal,shouldbepreferreddisregarding
itspossiblecosts69.
Inthelimitedvision,themindistreatedwithmuchgreaterdistance.Knowledgeis
conceived primarily to be a social experience, transferred in inarticulate forms of
tradition,institutions,customs,sentiments,feelings,behaviour,andrepresentingthedaily
experienceofindividualswinningtheDarwiniancompetitionbetweenwhatworksand
whatdoesnotwork70.Inconsequence,knowledgeiswidelyavailable,butalwaysshared,
64
T. Sowell, A Conflict of Visions. Ideological Origins of Political Struggles, New York 2007.
Si le ressort du gouvernement populaire dans la paix est la vertu, le ressort du gouvernement populaire en
révolution est a la fois la vertu et la terreur : la vertu, dans laquelle la terreur est funeste; la terreur, sans laquelle
la vertu est impuissante. La terreur n'est autre chose que la justice prompte, sévère, inflexible; elle est donc une
émanation de la vertu; elle est moins un principe particulier, qu’une conséquence du principe général de la
démocratie, appliqué aux plus pressants besoins de la patrie (While the principle of people’s government in
peacetime is a virtue, the principle of people’s government in time of revolution is a virtue and terror at the same
time; a virtue, in which terror is fatal; a terror without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing other than
justice, immediate, stern, inexorable; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle,
but a consequence of the general principle of democracy suited to the most urgent needs of our state.) (M.
Robespierre, Speech to the National Convention, February 5, 1794, in: Discours par Maximilien Robespierre – 17
Avril 1792 – 27 Juillet 1794).
66
In the debate on this topic other arguments are also cited. Hannah Arendt, for example, indicates the lack of
‘social issues’ in America and the fact that, in general, a revolution reproduces a pre-revolutionary system. The
limited British government is followed by a limited government, and the French absolute monarchy – by
absolutism.
67
Cf. V. Vanberg, Conflict of Visions. Thomas Sowell, ‘Cato Journal’, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Fall 1987), p. 547.
68
I. Berlin, Idee polityczne w wieku XX, przeł. J. Łoziński, in: idem Cztery eseje o wolności, Zysk i S-ka, Poznań
2000, p. 67.
69
T. Sowell, A Conflict of Visions…, p. 29.
70
Ibidem, pp. 37, 65, 72.
65
17
whichleadstothepoliticsofcautiousevolution71.Adherentsofthisvisionbelievethata
trade-off negotiated in the result of systemic processes constitutes the key category
thereof72.Inotherwords,imperfectionishereunderstoodasasociallyperfectsolution73.
Therecognitionthatknowledgeisadifferentiatoringaugingpeople’squalityleadsthe
advocatesoftheunlimitedvisiontorecognisethatnarrow-mindedcitizensshouldsubmit
to the guidance of the elite which cultivates the intellect: philosophers or qualified
experts74.Consequently,supportersofthisvisionauthorisethe‘avant-garde’(socialelite)
to decide whose members are, for some reason, more competent in determining
recognisableandpracticalgood.Theyact‘inlieuof’thesociety,leadingittoa‘higherand
higherlevelofunderstandingandaction’75.
Without going deeper into the analysis of the unlimited politics, it is worth
emphasisingthatinhisanalysisSowellleadsustotheconclusionthatthefundamentalist
potentialisdeeplyinscribedinoneofthetwocharacteristicofmodernEuropeanwaysof
thinkingaboutpolitics,eventuallypavingthewayfor‘secularreligions’.
3.3 Christianity,secularisation,secularreligion
Ifintheeraofmodernityitissecularfundamentalismsthatevolvedtounprecedented
proportions,imprintingontheeraofmodernityitsmarknotonlyaspoliticalreligions,
butalsoasasubcutaneouscurrentofunderstandingpoliticsinthespiritoflimitlessness,
itisworthexaminingtherelationsofChristianityandtotalitarianism.
Looking for what constitutes a novum of the intellectual climate of modernity, we
cannotignorethenewgrand,radicallysecularistnarrativeinitiatedintheEnlightenment
replacingthepreviouslydominantChristiannarrative.AsnotedbyJosephRatzinger,‘in
the era of the Enlightenment we saw attempts to understand and define the essential
moralnormsaimingatdesigningtheminsuchawaythattheycanapplyevenifGoddoes
not exist – etsi Deus non daretur’76. This reflection spurred the invention of a ‘secular
publicspace’anda‘secularstate’,asanareaof‘purepower’organisedbyman‘asifGod
does not exist’77. Consequently, sacrum has finally been pushed out of its central, axial
space,inwhichitusedtosetanordertosociallife78.
TheprocessofsecularisationoftheChristianhopeintheWestthusopensthegates
fortheprocessoftheimmanentisationoftheeschaton;forthetest–bydefinition,doomed
71
Ibidem, p. 27.
Ibidem, p. 11-15.
73
As Burke wrote, ‘we need to withstand the inadequacies, as long as they turn into crime’. Ibidem, p. 39.
74
We will simply recall the famed opinion of Voltaire who claimed that philosophers do not possess their own
interest to defend and speak only in the name of reason.
75
Ibidem, p. 110.
76
J. Ratzinger, Europa Benedykta w kryzysie kultur, transl. W. Dzieża, Edycja św. Pawła, Częstochowa 2005, p.
68; Pope Francis notes that many Christians practically live ‘as if God did not exist’ (Francis, Adhortacja
apostolska Evangelii Gaudium o głoszeniu ewangelii w dzisiejszym świecie, No. 80, wyd. m., Kraków, p. 46). This
idea has been a recurrent theme of several recent popes (Cf. eg. John Paul II, Adhortacja Apostolska Ecclessia in
Europa Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II do biskupów, kapłanów i do diakonów, do zakonników i zakonnic oraz do
wszystkich wiernych świeckich po Synodzie biskupów o Jezusie Chrystusie, który żyje w Kościele jako źródło
nadziei dla Europy, in: Adhortacje Apostolskie Ojca Świętego Jana Pawła II, Vol. 2, Znak, Kraków 2006).
77
Further on this topic vide: P. Mazurkiewicz, M. Gierycz, Europejska antropologia i europejska polityka –
obserwacja współczesności, (in print).
78
Cf. J. Casanova, Religie publiczne w nowoczesnym świecie, transl. T. Kunz, Nomos, Kraków 2005, pp. 35-82.
72
18
tofailure–thefulfillmentoftheidealworldinthemortallifeandthefinaldestructionof
evil.Thisalsocarriesapowerfultotalitarianpotential.AsreasonablynoticedbyKrzysztof
Dorosz,‘aslongasapocalypticconsciousnessisrootedinfaith,itrespectsthesovereignty
of God and leaves Him the time and place for intervention. For man it only is to wait.
However, if apocalypse is secularised or if it penetrates the imagination of religious
activists usurping the prerogatives of God, it becomes a real force in the world.’79
Undoubtedly,usurpingtheprerogativesofGodispossibleallthemorewhenthetrueGod
isremovedfromsight.Inthisperspective,itbecomesperfectlyclearthattheprocessof
radicalsecularisationopensspaceforclaims(includingscientific!)offulfillmentinmortal
lifeinthisworld,and,consequently,promotestheformationofsecularreligions.Inother
words,intheconsequenceofmakingGodirrelevanttotheworld,modernityservesan
idealbaseforreplacingthehopeofthekingdomofGodwiththehopeofthekingdomof
man.
Theaforementionedconclusionindicatesaspecific,irreplaceableroleofreligionasa
barrieragainsttotalitarianism.Regardlessifweunderstandreligionasasetofbeliefsand
practices,orasarelationshipwithGod,itis–accordingtoMaxScheler–essentially,‘above
all,awayofsalvation.’80Assuch,itplacesthenaturalhumandesire,‘aradicalrepair...in
relation to a meta-empirical reality.’81 If we admit that totalitarianism is aimed at the
realisationoftheeschatologicalhopeinthemorallife,wemustalsonotethatnothingbut
religion can systemically protect them against immanentisation and ensure the
preservation of the eschatological distance. This is a crucial issue as the feeling of
necessityof‘radicalrepair,salvation’isanthropologicalandstrictlyrelatedtothehuman
condition,andthereforeisirreplaceable82.Aslongasitdoesnotremainimmanentised,it
contributestoaconstructiveengagementintheaffairsofthisworld.Sufficeittomention
theimportanceofthesocio-politicalChristianitywhich‘didnotcarryamessageofasocial
revolutionliketheoneinwhosenameSpartacusledbloodybattlesandlost...WhatJesus,
whodiedonthecross,brought,wassomethingcompletelydifferent...ameetingwiththe
hope stronger than the sufferings of slavery, transforming life and the world from the
inside’83,asevidencedbyeg.theeradicationofslaveryinEurope84.
4. PoliticaltransformationsinCentralandEasternEuropefrom1917to1989
Thehistoryofrapidsocial,political,andeconomicchangeswhichopenedthewayfor
totalitarianpracticesorbeliefs(ordiscouragedthem)inthetwentiethcenturyisslightly
79
K. Dorosz, Bóg i terror historii, Semper, Warszawa 2010, p. 23.
M. Scheler, Problemy religii, Kraków 1995, cited in: J.A. Kłoczowski OP, Religia, in: B. Szlachta [ed.], Słownik
social, WAM, Kraków 2004, p. 1064.
81
J.A. Kłoczowski OP, Religia, w: B. Szlachta [ed.], Słownik społeczny, WAM, Kraków 2004, p. 1064.
82
Ibidem.
83
Pope Benedict XVI, Spe salvi…, No. 4, p. 11.
84
As also noted by the Pope: ‘People who according to their social status are divided into masters and slaves, as
members of one Church are all brothers and sisters – this is how Christians called each other. By virtue of baptism
they were reborn and filled with the same Holy Spirit and together, one next to the other, receive the Body of
Christ. Even if external structures have not changed, the society has – internally.’, Spe salvi, No. 4, p. 12.
80
19
differentineachofthecountriesunderstudy(Germany,Poland,CzechRepublic,Slovakia,
Hungary,Romania).Thisisprobablyduetothedifferentsize,aspirations,andgeopolitical
potential (it looks different from the point of view of Germany, and different from the
Slovakianstandpoint,ortheCzechRepublic),historical(atleastwithinthestatusofthe
stateattheendofWorldWarI),economic,cultural,andreligiousdifferences.
However,itappearsthatusingtheoreticaltoolsinthefieldofpoliticalscience,inthis
caseofthetheoryof‘thethirdwaveofdemocratisation’byS.Huntington,wecanatsome
point approximately indicate a common denominator for groundbreaking events that
evenifdonotoccurinallstatesexactlyatthesametime,they,firstly,spreadintheregion
(according to the ‘wave effect’) with some slight delay, secondly, represent a common
backbonefortheentiregroupandparadigmforchanges.
Such shared breakthroughs, worth noting from the point of view of the issues
examinedintheproject,seemtoinclude:
− the rebirth or redefinition of sovereignty and choosing the path of democracy
followingWorldWarI,
− thecrisisofaparliamentarydemocracyinthethirties,
− experiencingNazismunderHitler,
− theeraofSovietcommunism,
− theeraof‘realsocialism’,
− peacefulrevolutionsandleavingtheeraof‘realsocialism’.
4.1 Therebirthorredefinitionofsovereigntyandchoosingthepathof
democracyfollowingtheWWI(1917–1920)
Muchastherebirthorredefinitionofsovereigntyandchoosingthepathofdemocracy
following the WW I of Central-East European states under study resulted from the
disintegrationormilitarydefeatofmultinationalsuperpowers(Russia,Austria–Hungary,
Germany),theirformalchoiceofapoliticalsystemwasinalargepartdeterminedbythe
factthattheWarwaswonbystateswheremoderndemocracyhadbeenborn(England,
France,USA).
In most states of Central Europe after World War I, the Western model of
parliamentary democracy was the most obvious one and, therefore, adopted. It is
commonly believed, however, that it was not only a conscious choice of the concerned
societies (which, as in the case of Poland and Czechoslovakia, only recently developed
their sovereignty and identity), but also copied and implemented practices from the
victoriousAllies.
Project-wise,asidefromapossibleorientationonhistoricalknowledge(eg.thequestion
"when and why your state entered into the modern parliamentarism in the twentieth
century),novitalquestionstoformulatecanbeindicatedinthisregard.
20
4.2 Thecrisisofparliamentarydemocracyinthethirties
ItisworthnotingthatthebirthoftheCentralEuropeanparliamentarysystemafter
WorldWarIwasaccompaniedbyanumberofpoliticalandmilitaryperturbations(eg.the
communist revolutions in Berlin and Budapest in 1919, the wars Poland fought for its
borders,thesenseoffrustrationatHungaryforTreatyofTrianon).Andalso,thefactthat
mostsocietiesacceptingthetreatyhadneitherproperlyformedparliamentaryelites,nor
adequatepoliticalculture.
Therefore,CentralEuropeanparliamentarism,beforeitcouldconsolidateandgrowits
social roots, proved weak and not resistant to political shocks and economic crises
(especially,thecrisisof1929).
As a result, in the individual countries of the region (with the exception of
Czechoslovakia),theclassicparliamentarysystembegantobesupplantedbyotherforms
ofgovernment.Startingfrommilitarycoupsandvariousformsof‘cleansingreforms’in
Poland (1926), or Lithuania (1927), through the various more or less benign forms of
authoritarianisminHungary(1920),Bulgaria(1923),Romania(1930),EstoniaandLatvia
(1934).Themostspectacular,but,essentially,qualitativelydifferentfromthese,formof
abandonmentoffreshlyestablishedparliamentarism,ofcourse,wastheacquisitionofthe
WeimarRepublicbytheNazisin1933.
Project-wise, we could alternatively formulate the question on how social/ economic/
culturalcircumstanceshavetocombinesothatdemocracybecomesanacceptablesystem.
4.3 ExperiencingNazismunderHitler.‘Seductionandterror’,‘bite’or
‘occupation’asvariant.
Suchacrisisofparliamentarism,theseizureofpowerbyHitlerintheWeimarRepublic
andMussoliniinItaly,aswellasthedevelopmentofinternationalaffairs(theweaknessof
the League of Nations, the Munich Agreement of 1938) made all the states of Central
Europe confront totalitarianism and the political insanity of Hitler’s Nazism. Its three
differentforms:‘seductionandterror’,‘bite’,‘occupation’,asitseems,havenotbeensofar
examinedinliteratureanddescribedsufficientlybyscientists,andthereforetheyforma
baseforourresearchmodel.
Fig.1Variantsofexperiencingtotalitarianism
Examples Political
Level of social and political implementation of
relations with Nazism
theThirdReich
‘Seductio Third
n
and Reich
terror’
-
Thewholesociety(withindividualexceptions–
the group ‘White Rose’, pastor Dietrich
Bonhoeffer)waspolitically‘seduced’,including
the masses of participants in the political
practices of Nazism. Officially, it is mandatory
21
foralltosupporttheactivitiesofthetotalitarian
state, everybody or almost everybody
participates in its structures, all undergo its
overwhelmingcontrolandterror.
‘Bite’
Hungary Formal
Partofthepoliticalelite(‘TheArrowCross’in
underPM independence. Hungary, ‘The Iron Guard’ in Romania, ‘The
Gö mbö s Closerorfarther Hlinka Guard’ in Slovakia) with some, but not
and
temporary
widespread, public support claims extreme
admiral economic and national ideology with elements of Nazi
Horthy, military
ideology (eg. anti-Semitism, the cult of total
Romania cooperation.
power). Political freedom is severely limited,
underPM
partofthepopulation(eg.theJews,activistsof
Antonesc
theLeft)arepersecuted,butthesocietyisnot
u,
totallycontrolledandterrored;participationin
Slovakia
the political movement of para-Nazis is not
under
compulsory.
priest
Tiso
‘Occupati Poland,
on’
Czech
Republic
(protecto
rate)
War,orimposed
occupation.
Authoritiesin
exile.
The Nazi authority is imposed by violence,
perceived alien and occupant. No social elites
accept Nazism. Subordination of citizens
enforced by terror. Planned extermination of
large groups of the population (the Jews, the
intelligence). Widespread reluctance of the
society to the Nazi rule. Larger or smaller
resistance.
Thisrathergeneraldifferentiation,obviously,doesnotexplaintheintricaciesofthe
dramatic political situation of states under study in the thirties and forties (eg.
Czechoslovakia), as well as similarities and differences between them. Nonetheless, it
showsthreedifferentlevels/modelsofNazipresenceinthepubliclifeofthestatesunder
study.
• Project-wise, it seems that in the states facing ‘seduction’, or ‘bite’ by Nazism, it is
importanttoposethequestiononawarenessandevaluationofparticipationofthe
wholestateoritspartintheideologyandpracticeofNazism.
• Itseemsparticularlyimportanttoexaminethelevelofpossibledissembling/hiding
intheawarenessoftheyouthtodaythemostspectacularformsofthis‘seduction’or
‘bite’,eg.:
− widespreadterrorforces,butalsosocialacceptanceforitintheThirdReich,
− theSecondHungarianArmyfightingalongsidetheWehrmachtontheEastern
Front, and the participation of the Hungarian ‘The Arrow Cross’
(Nyilaskereszt)intheexterminationofHungarianJewsin1944,
22
•
− theFourthRomanianArmyfightingalongsidetheWehrmachtontheEastern
Frontandtheparticipationof‘TheIronGuard’intheexterminationofJews
intheso-calledRomanian‘Transnistria’,
− the participation of the Slovak state and ’The Hlinka Guard’ in the
construction of concentration camps in the villages of Vyhne, Sered, and
Novaky,aswellasthedeportationoftensofthousandsofSlovakJewstoNazi
deathcamps.
Also,itseemsimportanttoexaminethelevelandmode(inthenameofwhatreasons)
ofpossibletrivialisationorrationalisationoftheseprocessesandbehaviours.
4.4 Theeraofbuildingatotalitariancommunism.‘Occupation’,‘bite’ofthe
elites,‘seductionandterror’–asaprocess(1944–1956).
Asaresultofthe‘liberation’ofCentralEuropein1944–1945bythetroopsoftheRed
Army,andalsoasaresultoftheprovisionsoftheYaltaConference,allstatesoftheregion
under study, featured the process of installing the authorities controlled by the Soviet
regime and the creation of a communist system modelled after the Soviet Union (with
distincttotalitarianfeatures).
Althoughtheprocesswascarriedoutwithvariouspacing(fromestablishingthePolish
CommitteeofNationalLiberationinMoscowthrough‘theFebruaryrevolution’inPrague
in1948),outsideGermanyitfeaturedafairlysimilarstructure.Startingfromtheelements
of‘occupation’bytheRedArmy,throughtherisetopowerofthepoliticalelites‘bitten’by
communismandsupportedbytheUSSR,endingupwiththeattemptto‘seduce’theentire
society.
Thespecificityof‘occupation’was,firstly,theuseofthemilitarypresenceoftheRed
Army in the individual states. Secondly, building a network of direct political
interdependenciesontheUSSR.
The rise to power of political elites ‘bitten’ by the communist ideology took place
gradually,ingeneral,through:thepoliticalinstallationofcommunistpartiesmadeupof
pre-war communists trained in the USSR, the falsification of elections or overthrowing
legitimate governments, and the outlawing of all non-communist parties and
organisations.
‘Seducing”thesociety,thatis,anattempttoconsolidatethebroadframeworkofsocial
loyalty to the communist authorities and build a ‘new’ society, took place in a manner
characteristic of totalitarian systems. On the one hand, blind terror and violence were
frequentlyexerted,especially,againstallpoliticalandsocialelitesindependentfromthe
authorities(politicians,undergroundactivistsfromtheperiodofoccupation,churches,
etc.) so as to paralyse any potential social resistance. On the other hand, the new
authorities,bymeansofpropaganda,butalsoeconomicandsocialreforms,promoteda
visionofanewsocialiststate,society,family,andman.
Thisstageendsineachofthestatesataslightlydifferenttime,butitisalwaysthe
resultofTwentiethCongressoftheCentralCommitteeofthePolishUnitedWorkers’Party
andthe‘thaw’,condemningthe‘cultofindividual’intheUSSRaround1956.
23
Fig.2Totalitarianism–stagesofdevelopment
Stage1
‘Occupation’
Stage2
Stage3‘Seductionandterror’
Gaining power by ‘Seduction’
‘Terror’
‘bitten’elites
TheRedArmy
troopsstationingon
thelandsofall
CentralEuropean
states.
Thisprocesswas
gradual.
Hungarian
communistleader
M.Rakosicalledit
the‘salami
strategy’.
First,creatinga
legalisationofthe
communist
parties,callingfor
reformsandclose
cooperationwith
theUSSR.
Then,inthe
secondstage,
mostfrequently,
outsidethe
parliamentary
process(byway
offalsificationof
theelection
processor
overthrowingthe
authorities)the
partygraspsthe
fullpower.
Thelaststage
involves
outlawingand
persecutionofall
independent
politicaland
socialforces.
Examplesandsymptoms
Directinterventions
oftheRedArmyin
Berlin1953and
Budapest1956
Directinfluenceof
USSRonthe
authoritiesof
individualstates
through:
-Thebureauofthe
International
Departmentofthe
CentralCommittee
ofthePolishUnited
Workers’Party
whichcontrolled
communistparties
ofindividualstates,
-Personalnominees
(eg.marshall
Rokossowskias
leaderofPolish
People’sArmy),
-Panelsofpolitical
andmilitaryexperts
andadvisors.
Theprocessof Terroronamassive
thecommunist scale,murderand
seduction
persecutionofall
consistsof:
politicalandsocial
-Socialreforms environments
whichinthe
independentfromthe
nameof’social authorities(politicians,
justice’submit journalists,priests,
stateeconomy, undergroundactivists
agriculture,
duringthewar),who
education,
couldthreatenthe
healthcare,and monopolyoftheruling
cultureunder
party.
strictcontrol,
Showinvestigations
-Political
andtrialsdesignedto
propaganda
evokefearandsocial
buildingthecult paralysis.
ofpower(‘the cultofthe
Apeculiarfeatureof
individual’)and thisrevolutionary
vilifyingthe
terror,knownfrom
‘enemiesofthe othereras(theFrench
people’,
Revolution,theThird
-Promotingnew Reich,theUSSR),is
socialistart
usingitwithinitsown
(socialist
ranksofthecommunist
realism)in
regime.Hencein
cinema,
communistcountries
literature,
theprocessofW.
architecture,and Gomułka,aswellas
painting.
showtrials,andthe
capitalpunishmentfor
‘treason’forTraicho
KostovinSofia,Laszko
RajkainBudapest,or
RudolfSlanskyin
Prague.
24
•
•
•
In this context, project-wise, it seems particularly important to examine the
knowledgeofyouth,butalsotheirattitudetowardsmechanismsindicatedherein–
‘biting’theelitesand‘seducing’thesociety.
Regardingtheissueof‘biting’theelites,itseemsimportanttoposethequestionof
knowledge/awarenessofthePrometheanthemeinthecommunistdoctrine,butalso
theattitudetowardsother-than-democraticlegitimacy(revolutionary,intellectual,
class).
Regarding ‘seduction and terror’, it seems important to examine youth in their
knowledge about the mechanisms of communist propaganda, the scope, scale and
formsofcommunistterror.However,inthisrespect,itseemsimportanttoalsopose
other,moreuniversalquestions–ontheknowledgeonmodernformsofpropaganda
in general, and the opportunity of, as well as any conditions justifying, the use of
violence(eg.terror)withinpoliticalfightingorgoverning.
4.5 Authoritarianismoftheeraof‘realsocialism’1956–1989.The
nationalisationofsocialism.‘Socialismwithahumanface’.Normalisation.
ThedeathofStalin(1953),andespeciallytheechoesoftheTwentiethCongressofthe
Central Committee of the Polish United Workers’ Party, and the mass social protests
(Berlin 1953, Poznan 1956, Budapest) led states in Central Europe to refrain from
imitating the construction of communism modelled after Stalinism and Sovietism.
Totalitariancommunismwasreplacedwithauthoritarianism,sometimesreferredtoas
‘realsocialism’.
Similarly,asinthepreviouscase,changingthebackgroundinindividualstatesdidnot
occursimultaneouslyandperformedatdifferentrates(eg.inPolandandHungaryin1956
and Czechoslovakia only in the sixties). However, also there some general regularities
characteristicofauthoritariansystemscanbeobserved.
InrelationswiththeUSSR,insteadofpolitical‘occupation’,theyofferacertaindegree
ofindependenceandconsenttonationalisation(searchingyourownway)ofasocialist
society. Political elites are no longer guided by the doctrinaire ‘bite’, but political
pragmatism in the name of which they are ready to build ‘real socialism’ with a more
‘human face’. The society, instead of revolutionary terror and seduction, offers
‘stabilisation’and‘normalisation’.
Fig.3StagesofTransformation–fromTotalitarianisminto‘RealSocialism’
25
Examplesandsymptoms
Nationalisationof
socialism
Insteadof
‘occupation’
Searching‘socialism
withahumanface’,
insteadoftheruleof
‘bitten’elites
Nationalisationof Inmanystatesofthe
socialismmeansa socialistsphereof
limitedacceptance influence,thedictatorial
oftheUSSRanda ruleofideologuesbitten
certaindegreeof byMarxismwas
autonomyof
replacedbyageneration
individualsocialist ofpragmatistideologues
states,andalso
(eg.WładysławGomulka
seekingitsown,
andEdwardGierekin
referring-toPoland,JanosKadarin
nationalidentity Hungary,TodorZhivkov
andspecificforms inBulgaria,Alexander
ofbuildingthe
DubcekandGustav
socialistsystem.
Husakin
Theofficialformof Czechoslovakia).
Mostofthem(Gomułka,
thislimited
empowermentwas Kadar,Husak)were
imprisonedduringthe
movingthe
relationshipUSSR Stalinistperiod.Some
–CentralEuropean (Gierek)hada
backgroundoperatingin
stateontothe
COMECONforum. WesternEurope.
Suchapartial
InPolandamore
empowerment
conservativeGomułka
manifesteditself
wasreplacedin1970
eveninthe
withamoreliberal
absenceof
Gierek.In
Romaniainthe
Czechoslovakia,the
collective
oppositehappened.
interventionofthe
Liberalandreformist
WarsawPactin
governmentsof
Czechoslovakiain
AlexanderDubcekfrom
August1968.
theperiodofthePrague
Thisautonomywas Spring(1966–1968)
limitedbyany
endedwiththe
attempttobecome
‘Normalisation’-insteadofterror
andseduction–in‘pragmatic’and
‘reformative’versions
Regardlessofthepolitical
specificityofthepolitical
personalityoftheleaders,inmost
statesofCentralEurope,thecultof
theleader,terrorandpolitical
seductionattemptingtobuilda
newsocietyandanewman,
characteristicoftotalitarianism,
wererejected.Theywerereplaced
withtheofferofrelativestability,
improvementoflivingconditions,
andleavingpeoplealone,
characteristicofauthoritarian
systems,inreturnfortheirpolitical
passivity,oropportunismwith
respecttotheauthorities.
Suchanofferwasusuallypresented
intwoversions:‘pragmatic’or
‘reformist’.
Anexampleofauthoritarianism
vergingonpragmatismmaybe
exemplifiedbytheprogrammeof
‘smallstabilisation’inPoland
introducedbyWładysławGomułka
(1956–1970)or‘normalisation’in
Czechoslovakiaintroducedby
GustavHusak(1968–1989).Inthis
model,politicalauthoritiesdonot
requireanysocialideological
commitmentfromthebroad
masses.Rather,theypromote
politicalpassivity,conformity,and
submissiontowardsauthority.The
powersthatbedisapproveofany
unlicensedpoliticalactivity(in
26
completely
independentfrom
theUSSR,
reiteratedin1968
bythe‘Brezhnev
doctrine’andthe
interventionofthe
WarsawPact
troopsin
Czechoslovakia.
interventionofthe
WarsawPact,upon
whichamore
doctrinaireGustav
Husaktookoverpower
inthecountry.
Polandstudentprotestsin1968
underWładysławGomulka,and
workersprotestsin1970,in
CzechoslovakiaunderGustav
Husak–activityofPlasticPeopleof
theUniverse,agroup,thecreation
ofCharter77).Thisvariantofthe
constructionofrealsocialism
revealsallthefeaturesof
authoritarianismbasedonsocial
passivityandconservatismof
power.
Reformsattemptingtobuild
socialismwithahumanface
includedthefollowingperiods:the
PragueSpringinCzechoslovakia
underAlexanderDubcek(1966–
1968),thedecadeofthe‘second
Poland’underEdwardGierekin
1970-1980,theeraof‘goulash
socialism’inHungaryunderJanos
Kadarin1956–1987.
Thisvariantofreformsofreal
socialismfocuseseitheron
liberalisation,ie.economicreforms
(the‘goulashsocialism’underJanos
Kadar),orpoliticalliberalisation
(the‘secondPoland’underGierek).
Despitetheirrelativelyliberal
character,thesereformsalso
allowedpossiblerepressions
againstpoliticalopponents.In
HungaryunderKadar,ithappened
immediatelyafter1956.Under
GierekinPoland,after1976.
•
•
Project-wise,itseemsimportanttoposeaquestiononborders/differencesbetween
theauthoritarianismofthiseraandthetotalitarianismoftheprecedingera.
Anotherissueworthaskingyouthisthesocialconditionsofacceptanceforsucha
half-authoritariansystem.Thisraisestheveryimportantquestion–atwhatprice
27
•
(social,economic,political)issocietyreadytoabandonpoliticalfreedom?
Also,itseemsinterestingtoaskabouttheissueofauthority/politicallegitimacythat
stemsfromthepersecutionbythepreviousauthorities(evenwhenreferringtothe
same ideology). Does the fact that Gomułka, Kadar, Zhivkov, Husak served time in
Stalin'sprisonsempoweredthemwithsomespecialauthority?Diditprovidethem
withagreatermandatetocarryoutchangesoronlyitsimitation?Diditnotbecome,
with time, a kind of political alibi preventing the evaluation of their activities,
includingthepersecutionofopponents?
4.6 Theroadtopeacefulrevolutions(1975–1989).Thedawnoftheempire.
Elitesinopposition.Thedemocraticwave.
Thegeopoliticalshiftintheworld(thenewAmericanagendafollowingthedefeatin
Vietnam,thetrendtowardsexercisinghumanrights,signingtheHelsinkiAccordsin1975,
theelectionofaSlavicpope,theUSSRinvolvedinthewarofAfghanistanin1978),aswell
associalandeconomicchangessweepingthroughthestatesof‘realsocialism’–allthis
contributedtothefactthatattheendoftheseventiessomeofthesecountries(Polandand
Czechoslovakia,attheveryleast)aboundedwithdemocraticopposition,whoseactivity
openedthedoortopeaceful(asideRomania)revolutionsandthefallofthesystemofreal
socialism.
Undoubtedly,themostspectacularexampleisprovidedbySolidarityinPoland,asocial
movement unifying 10 million citizens, whose inception and activity in 1980–1981
created in the block of socialist states a historical and political breach which ten years
later,in1989,transformedintothe‘thirdwaveofdemocratisation’(S.Huntington).
Toapplythepreviouslyusedanalyticalcategories,wecanstatethatthisphenomenon
was all the more due to changes occurring in the external factor, namely the USSR.
WeakenedbythemilitaryandeconomicracewiththeWest,theSovietempireceasedto
exerciseeffectivecontroloverCentralEurope.
Secondly, social and political changes (the new post-war generation, cultural and
socialchangesafter1968,politicalinfighting,socialcrises)inPoland,inCzechoslovakia,
inHungary,gavebirthtodissidentmovementscontestingthelegitimacyofthecurrent
politicalelite.ExceptforthecaseofPoland,theauthorities,admittedly,quiteeffectively
managed to separate these movements from the rest of the society (eg. Charter 77 in
Czechoslovakia),butthankstothepublicityofthewesternmedia,thesemovementslasted
andbroughtaboutthebeginningofnewpolitical,democratic,elites.
Thirdly,abroadsocialresponsetothischange(exceptforthePolishSolidarity)came
relativelylate,in1989.However,itsnaturewasoneofamass,peacefuldemocraticwave
againstwhichnopoliticalmeasureswereabletowithstand.
28
Fig.4Strategyofexiting‘realsocialism’
The Dawn of the ElitesinOpposition
Empire
The
Wave
Democratisation
of
Thecreationofdissident
Democratisationandthe
movementsintheseventies
falloftheauthoritiesof
(Poland:KOR,KPN,ROPCiO,RMP; realsocialisminthe
Czechoslovakia:Charter77,VONS; regiontookonawave
Hungary:‘samizdat’movement
effect.
animatedby,amongothers,Laszko RajkJr.andGaborDemszky).
Thiswaveaccumulated
withinmanyyears
Dissidentmovementswere
chieflyinPoland(toa
createdmainlybyintellectuals,
lesserextent,in
Themilitaryand
Czechoslovakiaand
politicaldefeatofthe scientists,cultureactivists
(sometimesinthepastassociated Hungary)toreachother
USSRmilitaryin
withthegovernment),who,dueto countrieswithinseveral
Afghanistan.
theirspecialsocialposition,reveal monthsof1989East–
Theeconomiccrisis thelackoflegitimisationofthe
CentralEuropeinits
causedbythearms powersthatbewiththeirlanguage entirety.
raceandthedropin ofmoralityandinvokinghuman
oilprices.
rights.Thisisclassically
Wheredissidentelites
exemplifiedbythefamousessay werecapable,ata
‘Perestroika’and
criticaltime,of
‘Glasnost’after1986. byV.HavelThePowerofThe
Powerless(1978).
managingthewave(in
Poland,Czechoslovakia,
AftertheSecondVaticanCouncil inHungary,partlyin
andthechoiceofaSlavicpope,the Bulgaria)changeswere
CatholicChurchtookona
peaceful.Wheresuch
dissidentmeaning(especiallyin eliteswerenon-existent
Poland).
(inRomania),changes
tookonabloody
Asignificantsupportforthis
character.
movementwasprovidedand
organisedbyfreemediainthe
West–(RadioFreeEurope,the
BBC,VoiceofWashington,Radio
Svoboda,etc).
Examplesandsymptoms
SigningtheHelsinki
AccordsbytheUSSR
(1975),which
openedthe
possibilitytoinvoke
thedoctrineof
humanrightsforthe
anti-communist
opposition.
•
Project-wise, it seems interesting to pose a question on the impact of the external
empire(theUSSR).Cantotalitarianismariseandfunctioninsmallstates(devoidof
imperialambitionsandcapabilities)ordoesitneedimperialfacilities?
29
•
•
•
Also,thereisaquestionoftheimportanceofmoralityandreligioninthecontextof
totalitarianism. It is worth asking youth whether consistently recalling moral and
religiousvaluesinpubliclifetodaycanconstituteananti-totalitarianfactor.
Anotherimportantquestionconcernsthemedia.Itseemsworthaskingyouthwhat
conditionsmustbemetbythemediaandthemediasystemsothateventodaythey
canserveasafactordemocratisingtheworld.
It seems interesting to ask about the matter of the democratic ‘wave’. Are young
democracies,createdonthebasisofthedemocratic‘wave’,solid,havetheyalready
developedastrongpoliticalsystemandculture,cantheybefloodedbyotherwaves?
Fig.5Summaryofchangesin1944-1989
Era
Influenceofan
externalempire
(USRR)
Authoritiesandelites
Society
1944–1956 Occupation
Building
totalitarian
communism
Theruleof‘bitten’elites
Terrorand
‘seduction’
1956–1989 Nationalising
Authoritaria communism
nism of the
era of ‘real
socialism’
Pragmatism in the name of a ‘Normalisation’,
‘humanfaceofsocialism’
‘Stabilisation’,
‘Reforms’
1975–1989 Thedawnofthe
Roadto
empire
peaceful
revolutions
Elitesinopposition
Democratic
wave
5. Disappointment and defiance of youth versus susceptibility to totalitarian
bite
4.1. Contestingthefoundingcompromise
QuitecommonfortheyoungergenerationinmodernEuropeanandWesternsocieties
(especially after 1968) is the cultural and social experience of the contestation of the
worldshapedbytheirparentsandpredecessors.Itconcernsthewayhowtheidentityof
young people is psychosocially shaped, which sometimes takes on a framework of a
common generational experience, a more or less ostentatious rejection of the existing
culturalandsocialconventions,standards,andauthorities.
In the states that have moved from authoritarianism to democracy by the way of a
politicalconsensusofanauthoritarianruleanddemocraticopposition(the‘RoundTable’,
30
the‘VelvetRevolution’,the‘Spanishroadtodemocracy’),thisexperience(contestation)
maytriggerinpartoftheyoungergenerationatendencyofanacutedisapprovalofthis
compromise,treatedasamanifestationofbetrayal,hypocrisy,immoralsubmissiontoevil.
Thisinturnmayinducetheradicalisationofpoliticalviews,butalsoacertaindistance
towardsdemocraticpracticeswhichpavedthewayforacompromise.Theprobabilityof
suchanattitudegrowswhenyoungpeopledonothavetheability(atschool,athome,in
massculture)tofamiliarisethemselveswiththecomplexitiesofthecontemporaryhistory
oftheirnations.
Therefore, it seems appropriate within the project to ask at least 1-2 questions to
examinetheknowledgeofyoungpeopleaboutthedemocratictransitionintheircountry,
thesourceofthisknowledge,theattitudeemergingtherefromtotheprevalentdemocratic
rules in their country, as well as the acceptance of the complexity of political and social
processes.Itisimportantinthiscontexttoconsiderwhethersuchapossiblecontestationof
therules/democraticpractices,isinanywayconnectedwiththeaffirmationoftherules/
politicalpracticeslinkingtototalitarianism.
4.2. Searchingforidentity,authority,andideal
Also,itischaracteristicforpartoftheyounggenerationtotakeonacertainidealism,
stigmatisinganyambiguityandhypocrisy,searchinginthecomplex,ambiguousworldof
adultsforunambiguity,clarity,ideals,andauthoritiesembodyingthem.Ingeneral,thisis
partoftheprocessofshapingtheiridentityandsenseofbelongingtoagroup/community
confirmingthesevaluesandidentity.
Such a search for ideals, authorities, and communities may take very different
formsintheyounggeneration.Thismayrevealitselfintheinvolvementofreligiousor
patriotic movements, scouting, membership in a subcultural group or community. But
sometimes,especiallyinelderadolescents,asearchforideals,identity,membershipmay
alsoleadtopoliticalengagement. Havingsaidthis,itisworthbearinginmindthatitisthetotaltotalitarianideologies
(especially,theNazitheandcommunistideologies)thatwerethestrongestamongother
politicalcurrentsofthetwentiethcenturytoofferreadinesstomeettheseexistentialand
spiritual needs. They promised the demoralised world to restore some primary (class,
historical,racial,natural,biological)integrity.Theyproposedaclear,simple,Manichean
description and explained the complex social reality in plain words. They provided a
strongsenseofdignity,senseofbelongingtoacommunity,andcontactwithrealvalues
andauthorities.
Therefore, project-wise, it is worth asking the question on the degree of such
explorationforauthority,ideals,andstrongidentityingeneral,andtowhatextentsucha
searchconcernpolitics.Itseemsparticularlyimportanttoinvestigatewhetheryoungpeople
declaring a strong identity, identification, and attachment to the authorities in the area
outside(before)political(religion,family,scouting,localenvironment)arealsolookingfor
strongidentityinpolitics.Inotherwords,itisaverificationofathesisknownfromliterature
31
thatstrongrootsinthepre-politicalarea(religion,family,localcommunity)meettheneed
ofbelongingandorientation,andthusprotectagainstanuncriticalseductionbypolitical
ideologies.
4.3. Economicandsocialfrustration/disappointment
As a result of the successive stages of the economic crisis, the models of economic
development,andespeciallythesignificantincreaseinschoolinginsomeofthestudied
societies, a deep sense of socio-economic frustration caused by unemployment or
constant lack of work associated with education may be important to the younger
generation, especially among graduates. Another source of this frustration can be
identifiedasarelativedeteriorationofstartinlifeoftheyounggenerationcomparedto
thepreviousgeneration(tenorfifteenyearsearlier,economicconditionscouldbebetter,
morejobscouldbeofferedinthefreshlyformedadministration,moredevelopmentfunds
couldbeavailablefromtheEU,etc.).
IncountriessuchasPolandorHungary,thephenomenonofmassmigrationtolarge
urbancentresintheirowncountry,butalso–andaboveall–abroad,constitutesavent
discharging this frustration. Having said that, we can assume that such a massive,
generational social frustration may also give rise to political frustration and political
radicalism(left-wingandright-wingalike).
Thatiswhy,project-wise,itseemsimportanttoformulate1-2questionsexaminingthe
scopeandthelevelofsuchgenerationalpoliticalfrustration,itspossiblerelationshipwith
theradicalisationofpoliticalviews(conspiracytheories,anti-elitism,aversiontostrangers),
and whether it possibly opens the way to the affirmation of political rules/ practices
characteristicfortotalitarianism.
4.4.
Theproblemofmassmigrations
The societies under study, in the past few months faced with the problem of mass
migration.Insomeofthem(Hungary/Germany),thisprocessactuallyoccurredinreal
terms,inothercountries–manifesteditselfasasenseofuncertaintyandinsecurity.Inall
cases,however,especiallywherepublicauthoritiesseemedunpreparedandsurprisedby
thisphenomenon,itmaybeaccompaniedwith–encompassingtheyounggeneration–
anxietyandfearforthepreservationofculturalidentityoftheirsocieties,existentialand
socialsafety,preservingcivilliberties(inthecontextofthethreatoffundamentalismand
terrorism).
Therefore,itappearssensiblewithintheprojecttoconsiderthequestionofthelevelof
concernintheyounggenerationfortheproblemofmassmigrationofMuslimstoEurope
anddeterminingwhetherthepotentialanxietyisassociatedwiththeaffirmationofpolitical
radicalism,orwhetheritleadsmoretowardtheconcernfortheeffectivenessofgovernment
andtheprotectionoftheidentityofthepoliticalandculturalEurope.
32
6. Theroleofthememoryofperpetratorsandvictims.Subjectivisationof
historicalknowledge,relativisationofhistoricalguiltversusresistanceto
totalitarianism
Thememoryofhistoricaleventsfromtheperiodoftotalitarianismisoneofthekey
factorsthatincreasethechanceofavoidingsimilartragediesnowadaysandinthefuture.
Inparticular,thisappliestothedimensionof‘axiologicalmemory’oftheperpetratorsand
victimsoftotalitarianism,andnotonly‘pureknowledge’abouttheveryevents,butalso
their moral evaluation. Any attempts to relativise the suffering of victims (eg. through
unauthorisedequationofthesufferingofPolesandJewsduringWorldWarIIwiththe
fate of displaced Germans after the War), and the blurring of accountability of
perpetrators (eg. by narrowing the category of offenders to ‘Nazis’ and avoiding the
association of responsibility with the Germans) gradually leads to the blurring of
axiological memory. This, in turn, results in axiological confusion and, consequently,
causes a situation in which, despite certain historical knowledge, its proper moral
judgmentisimpaired.Asaresult,thevulnerabilityof‘purehistoricalknowledge’toits
instrumental use is increased – especially by politicians. In particular, this situation is
dangerousforyoungpeoplewithlessandlessopportunityforcontactwiththewitnesses
oftotalitarianism.‘Neutral’historicalfactstakenoutofthemoralcontextcaneasilybe
reinterpreted and, consequently, weaken the opposition to the manifestations and
mechanismsoftotalitarianism.Thistypeofactivitycouldbeexemplifiedbyapublication
releasedin2002byJörgFriedrichBlaze,aGermanhistorian,Germanyunderthebombs
1940–1945 (in German: Der Brand – Deutschland im. Bombenkrieg 1940–1945). In his
work,theauthordescribedthesufferingoftheGermanscausedbyBritishandAmerican
airraidsonGerman cities,eg.Dresden andHamburg.Beginning hisspeechduringthe
booklaunch,theheadofPropyläen,apublishinghouse,saidthatithadfinallybeentime
topresentGermanyasvictimsofAlliedbombings85.Thisexampleshowstheconfusionof
the neutral, factual dimension of events with the moral dimension thus, ultimately,
blurringthelatter–muchasitistruethattheGermanpopulationsufferedasaresultof
actionstakenbytheAlliedmilitary,usingtheword‘victim’,conveyingastrongaxiological
potential,resultsinrelativisingthecategoryofperpetratorsandvictimsoftheGerman
totalitarianism.
Anothertypeofrelativismappliedinthecategoriesofvictimsandperpetratorsoccurs
inthecaseofnarrowingtheresponsibilityforwarcrimestothepersonofAdolfHitlerand
hisclosestassociates.Inthisperspective,theGermansocietyispresentedasacollective
victim of the totalitarian activities of a small group of Nazi decision makers. Another
example relativising the moral guilt is exemplified by the use of the media, and some
historians, the seemingly neutral and ‘geographical’ term ‘Polish concentration camps’
whichevidentlysuggeststhecomplicityofPolesintheexterminationofJews.
Anotherchallengefortheteachingoftotalitarianismisthesubjectivisationofhistory.
Presentinghistorythroughtheprismofthefateofindividualsisaveryappealingwayto
85
Ten zbrodniarz Churchill, Joachim Trenkner, Tygodnik Powszechny, issue No. 2 (2792), January 12, 2003.
33
transfer knowledge and attitudes. At the same time, however, without presenting the
objective context and historical background, it is easy to manipulate the historical
message.GenerationWar,aTVseriesfinancedwithGermantaxpayers’moneyandfilmed
incollaborationwithGermanhistorians,isagrosslydangerousexampleofthedistorted
shapingofknowledgeaboutWorldWarII.Thisproduction,ontheonehand,showsthe
moraldilemmasofafewyoungGermansparticipatinginthewar,ontheotherhand,it
presentsPolishHomeArmysoldiersasruthlessanti-Semites.Undoubtedly,theGerman
nationincludedpeoplewhonotonlywerereluctanttotakepartinwartimehostilities,
butalsothosethatopenlycondemnedNazismandpaidwiththeirlifeforsuchaheroic
attitude. There is also no doubt that some Poles were indeed anti-Semites. However,
buildingahistoricalcommunicationbasedonselectedandtendentiouslypresentedfates
ofindividualsleadstobothdifficultyinshapingasoundhistoricalknowledge,aswellas
teachingappropriateattitudestowardstotalitarianism.
Thelackofaccountingforcommunisttotalitarianismisaseparateissue.Anextreme
example of this situation is the contemporary Russia, where state authorities never
condemned communism and the disintegration of the USSR is seen in terms of a
geopoliticaldisaster.Theproblemofaclearapproachtocommunism,however,isbroader
and,tosomeextent,alsorelatestothestatesofWesternEurope.Condemnedaresome
methodsofcommunistactions,someerrorsareindicated,whiletheassessmentofthe
essenceofcommunismisambivalent.Forthisreason,therehasbeennoaccountingto
datefortheinvolvementofWesternintellectualsincommunism.Thelackofaclearmoral
evaluationweakenstheimpregnationagainstsomeelementsofcommunistideology.
7. Thetrivialisationoftotalitarianismincontemporarydebateandart.
Parallelsbetweenthepersecutionoftotalitariantimesandcertainformsof
discriminationindemocraticsystems
Thetrivialisationoftotalitarianismincontemporarydebateandart
Thehamperedperceptionoftotalitarianisminyouthmayresultfromthetrivialization
of the message of totalitarianism. Trivialisation manifests itself in a special way in
contemporary art in the commercialisation of totalitarian symbols. The trivialisation
stemsfromtheuseofinadequately‘light’formsofcontentcarryingamessageofbyfara
different calibre. Focusing on easy and appealing form can lead to difficulties in the
perceptionoftherealhorroroftotalitarianism.AdolfHitler–aspecifickindofsymbolof
eviloftheGermantotalitarianism,wholedtotheexterminationofmillionsofpeople–
hasbeengainingeverincreasingrecognitioninpopculture.Thiscanevenbeexemplified
by He's back (in German: Er ist wieder da), a record-breaking comedy series in East
Germanyin2015.Inthisfilm,AdolfHitlerispresentedasapitifulloserinstrugglingwith
everyday situations, and at some point being simply presented as a comedian.
Disregarding the scant cultural value of such films, these images can contribute to the
dulling of the moral sensitivity towards totalitarianism. Another example, this time
34
showingthetrivialisationofcommunisttotalitarianism,aret-shirtswithsymbolsofthe
hammerandsickle,ortheimageofCheGuevara.
Analogies between persecution from the times of totalitarianism and some
formsofdiscriminationindemocraticsystems
Oneofthechallengesofacorrectperceptionoftotalitarianismistheissueoftheuse
oftoofar-reachinganalogiesbetweenthesituationofspecificgroups/minoritiesduring
the times of social totalitarianism and their situation in the contemporary liberal
democracy,whichinturncanleadtoakindofinflationofthenotionoftotalitarianism.
Theseanalogiesareeasilybeinstrumentalisedinpoliticalandideologicaldisputes–and
thereforeareoftenabused.Consequently,theseanalogiescauseagradualblurringofthe
essence of the phenomenon of totalitarianism, and the very notion of totalitarianism
becomesincreasinglyfuzzyandunclearfortheviewer.
The overly broad use of analogy may be exemplified by comparing the situation of
personsofhomosexualorientation.WhileinWorldWarIIinNaziGermanyatleastseveral
thousand people were murdered due to their sexual orientation (the vast majority of
theseweremen),theattempttocomparethesituationofhomosexualsintheThirdReich
tomodernformsofdiscriminationoccurringinthedemocraticsystemisabusive.While
inbothcasestheactionsrelatetothesameminority(homosexuals),thescope,forms,and
causesthereofaredifferent.Thekeyanddecisivedifferencestemsfromthefactthatthe
ThirdReichGermanyideologicallyandlegallystigmatisedhomosexualitytotheextreme
levelofextermination,whiletodaytheEUnotonlylegallyprohibitedthediscrimination
on the grounds of sexual orientation, but also financially supports numerous LGBT
organisations.Currentmanifestationsofdiscriminationagainsthomosexualpeopleare
relatedtotheactivitiesofindividualsorcommunitiesactingcontrarytotheestablished
lawwithoutanyconnectionwiththestatebureaucracy.
Emphasising the issue of the essence of German totalitarianism, we should bear in
mindthatpeoplewithhomosexualorientation–asdistinctfromtheJews,Sinti,andRoma
–werenotlegallyidentifiedasagroupplannedforextermination,butaspeopletobe‘reeducated’and‘healed’86.
For its part, the issue of the attempt to build an unjustified analogy of ‘totalitarian
violence’ is linked with the indication by some circles of structural violence directed
against homosexuals, present in liberal democracy. It is stated at the same time that
despitethefactthathomosexualpeopledonotactuallyexperiencedirectviolenceonthe
part of the government, they are exposed to structural violence grounded in the
oppressiveculture.Theattempttoincludethecategoryofstructuralviolencewithinthe
schemeofcontemporarythreatsoftotalitarianismnotonlyconstitutesaneffacementof
ShoahoftheJewishpeoplebutalsoofthesufferingexperiencedbyhomosexualsduring
theNaziregimeinGermanyandsentencedtodeathinconcentrationcamps.Atthesame
86
Robert G. Moeller, The Homosexual Man is a „Man”, the homosexual Woman is a “Woman”: Sex, Society, and
the Law in Postwar West Germany, [in:] Robert G. Moeller (ed.), West Germany Under Construction: Politics,
Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era, University of Michigan Press, 1994, p. 258.
35
time,eachformofacriticalstanceonhomosexualactswiththeinstrumentaluseofthe
categoryofstructuralviolencemaybeportrayedastotalitarian.
ItisworthpointingheretothefactthattheSection175oftheGermanCriminalCode
of1871–usedintheperiodoftotalitarianismincrimesagainsthomosexuals–remained
abolished in Germany until 1969, ie. 24 years after the end of totalitarianism in West
Germany87.
87
Ibidem, p. 182.
36
METHODOLOGICALSYNTHESIS
distinctionsofthequalitativemethod
Researchteam:
Prof.KrzysztofWielecki,PhD
AssociateProf.MarcinZarzecki,PhD
37
Qualitativemethodsdonotbelongtomethodsallowingthecollectionofrepresentative
data88.Samplesizesaswellassamplingschemesdonotincreasethevalueofgeneralising
qualitativedata,inotherwords,thepossibilityofdrawinginferencefromsampleonto
population. The core issues in unquantified (qualitative) research are the scope of
authenticityofinformationalongwiththeproblemofreliabilityofqualitativemeasures
(questionsincludedinthescript).Ontheirpart,qualitativemethodsprovideknowledge
on motives, acts of will, evaluations, and declared attitudes towards problems under
study. In this research project, qualitative data have been used in transverse and
longitudinal analyses89 in order to identify specific and intersubjective features90.
Qualitativedata,inindividualcomponentsofthisresearchproject,havebeentreatedas
complementary, mutually verifiable and supplemental. Applying such a form of source
triangulation91helpedgenerateafullpictureofthesubjectunderstudy.Methodologyof
thisresearchprojectincludedmeetingresearchgoalsonthelevelofcontentexplications.
Additionally,thisresearchprojectrequiresthepreparationofmaterialsandinformation
to be provided to respondents (letters of intent and scripts). Thus, core requirements
vested in the ESOMAR92 code will be fulfilled, namely, participation in this research
project will be conscious and voluntary, as respondents will be duly informed on the
natureoftheproject.Itisrequiredthataletterofintentshouldbedrawnupandsentto
arelevantentity,inaccordancetoestablishedtemplatesandincludingalltheinformation
required by the Research Quality Control Programme93 (PKJPA). Quality control of
collected data and data protection will encompass the full evaluation of the collected
material and the full scope of researchers’ work, in keeping with ESOMAR standards.
Recommendationonthetypeofdataqualityprotectionprocedurewillbebasedonlogical
access control, and it will be performed with the use of standard methods. General
88
In order to generalise the results obtained for the random sample to the entire population, the sample must be representative, ie structure of
the sample due to the properties under study must be similar to that of the general population. Representativeness of the sample can be achieved
when two conditions are met: 1) the elements of the population are selected in the sample at random, 2) sample is sufficiently large. By a
random selection of items it is understood that this is a procedure, for which each unit features a certain (non-zero) probability of occurrence
in the sample, and for each subset of the general population units it is possible to determine the probability of occurring in the sample. The
qualitative research projects are based on respondents selected in a targeted manner, and not randomly, hence the lack of representativeness.
89
Analyses from the perspective of the research questions and the response variations in the statements of the respondents with different
experience and different status.
90
Specific features, or customised for the respondent, and intersubjectivised, which means that they are homogeneous from the perspective of
the respondents belonging to a common category of environment and occupation.
91
The method used in social studies, intended to ensure a higher quality of research and reducing measurement error by combining different
methods or data sources.
92
ESOMAR (European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research). The activity of the association is aimed at raising the ethical standards
of public opinion polls and market studies, eg through the International Code of Conduct in Market Research and Social Reserach developed
jointly by ESOMAR and ICC (International Chamber of Commerce).
93
PKJPA sets minimum standards for the quality of work in the organisation of the Department of Implementation and field network,
recruitment of interviewers and coordinators, their training, supervision and coordination of their work, as well as checking the correctness of
the work performed by them.
38
guidelines concerning error categorisation will be accepted. In order to be able to
preciselyretracethecontentofFGIs(FocusGroupInterviews),aswellastheirprocess,
theinterviewswillberegisteredonaudiodevices,uponauthorisationofrespondents.In
ordertoupholdESOMARandPKJPAstandards,statementsprovidedbyrespondentswill
remain anonymous. Within the analysis, only category of the subject along with
conjunctionoftypologicalsamplepropertieswillbedisclosed.
Collected qualitative data will undergo a vertical analysis (through issues described in
research questions) and will be used to draw inferences, conclusions, and
recommendations presented in the final report. Key issues discussed in the report
(diagnosedwithinthisresearchproject)willbeillustratedwithquotationssourcedfrom
respondents’statements.Thekeyobjectiveintheanalysisofqualitativedataistoexplain
‘how a past experience is assigned with meaning, how it is defined, felt, expressed,
embodied, interpreted, and comprehended’94. Materials collected in the result of
qualitativeresearchwillundergoanalysisbasedonthefollowingstages:
1.
Initialanalysis
The first stage of qualitative data analysis is quasi-technical – materials will undergo
initialselectioninordertoestablishthelevelofreliabilityofcollecteddata,toeliminate
contradictions and inconsistencies, etc. Transcription will also be partly structured in
ordertocollectfundamentalinformationonsubjectsunderstudy.
2.
Reductionandcategorisation
The second stage will be based on reduction and categorisation of collected
information, namely, it includes: specification of regularities, drafting problem areas,
determining individual issues and frequently mentioned notions and terms.
Categorisation will only serve to identify sample primary answers, but it will be
accompanied with the description of secondary opinions. The key objective of
categorisationistointroduceinterpretationalordertothecollectedqualitativedata.
3.
In-depthinterpretation
Suchpreparedmaterialswillformabaseforfurther,in-depthinterpretationconstituting
afoundationforformulatingrules,specificregularities,accordingtoageneralschemeof
processingqualitativedata.
94
N. K. Denzin Reinterpretacja metody biograficznej w socjologii, [in:], Metoda biograficzna w socjologii, J. Włodarek, M. Ziółkowski (ed.),
Warszawa 1990, p. 58.
39
Qualitative data will be structured and quantified by submitting data to a dedicated
software,egATLAS.ti95,however,narrativeanalysiswillremainthecorefocus96.
4.5.
CODING
Atlas.ti software is used to professionally execute material coding by efficiently
processing large parts of material and visualising results with relevant functions, eg
network-viewgraphs.
Atlas.tiEDUforWindowsv.7isasoftwaredesignedforanalysingquantifiablequalitative
data. It features such functionalities as word frequency distribution or assigning
categoriesandcodestowords,sentences,andparagraphs.Onthewhole,thesoftwareis
designedforanalysisoflargetextcorpuses(simultaneouslysupportinggraphicdataas
well as audio and video formats). It offers tools supporting systemic analysis and
interpretation of material otherwise practically impossible to analyse with regular
statisticalprocedures.Suchtoolsfacilitatetheprocessofmanagingthecollectedmaterial,
extracting information, comparing and exploring data, as well as cross-referencing –
whichiscruciallyimportantinprocessinglargeamountsofdata.Thissoftwarewillbe
harnessedtoexploreandvisualisecomplex,untappedregularitiesunderlyingqualitative
data. Atlas.ti supports analytical work on two levels. Firstly, text-based work, includes
suchactionsasselection,coding,annotation,addingcomments,aswellassearchingand
countingelements.Secondly,conceptualwork,includesmostlyeasy-to-usegraphictools
designed to create conceptual networks and visualise theories with reference to raw
material.Keyfunctionalitiesinclude:
1. Automatisation,coding,andrecodingtextmaterials,images,audio/video.
2. RTF support, embedded objects, Word to RTF conversion, native PDF support,
GoogleEarthintegration.
3. Complexsemanticandlogicalsearch.
4. Visualmindmapping.
5. Contentanalysis.
6. ExporttoSPSS,HTML,XML,CSV.
95
Atlas.ti is a software for an extensive content analysis, particularly useful for very large collections. In addition, it is suitable for counting
the frequency of words and categories with the ability to assign categories and tags to sentences, paragraphs, or texts that contain certain words.
Also, it is possible to develop relations across categories along with visualisations, code structure and the relationship between fragments of
texts.
96
Analysis without statistical approach and based on the search of narrative sequences in the transcription of the text which are essential from
the perspective of the subject of research.
40
7. XMLpresentationsalongwithXSLTspreadsheets.
8. Wordfrequencycount.
Atlas.tiisauniversalsoftwaredesignedforqualitativedataanalysisandcodingempirical
material in the form of interview transcription, as well as processing documents and
visuals.Thissoftwareprovesparticularlyusefulinanalysinglargenumbersofdocuments,
asitgreatlyfacilitatesworkbymeansofgraphicalpresentationofresultsintheformofa
networkview.
Fig.1.NetworkviewinATLAS.ti–example.
Source:ATLAS.ti7UserGuideandReference
A major advantage of this software is the possibility to execute coding efficiently
accordingtovariousstrategies–eitherwiththehelpofacodingkeytemplate,or(asin
themethodologyofferedbythegroundedtheory)withopencoding.Thelatterpossibility
distinguishes this software from other programmes of the kind, as layering different
coding systems proceeds far more efficiently, at the same time enabling the user to
simultaneously create connections between the coding systems and view the resulting
graphs.
41
Fig.2.CodesCo-OccurrencyTableinATLAS.ti–example.
Source:http://www.surrey.ac.uk
TheadvantagesofferedbyAtlascanbealsoutilisedbyresearchersperformingnarrative
analysisorconversationanalysis.Withthehelpofquerytool(andbytheuseofarelevant
formula) the user can analyse the context of a specific subject mentioned in the
respondent’sstatement,aswellasthesequenceofindividualsubjectsmentionedinthe
statement,whichcanalsoberepresentedvisually.
Fig.3.QuerytoolinATLAS.ti–example.
42
Source:http://www.surrey.ac.uk
Inqualitativeresearchprojects,usingopen-endedquestionsresultsfromthenecessityof
categorisationandcodingtheresearchmaterialcollectedasaresultofansweringthese
questions.Byprovidingrespondentswiththepossibilityofstatingtheiropinionfreely,
the researcher most frequently receives a wide variety of answers. Interpretation of
collecteddatabeginsfromorderingthem–bycreatingmoregeneralcategorieswhich
later respondents’ statements will be classified to. Assigning general labels (codes) to
fragmentsofstatementsisreferredtoascodingqualitativedata.Codesareorderedina
coding tree. In the first place, test coding is performed, where several respondents’
statements are coded. This enables the creation of a coding tree and evaluation of the
matchbetweencodingandtheanswers.Suchactionsdonotentailthefinalclosingofthe
coding list. Coding schemes can be modified even after "the main stage of coding” has
commenced(egwhencodersfrequentlyarenotsurewhichcodeshouldbeassignedto
theanswerorwhenfacedwithnewphenomena)andtreestructurecanbemodified.The
analysisofqualitativedatawiththeuseofallcodingproceduressecureshighconfidence
43
thatresultsinthereportarestrictlyadjustedtodataandincreasestheprobabilitythat
keyinformationisneverleftbehind.
Codesandnotescanbefreelymanagedincodemanagerandmemomanagerareas.Itis
also possible to import data saved in Excel format. Additionally, the user can create a
reportsummarisingtheanalysis–featuringtheintegrationofcategories,subcategories,
andquotations.Thissoftwarefeaturesmanymorefunctionalitiesandonlythemostbasic
oneshavebeendescribedhere.Atlasisarelativelyeasy-to-usesoftwareandlearninghow
touseitsbasicfunctionalitiesconsumesverylittletime.Itisalsoworthmentioningthat
Atlasiscurrentlyusedbycutting-edgeresearchcentresinPolandandabroad.
4.6.
RESEARCHTECHniques–FGI
Ourresearchprojectwillemploythequalitativetechnique–FGIs.
FGI – Focus Group Interview. Group interviews allow dynamic group discussions of
similar individuals concentrated around a specific issue. This approach provides more
comprehensiveinformationonthefocusofdiscussion.Thepresenceofotherindividuals
cognisantoftheissueunderstudyallowsinstantverificationofinformationprovidedby
respondents,whichensureshigherreliabilitythereof.Thistechniqueenablesresearchers
toexplorethefullpotentialvestedinthesynergyofthegroupanditsinternaldynamics.
Aminigroupwillalsoserveasaspecificexpertpanel.
44
Fig.4.LogicalstructureofanFGIstudy.
FGI – targeted, typological sample
ANALIZAIOCENA
REKOMENDACJE
•
•
•
Booking FGI studio
Recruitment of qualified respondents
Recruitment efficacy
Conceptualisation and
operationalisation
Project Team
•
•
•
Developing a list of relevant
information
Developing FGI scripts
Letter of intent
FGI MODERATION in 7 countries (Austria,
Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Romania,
Slovakia, Hungary)
Transcripton and processing in ATLAS.ti
45
4.7.
samplingSCHEME–TYPOLOGICALREPRESENTATIVENESS
Thequalitativeresearchproject(FGI)willbecarriedoutin7countries:Austria,Czech
Republic, Germany, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Hungary, according to the same
typologicalsamplingscheme,whichallowscomparingresultsacrosscountries.
Eachcountrywillcarryouttheresearchplanaccordingtothefollowinglogic:
Typologicalsample:24-32(considering6-8peoplewithin1FGI,
namely,4FGIx6-8respondents)
Samplingscheme:criterion-valid,non-probabilitysampling(typological)
Interviewlength: maximally120min.
Researchtool:
interviewquestionnaire
Respondent:
1maincategory(representativesofyouth)
Objectssimilartolocalunitsontheregionallevel,asspecifiedbytheNomenclatureof
TerritorialUnitsforStatistics(NUTS),willconstituteframeworkreferenceforresearch
units.EmployingtheterritorialdivisionasindicatedbytheNomenclatureofTerritorial
Units for Statistics (NUTS) will allow geographical stratification of the sample by the
region.TheNomenclatureofTerritorialUnitsforStatistics(fromFrench:Nomenclature
desUnitésterritorialesstatistiques,abbreviatedtoNUTS)setsageographicstandardfor
statistical division of membership countries of the European Union (more specifically,
their economic areas) into three regional levels of specific classes of population by
number.Thisstandardhasbeenestablishedinordertocollect,process,anddisseminate
comparabledataforspecificregionalstatisticsontheareaoftheEuropeanUnion(egin
thefieldofregionalaccounts,demographics,labourmarket,andtheinformationsociety).
The NUTS classification is also shaping regional policies of the European Union and is
essentialforanalysingthedegreeofsocio-economicdevelopmentintheregions.Itwas
introducedbytheregulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandtheEuropeanCouncilof26th
46
of May 2003 and entered into force on the 11th of July 2003, replacing the previously
binding Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) established ad hoc by
Eurostatincooperationwithnationalstatisticaloffices.
The choice of regions in individual countries within the study should be based on the
geographical criterion, allowing differentiation by geo-historical conditions of the
developmentofthecountry.ThecityfortherealisationofanFGIischosenbylocation
withintheNUTSandbyavailabilityofanFGIstudio.Naturally,theselectionincludesunits
fromthewholeareaofthespecificNUTS,notonlyfromthecity,whereanFGIiscarried
out.InPoland,thefollowingstructureisrecommended:
Graph1.StructurebyNUTSandbythecityrecommendedtocarryoutanFGI
REGION
FGI
Recommendedcitytocarryout
FGI
Central
region
Southern
region
Eastern
region
Northwest
region
Total
1
Warsaw
1
Kraków
1
Lublin
1
Poznań
4
4
Criteriaofsampledifferentiation:
1)
Gender–theB-Ateamassumesdiversityofexperiencesonissuesunder
studybygender,
2)
Age–theB-Ateamassumesdiversityofexperiencesonissuesunderstudy
byage(categories:18-24yearsofage–workingage,civicconsciousness
and identity, historical awareness resulting from participation in the
formaleducationalsystem,thereductionofradicalattitudesandopinions
resultingfromadolescence),
3)
Thesizeoftheplaceofresidence–Eurostatsubregions,
47
Involvement/lack of involvement in social and/or political activity –
4)
declarationofthelevelofcommitment.
Graph2.Structurebyconjunctionofsamplevariables
18- 22-24
Eurostat
Eurostat Eurostat Comm
21
-mostly
-mixed
rie
rural
subregio urban
s
subregion ns
subregio
s
ns
ego
1
-mostly
Activity
Subregions
M
Age
F
Cat
Gender
No
itment commi
tment
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-4
2-3
1-2
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-4
2-3
1-2
3-4
3-4
3-4
34
34
3-4
2-3
3-4
3-4
3-4
2-3
1-2
3-4
12-16
12-16
8-12
4-6
12-16
FGI
2
FGI 34
3
1-2 3-4
3-4 3-4
FGI
4
3-4
3-4
3-4
12-16
12-16
FGI
Tot
12-
12-
al
16
16
4.8.
RISKANALYSIS
Ateverystageoftheresearchprocess,research-and-analyticalteamwilltakemeasures
toensurereliabilityandrelevanceoftheresearchprocessinordertoensurehighquality
of raw and analysed data. Reliability of the research is understood as unity and
consistencyofrepeatedmeasurementsonthesamesubject,assumingtheconsistencyof
externalconditions.Relevanceoftheresearch,foritspart,isunderstoodasadequacyof
48
applied research tools and collected data in terms of achieving the objectives of the
researchproject.
Project risk management includes processes associated with conducting risk
managementplanning,identificationandanalysisofrisks,respondingtorisk,aswellas
monitoringandcontrollingriskintheproject.Risksareeventsthathavenotyetoccurred
andwhichmayoccurandadverselyaffecttheproject.Itshouldbenotedthatriskisan
inherentpartofanyprojectandriskmanagementisaimedatpreventingitsoccurrence,
aswellasminimisingitsimpactontheprojecttotheveryminimum.Riskmanagement
consistsofthefollowingsteps:
»
Riskidentification:whatkindofriskcanaffecttheproject?
»
Riskanalysis:whatkindofriskcanresultinthemostsevereconsequences?
»
Monitoring risk: what measures should be taken and monitored to prevent the
occurrenceofmajorrisksandminimisetheireffects?
Whendesigningtheconceptoftheresearchpresentedinthisdocument,theB-Ateam
diagnosedthefollowingpotentialareasofriskanddesignedwaystoreducethem.
Table2.Potentialareasofriskandwaystoreducethem.
No.
Risk/Threat
Howtofightit/remedialaction
1. False
assumptions on
expertknowledge
2. Delays
on the part of
subcontractors
(recruiters and FGI
studios) in rendering
certainservices
Supplementingmissingdatawithbroadcontentanalysis
andadditionaldeskresearch.
1. Provisions in the agreement concerning liquidated
damagesforeachdayofdelay.
2. Regular contact with recruiters in order to identify
possibledelays.
3. Asalastresort,urgentchangeoftherecruiterorthe
FGIstudio(keepingapermanentstandbylist).
à The applied procedures of cooperation with
recruitersandownersofFGIstudiosaswellasregular
supervisionovertheprogressofimplementationallow
theeliminationofriskandensurethecontinuityofthe
researchteamschedule.
3. Problems
in
the In addition to standard measures aimed at increasing
recruitment process of motivation to participate in the research project, the
FGIrespondents
recruiterwillofferpropermotivatorstorespondents–
adjustedtotheirknowledgeandexperience.
49
4. Deficit
in
respondents
commitment
FGI
»
»
»
»
Introducing‘silentmoderators’.
Employingvariousformsofworkanddiscussion
inconsultations.
Optimising consultation time (dates, hours, and
duration).
Harnessingproxemicpropertiesoftheinteriorto
spurdiscussion.
Source:originalmaterials
FGI QUESTIONNAIRE SCRIPT
5min.INTRODUCTION
Welcomingtheparticipants,presentingtheresearchsubjectandkeyinformationabouttheResearchTeam
aswellastheproject,statingthatthisprojectisco-financedbytheEU,explainingthenatureofthemeeting,
specifyingitsduration(approx.150min.)andobjectives,clarifyingexpectationstowardstherespondents,
informingaboutrecordingandconfidentiality,askingtoturnoff/mutecellphones,askingFGIparticipants
tointroducethemselvesanddescribetheireducationprofile/professionalexperience,andaffiliations,etc.
Block
Researchobjective Linguisticguidelines97
10-15MIN.
Arrangement
1. Tostartwith,pleaseintroduceyourselfandtellmeafew
WARMUP
wordsaboutyourself.
2. How would you evaluate the social/ economic and
politicalsituationinthecountry?
3. Howdoyouperceivethecontemporaryroleandtasks
ofthestateinorganisingrulesinthesociety?
35MIN.
Contextualisation
1. Isitworthstayingactiveinlifeandleadanactivesocial
SEQUENCE1
life?Doyouconsideryourselfactiveand–ifso–where
exactly are you active (home, local environment, etc)?
How much time (weekly, monthly, or early) do you
devotetoyouractivities?Howwouldyouevaluateyour
owninvolvementinsociallife?
2. Insocialissues,doyourathertrustcharismaticleaders
of distinguishing, powerful features, or rather open
debatesandcollaborativeactions?Why?
[Note–aggregatescale:definitelyacharismaticleader,
rather a charismatic leader, I don’t know, rather open
debatesandcollaborativeactions,definitelyopendebates
and collaborative actions]. Elaboration in a classic
narrativestyle.
3. Doyoufeelalienatedandlonely,ordoyouratherfeel
closenessandsupportfrom:
1.family
2.neighboursorlocalenvironment
Linguistic guidelines only serve for the moderator to indicate the direction the discussion should be lead, and therefore they should not be
treated literally.
97
50
Block
Researchobjective
40MIN.
SEQUENCE2
Identifyingkey
content
Linguisticguidelines97
3.communitywhereyouworkoreducateyourself
4.nation,state
5.otherenvironment?Whatkindof?
[Note!Questionsshouldaimatprobingintorespondents’
expectations and indicating issues which they feel
disappointed about – within the above-mentioned
environments.Thelevelofdisappointmentorsatisfaction
should be marked on aggregate scales: I definitely feel
closenessandsupport,Iratherfeelclosenessandsupport,
I don’t know, hard to say, I rather feel alienated and
lonely,Idefinitelyfeelalienatedandlonely].Elaboration
inaclassicnarrativestyle.
4. What do you feel towards your parents and teachers?
Why? Would you name someone considered to be a
genuine authority for your generation? Who is this
person? Why would you consider them to be your
authority?
5. Howdoyouperceiveyourjobprospects?Why?
6. Howdoyouperceiveyourreligiousness?Why?
7. Doyoubelievethatpeoplearegoodorbad,bynature?
8. Somepeoplesaythatpeoplearehonest,bynature.Some
otherwouldrathersaythat,onthewhole,people,under
favourablecircumstances,trytocheatortakeadvantage
ofothers.Whatisthetruth?
9. Somepeoplesaythat,onthewhole,theworldaroundus
gradually becomes a safer place. Some other would
rathersayitbecomesmoreandmoredangerous.What
do you think? In which matters does the danger
increase,andwhendoesitdecrease?
1. Do you believe that in the situation of a high and real
danger to the society, the government has the right to
temporarilyresorttolyinginfrontofthesocietysoasto
protectthecitizensfromtheimpendingthreat?
2. Wouldyougrantcredibilitytotheconceptofthenatural
law, or rather all laws are ultimately and exclusively
groundedinthewillofthemajority?Doesthemajority
have the right to decide on all issues concerning the
society?
3. Doyoubelievethatwithinthesocietytherearegroups
ofpeople,relativelysmall,whichhavebetterknowledge
about how the society should look like? Would such a
groupofpeoplehavetherighttoimposeagoodsolution
onthewholesocietysoastoprotectthepublicfroma
threatposedtotheirlives?
4. Do you believe that the society needs elites shaping
awarenessandviewsofcitizens?Whatgroupswouldbe
referred to as elite in the society and are their
aspirations justified? Alternatively, what background
would make someone part of opinion-forming elites
51
Block
Researchobjective
Linguisticguidelines97
(scientific achievements and knowledge? talent and
artistic achievements? traditional social functions
[priest, judge, professor, teacher])? How about strong
political views followed in the best interest of your
country? Political success? Media recognition? Are
opinion-forming elites independent from political
power?Can/shouldtheybe?
5. Some people believe that the state should contain the
exuberant freedom of individuals, while others are of
the opinion that no limitations to the freedom of the
individualshouldbeimposed,whatsoever.Whatdoyou
think?
[Note – aggregate scale: definitely the state should
regulate the freedom of the individual, rather the state
should regulate the freedom of the individual, I don’t
know, hard to say, rather the freedom of the individual
should not be controlled, definitely the freedom of the
individualshouldnotbecontrolled.Pleasetakeparticular
note of views indicating specific spheres where control
should be more and less exercised, and where control is
needed,butlimited(when,bywhom,why)]Elaborationin
aclassicnarrativestyle.
6. In which spheres the state should intervene and in
which–itshouldnot?[Statementsshouldlaterserveto
rank spheres typical for every respondent: from the
spheresinwhichstateinterventionisneededthemost,to
thesphereswherestateinterventionisleastneeded]
7. Wouldyounamesituations,whenthegovernmenthas
therighttoconcealinformationconcerningtheactivity
ofcertainsocialgroups?
8. Doyoubelievethatforthesakeofgoodrelationswith
certaingroups,itisbetterthatthegovernmentdoesnot
publiclyaddressissuesthatconcernthesegroups,and
in extreme cases that the government conceals such
issuesfromthesociety?
9. Whatdoyoubelieveisthemostburningsocialissuein
yourcountry?Whatdoyoubelievearethebestwaysto
resolve these problems once and for all? [when the
answer is imprecise but suggestive]: Where would you
lookforsolutionstoresolvingsocialproblemsinyour
country?
10. Doyoubelieveitispossiblethatthevariouskindsof
problemsaffectinghumanityforages(poverty,
corruption,suffering,etc)canbedefinitelyeradicated
bymeansofpoliticalactions?
11. Doyoubelievethatitispossiblethatpolitics,alongwith
representing interests of the people and securing
efficiencyofthestate,canupholduniversalmoralvalues
(trust,
solidarity,
compassion,
truthfulness,
selflessness)?
52
Block
Researchobjective
50MIN.
SEQUENCE3
Diagnosingkey
content
Linguisticguidelines97
12. Do you believe that politics should be substantially
remodelled, given the imperfections, injustice, and
hypocrisyinsocial,politicalandeconomictermsofthe
modernworld?Why?
13. What is your opinion on the peaceful revolutions of
1989 which encompassed Poland, Germany,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, when authoritarian
regimes were stripped off their power in a peaceful
mannerbydissidents?
1. Whathistoricaleventsdoyoubelievearecrucially
importantinyourcountry?Why?
2. Doyoubelievethathistoryofyourcountryfeatures
shamefulevents?Whichexactly?
3. Do you believe that shameful events in your
country'shistoryshouldbepubliclyacknowledged
and discussed by the society [Aggregate scale:
definitely yes, rather yes, hard to say, it depends,
rather not, definitely not]? Elaboration in a classic
narrative style. Which events exactly should be
discussedandacknowledgedandwhichshouldnot
be?Why?
4. Doyouagreewiththestatementthatitisbetterto
let sleeping dogs lie so as not to hamper the
developmentofanew,betterfuture?Doyoubelieve
itispossibletoachievealastingreconciliationand
forgiveness in politics, reaching beyond historic
traumasofbygoneeras?
5. Do you believe your country is heading in a good
direction?
6. Recently,Europehasstruggledwiththe
immigrationissue.Whatisinyourviewthe
remedytothisprobleminyourcountry?
7. Do you believe that the majority of the society, in
extreme cases, has the right to take decisions
resulting in violence – including physical
elimination–againsttheminorityofthesocietyin
ordertosecuretheirbasicrights?
8. What do you believe is in your country definitely
democratic and what is not? Do you believe that
there are examples of totalitarianism in your
country? If so, what are these examples? Why do
theytakeplace?
9. Does
religion
promote
democracy
or
totalitarianism?Whatkindofreligion?Why?
10. Do you believe that, to some extent, we live in
extraordinarytimesandcircumstances,allowingus
to foster conditions aimed at creating “the New
Man"inordertomaketheworldabetterplace?
53
Block
Researchobjective
Linguisticguidelines97
11. Doyoubelievethatitisworthlimitingthefreedom
ofspeechanddemocracyinyourcountrysoasthe
party with a vision for the future of your country
andrepresentingvaluableideascanfinallymakea
genuinechangeforthegeneralpublic?
12. Do you believe that visionaries should have the
righttomaketheirideashappen,evenifthatwould
entail expanding the powers of the police and
reducingtheprerogativesoftheparliament?
13. Do you agree that some people in your country
shouldbesubjectedtoalittlebitmoreviolence?If
so,whatarethesepeople?Whatkindofviolencecan
be used against them: arrest, monitoring, physical
violence [Note – as above, individually for every
singlecategoryofpeopleagainstwhom–according
totherespondent–violenceisjustified].Howmuch
should the scope of violence be expanded against
thesepeople?
14. Doyoubelievesomepeople,orevenorganisations,
secretlyconspireagainstyourcountry?Orarethere
individualsotherwisesecretlyhostiletowardsyour
country?Ifso,howdangerousarethey?[Note–as
above, individually for every category of conspiring
individualsandorganisations,andthelevelofdanger
theypose].
15. Do you believe countries can experience
circumstances, when it is just to renounce
democracy and freedom? If so, what are these
circumstances?Pleasegiveexamples.
16. Doyoubelievethatitisjusttolimitsomecivilrights
in order to protect the society from the threat of
terroristattacks?
17. Do you believe that it is just to limit some civil
rightsinordertoprotectthesocietyfromfascistor
communist movements taking over the power in
yourcountry?
18. How would you define totalitarianism? What can
causepeopletoturntototalitarianismintheirlives?
19. What is the difference between propaganda and
information? Please give examples. When do you
believepropagandaiseffectiveandwhenisitnot?
Do you believe it is important to differentiate
betweenthesephenomena?Why?
20. Why do you believe people follow politicians or
ideologies?
21. Whataredemagogueryandpopulism?Pleasegive
examples. Do you believe populism and
demagogueryaredangerous?
54
Block
Researchobjective
5-10MINWRAP Questionsand
UP
suggestions
concerningthe
subjectofthe
research
Linguisticguidelines97
1.
To wrap up our meeting, would you like to say
something more about the issues we discussed today
(egtoelaborateorsummariseyouropinions)?
[thank,formalissues]
Graph. 1. Moderator Sheet
Moderatornameandsurname
Date
Interviewstarttime
Interviewendtime
Interviewtotaltime
Graph. 2. Respondent Sheet
RespondentId
No
01
Gender[F/M]
Yearofbirth
Subregion
[W/P/M]
Activity
[Z/BZ]
Other
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
55
Thefollowingsummariesarethefirstimpressionsoftheresearchersaboutthecollected
data.ThefinalmaterialincludingalsothetranscriptionsoftheinterviewsfromAustria,
GermanyandRomaniaisstillunderdevelopment.
DanielaLenčéšChalániová,PhD
DeanoftheSchoolofInternationalRelationsandDiplomacy
Anglo-AmericanUniversityinPrague
MAINFINDINGSOFTHEFOCUSGROUPSCONDUCTEDINTHECZECH
REPUBLIC
Contextualization:socialrelations/mood
3. YoungpeopleintheCzechRepublicareinvolvedsocially,althoughnotnecessarily
politically. Besides spending time with friends, they pursue their hobbies and
passions individually, but for others to participate in. So if anything - their
involvementischaracterizedbycontinuationoftheirindividualinterests,andif
otherswanttoshareinit,that’sOK.
Iconsiderjoiningapoliticalpartyatsomepoint,butrightnow,it’snotagoodtime
todoit,becausethepartiesI’mtheoreticallyinterestedinaretoounstablewhenit
comestotheirvotingbase,andcanceasetoexistatanymoment.AndIdon’twantto
joinsomepartythatintwoyearswillfindoutthatithasnovoterstorelyon,thatis
hasnotrustanymoreanddisintegratesbecauseofthat.
Onthewhole,theyseemtobemoreindependent-minded,thanreliantontherest
ofthegeneralsociety,includingitsleaders/authorities.
4. Apartfromafewcasesfromtroubledfamilies,mostFGIparticipantsfeelcloseto
theirfamiliesandfriends,abitlesssoincommunitiestheycannotchose–suchas
colleagues. Interesting results come when participants are asked about their
alienation/closenessto‘nation’.
Neitherofthegroupswouldopenlyacknowledgebeing‘Czechs’.Theydon’tseem
tohavemuchofanationalfeeling,regionalfeelingdominates(mostlikelythishas
todowithstrongregionalidentitiesastheCzechRepublicgeographicallydivides
intoCzechia,MoraviaandSilesia).Theyseemto‘feelCzech’onlywhencheering
forthenationalteam(duringhockeychampionships),otherwise,notsomuch.
Second significant observation comes in connection with their religiousness:
majority of the participants denies any active connection with the Church,
however,somecontrastbeliefinGodtobelongingtoaChurch.Ifanything,they
56
seeChristianityassomekindofculturaltraditionthathelpedshapehistoryofthe
society,andtheyhalf-jokinglysaidtheythoughtofpickingupBuddhism.
OSTR:Ithinkthethoughtisimportant,butitdoesnotmeanonehastogetupevery
Sundaymorningandexplicitlygoandwritheinthechurchinfrontofsomething.I
findthatobsolete.Buttheoriginalthought[ofreligion]isimportantforsure.
PRG:Igrewupinareligiousenvironment,butnowI’mdetached.ButIreallydon’t
mindtheexistenceofchurchesinhere,betheywhateverkind.Ithinkit’simportant.
AndIalsoseeapositiveroleofthechurches,buttheyshouldnotoverstepacertain
boundary, their power should not spill over. And it’s always important to keep
religiondifferentiatedfromthestateIthink.
PLZ:Absolutealienation.[WhenIremindedthemit’saPolish-ledresearch,soIneed
toaskabouttheChurch,Igotthereply]:JeeesusLord,they’llbeaftermeJ
5. Whenitcomestopeopletheyrespect,it’soverwhelminglypeopletheyfeelthey
know–someonefromtheirenvironment,someonetheyknowpersonally–most
often their teachers or parents. Again, the majority of the youth seem to
automatically reject unknown authority simply because it is in a position of
authority.
PRG:Ichooseauthoritiesmyself.
It’speoplewhosomehowspeaktomethroughtheirlife-styleortheirpath,peoplein
whomIseeidealsthatIlike,peopletowhomIcanrelate.
PLZ:Huh,Ican’treallysay,asIhaveaproblemwithauthorityingeneral,Idon’t
reallygivethemcredit.
SomeofyouwerementioningHavel?
Forus,he’sreallyadistantauthority,abitidealizedtoo,becausewehaven’treally
livedinhistime,butsure,whynot?
Howaboutteachers,yourcolleaguesatwork?
Well,atmostit’satthelevelwhenIsaytomyself:Ilikewhathe’sdoing,Irespecthim,
because he’s a smart guy, he motivates me in my own personal development, but
definitely,he’snotanauthority…whenyouconsidertheageofpeoplewhoteachus
(tooyoung).
Idon’treallyhaveaproblemwiththat,quitetheotherwayroundJ
BRNO:[Abouthighschoolteachers]Andtheydidnotbehavelike:“Iamateacher,I
can do anything I want”, but they came off like normal human beings, which was
great.AndIhadteacherstherethatIpreferredtoseemoreoftenthanmyclassmates,
withwhomIgotoffbetterthanwithmyclassmates.SoIthinkthatauthorityforme
meansafairandequalapproach,asortofadialogue.
OSTR:I’dsayIconsidermyparentsanauthority,butbecausetheyhaveproventheir
qualificationstobemyparents,theyhaveshownmeforrealthatit’sworthfollowing
them,andnotjustbecausetheyare[biologically]myparents.
57
6. Abouttheirjobprospects,theydon’tseemtobeparticularlyworried.Suggesting
that it’s more about one’s personal attitude and skill to work rather than
knowledgeortraining.Asmanypeoplegoontoworkinotherareasthantheones
theyhaveoriginallystudied.
PRG:Twomedicsinthegroupwerecoolandcare-free.
Theanarchistconsidersajobthatwouldsatisfyhim,notnecessarilyforsomebig
money.
PLZ:Theyareundecided,butnottooworriedexceptforoneperson:
Honestly,Ikeepthinkingaboutitalot,andformeit’sanightmare.BecauseI’mreally
worriedthatonceajobcomes,it’snotgoingtosatisfyme/it’snotgoingtofulfillme…
thisiswhatI’mreallyafraidof,aspoliticalsciencegraduatesoftenendupbehindthe
counteratasupermarket…soI’mquiteworriednottoendupthisway.
BRNO:Ithinkitdependsoneachperson’sinitiative,howmotivatedhe/shereallyis
togetajob,asnothingcomestousjustlikethat.Sowhenapersonwantsajob,he
cangetitsomehow.
…
And what he/she does, right? If someone goes and gets practice and collects
experiencethathecanapplylater,thanthatislucrative,right?
Andalsohowflexibleheis,andmostimportantlyhowwillingishetomove.
Orhowwillingisonetolearnandadapt.
OSTR:Ithinkthattodaywehavesuchasheerscaleofjobsthataresimilar,butare
calleddifferentlythatonecan’tevenpick!Youknow,yougraduatefromsomething,
andthenyoubecomesomethingelse.Soit’scompletelyandutterlyirrelevant.The
mainthingistoenjoyajob,toprosper,tobesatisfiedinlife.
Identifyingkeycontent
Governmentlyinginfrontofthesociety(almostinallgroupsatsomepointsomebody
ironicallynotesthatthisisalreadyhappening).
a. Generally abhorred, lying permitted only in cases when the direct saving of
people’s lives and damages is at stake (as in choosing between lying or panic).
Avoidingdangertosocietyisthehighestpriority–Chernobylcaseisanillustrative
caseinpoint(completelyillegitimatelietocoverupincompetence).
b. Participantsdonotreallybelieveinthelegitimationofsmallergroupsofpeople
withbetterknowledgeabouthowsocietyshouldlooklike.
PLZ:debateiskey,evenifsociologistsknowmoreabouthowsocietieswork,they
shouldnotrunthem;PRG:howwouldwefindthesepeople?Thenwediscusseda
groupofexpertsfromallareasoflife,butoncewegottotheirappointmentbythe
president (for academic proves) it all fell apart as an illusion. BRNO: who gives
themtheright?OSTR:Wealreadyhaveexpertsinfluencingdecision-making.
Roleofelites:
58
c. Theytendtoagreethatasocietyneedscertainpeople,whoshouldproposeideas,
butit’salmostimpossibletoagreeonwhoshouldthesepeoplebe.Onecommon
denominator would seem to be integrity. Overall, the agreement is that elites
shouldgiveadviceintheirrespectivefieldsi.e.apopstarshouldnotcommenton
politics,evenifshehastherighttodiscreditherself,butthatpeopleshouldthink
forthemselvesmore.
PRG:I’vealwaysfoundittobereally‘fragile’,thattherootofthecauseshouldbein
people working on themselves, creating the society from the bottom and be less
dependentonwhopointsouttothemwhattodonext.
BRNO:naturalauthoritycouldsettrendsinsociety,butagain,apieceofpapersuch
as a diploma does not prove an authority. Deeds not words matter. That is the
question, whom do we imagine to be the elite? Is it people valued by the people
(society),orratherthosewhoinfluencethesocietyasafact.
OSTR: We Czechs have some good elite, unfortunately they do not reach certain
positions,butontheotherhand,Ithinkitisaquestionoftime,untilforexampleour
generationgrowsup,andtheoldeliteswhohavemorethantheirfairshareofscars
willleave.Iwouldnotseeitsodarkly.
PLZ:Yes,definitelyweshouldhavesomeelites[allnodincontent]andtheyshould
notbe“limited”–let’ssayweshouldnothavejustonejournalistbethebestoneand
hisvisiontobetakenastherightone.It’scrucialtohavesomekindofgroupofelites
witheachonesayingwhattheythinkisright,andsothatwecoulddecidethathe’s
good,orhe’sbad,he’srightandhe’sfullofcrapetc.
Limitationoffreedoms
d. Incertaincases,ifmightbejustified(i.e.incaseofavoidingalargercatastrophe,
panic or public health crisis) and restrictions should be lifted as quickly as
possible,ontheotherhand,penitentiariesasplacesthatlimitthefreedomtomove
don’tseemtoworkeither.
e. Thestateshouldberesponsibleforvaccinations,penitentiaries,inprotectionofits
population and the rule of law. They were all more ready to list the spheres in
whichthestateshouldnotintervene(humanrightsandfreedoms).
Burningsocialissues
f. InmostofthecasestheymentionedPLZ:theRomaquestion,radicalismofpolice
forces,ageingpopulation,classdivisionsandslippingofmorepeoplebelowthe
poverty line, scamming the eldelry. PRG: Roma and migrants, poverty, social
housinganddebts.BRNO:radicalizationofsocietyitself,thatsomeproblemsare
blown out of proportion. OSTRAVA: Racism and xenophobia in connection to
migrants(andRomaimplicitly).
Politicsshouldbereformed
g. Almost all participants (with the exception of left wing anarchists) believe that
politicsisessentiallyaboutthepeople,soaslongaspeopledon’tchange,politics
59
won’t change, or won’t change in substance if people keep electing the same
corrupt politicians they always do. We just have to wait it out for the next
generationtofillitwiththeircorruption.Onlytheanarchistsdreamofchange–
howindividualscanchangepoliticsthroughtheiridealsandwork.
Totalitarianturn
h. Howandwhydopeopleturntototalitarianism?Mostparticipantshadidentified
crisisastheprimereason,anger,frustrationanddissatisfactionwithhowthings
are at the moment; BRNO: Own dissatisfaction, feelings of inferiority. And then
someonecomesalongandgivesthemavisionsaying:“Followme,I’llleadyououtof
thissh*t”.
Propagandaandinformation/Demagogueryandpopulism
i. Theydon’treallydifferentiatethatmuchinterminology,whatismoreimportant
isthecontext,selectivityandtheintentionofthecommunicatedinformation.
PLZ:I’dsayit’simportanttoexpectsomesubtextineverypieceofinformationwe
receive.Ican’treallyrecallanyexampleofapureinformationsource,thatwouldnot
beunderpinnedbysomeorothereconomicinterestandthatofcourseinfluencesthe
information given. So seriously, I have no idea who could constitute this pure
informationsourcetoday.
A demagogue is more rigid than a populist, who is more flexible in adjusting his
views…
PRG:Ithinkpopulismdoesnotneedtobenecessarilyalieorbadlyintended.Aperson
canofferaveryintriguingthoughtandmeaniteven,butthenusesomesimplifying
shortcut,sothatit’slikedevenmorethatifpeoplereallydidseeintoit.
SEQUENCE2:Diagnosingkeycontent
Historicalevents
1. Mostnamedeventsincludethe20thcentury(astherewasnotCzechRepublicto
speakofbefore1918).Theuniversallyidentifiedyears/eventsare:1938(Munich
Agreement),1945/1948(theVictoriousFebruaryandthestartofCommunism),
1968 invasion of the Warsaw pact; 1989 collapse of Communism and return to
democracy.
Reconciliationpossible?
2. Reconciliationispossible,timehealsallwounds(andwitnesseseventuallydie).
Headinginagoodorbaddirection?
3. Ingeneral,theywerequitepessimisticaboutthecurrenteventswithmigrantsand
theriseofthepopulistsandthefarright.
PLZ:Amongtheblindevenaone-eyedmanisking!
Heh,ourVisegradfriendsaren’tdoingtoogoodeither
OSTR:thepast2-3yearswerenotgood(andwithMilosZemanaspresidentontop
ofeverything),butwe’vemovedfromthe1990s.
Ithinkwe’vemadesomeprogressfromthe1990s.Inthebeginningpeople‘tunneled’
(hollowedoutfromwithin)hugestatecompanies.Nowit’sdifferent.
60
Migration
4. Agreementthatwe’renotinagoodsituation,thattheCzechRepublicthroughits
rejectionoftheproposedquotasystemhaseffectivelyisolateditselffromEurope.
Anyhow,weneedsomecommonapproach.
PLZ:Ican’thelpbutkeepthinkingthatweshouldhaveadoptedthequota.Onthe
onehand,we’reposinghereasmembersoftheEuropeanUnion,butontheother
hand when a situation comes that we have to do something to prove our right to
belong to this club, instead of just receiving the regional development funds and
livingoffofwhattheEUhastooffer,thenwe’relike“no,nothiswon’tdo,we’renot
takingourshareoftheburden”.
OSTR:Ithinkthissituationshouldbesolvedlikeaunion,EuropeanUnion,weshould
not fragment ourselves into individual nations as we can’t solve it alone as
HungarianswhodonotwantquotaorusorthePolish.AndthenGermanyisleftalone
todealwithit…weshouldhaverulesonwhocountsasamigrant,whocountsasan
asylumseekeretc.
PRG: Cooperation I’d say. Now we need to try to find a working solution and
cooperate. And as I say, put our heads together, come up with the most efficient
solution. Now the system is disintegrated, at the same time it’s not functional, it
dependsonnon-governmentalorganizations,whosecapacitiesaresmallerandthat
perpetuatestheproblem.
[tomybigsurprisePRGgroupwouldnotavoidamilitaryaction]Weneedtosolve
thewaroverthere,andnotthepeopleoverhere,right?Weneedtosolvetheroot
cause. Now the migrants are here, we give them some provisional shelters, fine,
alright?
Butwarhasbeentherealready,for3orhowmanyyears!
Wecan’tletAmerica‘solve’everything.LookhowitendedupinIraq!
BRNO:createhotspotsnearertoSyria.
Violenceagainstmigrants
5. Pilsen,Ostrava–absolutelynoway,atotalhorrorscenario,onlyincasetheywould
attackuswithbombs.Brnocameupalsowithnormaltransgressionsagainstthe
law(rapeetc.)
6. Praguemoreeasilyseesacrisisdangeroussituation.Praguewentofftopicquitea
bit,continuingthecause/effectofcolonizationandotherformsofdominationin
theMiddleEast,sowhatelseshouldweexpect,right?
Difficult/shamefuleventsinone’shistory
7. AllgroupsagreethattherelationswithGermansandtotheGermanminorityin
WesternCzechRepublicisadifficultchapterinhistory.Andtheyallagreethese
eventsshouldbetalkedabout/notforgotten.
Totalitarianelementsinpresent-daysociety
61
8. They don’t really mention the same events, but they do mention: PLZ: police
harassment of minorities (especially Roma), BRNO: breaking of individuals’
freedoms (police did not let protesters in to a 17th November national holiday
commemoration site) or even freedom of speech (newspapers owned by the
MinisterofFinances)PRG:riseoffarrightandthattheseopinionsaretolerated
and even becoming mainstream with the current president Zeman; OSTR:
corporatism
Overall,theyouthinthegroupsseemedtobequiteinformedaboutnewsandeventsand
whatwasgoingonaroundthem.Notallofthem,butmostofthemtookpartinsomesocial
activities(helpingout,supportingralliesevenvolunteering).Theirgeneralpositiondoes
notseempessimistic,evenifquitesarcasticattimes,however,aviewthat“unlessyoudo
ityourselfnooneelsewilldoitforyou”viewprevails.Theyallseemtohaverecenthistory
intheirminds,sotheyseemtobeatleastcautiousabouttheinformationtheyreceive(but
thisneedstobeunderstoodinabroadercontextofdebateaboutobjectivityofthemedia).
SágváriBence
researchfellow,HeadofResearchDepartment
HungarianAcademyofSciences,CentreforSocialSciences(HASCSS)
MAINFINDINGSOFTHEFOCUSGROUPSCONDUCTEDINHUNGARY
Contextualization:socialrelations/mood
1.
Youngpeoplearegenerallyactiveintermsofhavingfriends,goingoutwiththem,
doingsportsandotheractivitiesthathaveindividualbenefitsforthem,however,
there is almost a complete lack of civic engagement, being involved in any
activities that could be linked directly/indirectly to community work, active
citizenship,etc.
2.
Theyareallengagedintechnology:mostoftheircommunitylife,communication,
entertainment,andgettingaccesstowhatishappeningintheworldishappening
party or fully through their digital devices (smartphone, tablet, computer).
However,someofthemtendtoseethisveryclose,exclusive,andoverly‘intimate’
relationshipwithtechnologynegatively.
WeareaddictedtoInternet.
InmyopinionInternetalsoinfluencespeopleinawaythattheystareallthetimeat
theirphones,withfriendstheytalkbyphonesandtheyalienatethemselvesfromthe
world.
3.
Partly because of technology, but not exclusively, they also feel a general
tendencytowardsalienationandloneliness.Itisobservable-tosomeextent-in
their micro-circles, however much more visible/felt at the societal level or in
theirgeneration.Generally,theysupporttheideathatthelevelofpersonaland
institutionaltrustisdecreasinginsociety.
62
IthinkthatHungariansarereallyuptightpeopleand…ifwewilllookhowitisinthe
world,isn’titthatintheothercountries’peoplearemoreflexibleandopen?
Yeah,atthebeginningtheydon’ttrusteachother.Ofcourse,ifIaskkindlyaboutthe
certainstreet,theywouldbekindaswell…butpeopledon’ttalktoeachotheronthe
streetsiftheydon’tneedto.Familiesandfriendssticktogether.
As for myself, at the beginning I wouldn’t trust anybody, not to be disappointed
afterwards.Ithinkthatpeoplearedespicableandtheydon’thelpeachother.
Inmyopinionpeoplearebadingeneral.
Moderator: Are you distrustful? Respondent: I think so. It’s better to be positively
surprised.
Peopleshouldbetreatedwithlimitedtrust.
4.
Many of them made a comparison with earlier times (i.e. the time when their
parents/grandparentswereyoung),andtheytendtothinkthat–apartfromnot
havingfreedom–livinginthesocialisterawasmoredesirablebasedoncertain
aspects of social life (i.e. more positive experiences regarding trust, morals,
relationships between people, predictability, and uncertainty of life). This
attitude reflects the results of several representative surveys of the total
populationinHungary.
ImustadmitImissabittheKádárera98.
Metoo.
5.
Apartfromoneortwoexceptions,theyareveryuncertainandpessimisticabout
their futures (employment, starting their own adult life, etc.) These stressful
expectationsseemtobeinlinewithsomegeneralmacro-trendsaffectingyoung
people all over Europe. What makes the feelings of (some) Hungarian youth
unique is their nostalgic relationship to the previous system – a system that
literallyendedbeforetheywereborn…
6.
ParticipantsofthegroupinMiskolc(quitedevelopedheavyindustrytowninthe
socialistera,nowinalong-termsocialandeconomiccrisis)would“gobackto
socialism”iftheyhadthechanceof“time-travel”.
I’mafraidaboutthefuture.
Let’ssayIthinkpositivelybutI’mafraidthatitmightbejustawishfulthinking.The
realitymightbemuchmoredifficultbothasforthematerialsecurityandfamilylife.
WhyshouldIthinkaboutasuccesswhenthepoliticalsituationinthecountryorin
theworldcanruinmylife?Theproblemisthatit’snotuptome,becausethereare
othersupthereandothersevenhigher.Alltheproblemsinturnreflectsonmesoit’s
goingtobeonlyworse.
Ithinktheproblemisthatwehavetofacethethoughtthatwhenbeingoldwewon’t
workinthesameplacebutwewillchangeitconstantly.Ithinkthatwecan’tfeelsafe
anymore.
Inmyopinionasformaterialsafetytheothercountriesdon’thavesuchproblemsas
wehave.InLondon,inGermanyorFrancethestateoflifeisthesamenowasitwas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulash_Communism
63
5 years ago. (…) I think here the middle class has disappeared. We have extreme
povertyorveryrichpeople.InLondonIsupposetheyhavebalance.
Unfortunately, everyone needs to combine to survive, and don’t feel safe either
materially or just in everyday life. What you experience, so in any case, nothing
positive… people do not think positively, because they often don’t have any
motivationtothinkso.
IwouldcallmyselfpessimistbutnowI’msureit’sallgoingtocollapse.Anyway,it’s
easytoobservehowpeopleareuncommunicative.(…)Theyareabletogobybusfor
dozensofkilometerswithoutaword.Itusedtobedifferent.
7.
Concerningauthority,youngpeoplesurveyedmostlydon’tfeeltheauthorityof
their parents or teachers. They are aware of it, many of them tend to behave
accordingtoit,howevertheyalsofeelthenegativeconsequencesofit.
…inmyopinionwelosttheauthorityofbothteachersandparents,atleastinthevast
majority.ForthemomentIcan’tthinkofanyauthorities.
Identifyingkeycontent
8.
Governmentlyinginfrontofthesociety
a. Hardly justified, only in cases when the direct saving of people from major
shocksanddamagesisatstake.
b. Participants do not really believe in the legitimation of smaller groups of
peoplewithbetterknowledgeabouthowsocietyshouldlooklike.Theytend
to be skeptical about the existence of such a group of people who have
knowledgeandclearunderstandingofeveryaspectsofgovernance.
9.
Roleofelites:
a. Theytendtoagreethat–attheoreticallevel–societyneedscertainpeople,
who have adequate knowledge and expertise. Ideally (but not really in
practice)theywouldaccepttheirauthorityandguidance.
Elites should include intelligence as a social group. We shouldn’t look on the
materialstatusofpeopleortheirfamilyrelationsbutontheirknowledge.
b. However,theyareveryskepticalaboutthecurrentroleofelitesinHungary.
Unquestionableintellectualsuperioritydoesnotexistintheireyes.
c. They do accept that traditional elite groups (based on
profession/talent/achievement)existinsociety,butsomeofthemquestioned
their‘delegation’toruleandshowdirectionto‘ordinary’people.Thisislinked
to their general attitude of skepticism and cynicism towards the current
64
system.Manyofthemtendtoseeelitesarefarawaysocialgroupsnotaware
ofordinarypeople’ssituationandneeds.
EliteslivemuchbetterlifethanIdosotheywon’tknowwhataremyneeds.
d. Political elites are seen the most negative way. Widely known ‘stereotypes’
(basedonnumerousempiricalevidences–ofcourse)ofcorrupt,kindof‘graball’,andnepotisticpoliticianswerefrequentlycited.Inthisrespect,politicians
are not considered to be part of the positively framed elite groups of the
society.
Itreatelitesandpoliticiansdifferently.Let’ssaymaybeoneortwooftheme
I’dcallthatway,butasformeelitesandpoliticiansaretwodifferentthings.
e. Based on their universally suspicious and disillusioned word view, they are
rather skeptical as for the visionary people setting the direction for the
country.
I can’t imagine that. (…) Nobody could control everything. (…) Who would
decideifthevisionisright?Thevisionarycansay,sobutthoseareonlyhis
words.Nocontrolatall.
10. Limitationoffreedoms
a. Incertaincases,itmightbejustified(i.e.incaseofavoidingalargerdisaster
andpanic)
b. Butingeneral,thiskindofactoftheactualgovernment(atanytime)wouldbe
seenasanotherreasontodistrustorquestionthefunctioningofthestate,and
the way how politicians and leaders treat (and sometimes mislead) their
people.
c. According to some opinions, it is also part of the problem, that due to the
nature of any emergency situations, it is hard to judge their seriousness.
Withouttrustingauthorities,concealingthetruthindefenseofcitizensmight
result in developing conspiracy theories. In general, young people would
requiresufficientinformationaboutthesituation.
In certain circumstances it might work, i.e. curfew. People know that this
couldbecomeareality,buttheywouldhavetohaveinformationonthecause.
11. Burningsocialissues
a. Mostlyjustthe‘usual’problemscameup:health,education,unemployment,
andmigration.
b. Inmostofthecasestheywereskepticalaboutthesuccessof‘classical’political
actionsinsolvingtheseproblems.Opinionsaboutthesubstantialremodeling
ofpolitics–onthecontrary–stayedonaverybasicanddemagogiclevel.
c. Ingeneral,theydidnothaveadequateknowledgeonpoliticsandonthenature
ofgovernanceinordertobeabletodiscussthisquestionmoredeeply,and
withclearargumentsfororagainstit.
65
12. Totalitarianturn
a. Mostofthepeopleinthegroupsrathermissedasolidunderstandingofthe
totalitariansystems.Theydidnotreallylearnaboutitinschoolsintoomuch
detail.(Optimally,historyclassesinsecondaryschoolsshouldreachthistopic
inthelastmonthsofthe4th(last)year.Duetoearlierlagsanddelaysinthe
curriculum,whattheygetisonlyaquickandsketchyoverviewofthisvery
importanthistoricalperiod.)
b. Many of them even had problems defining the word totalitarian. Although
manyofthemseemedtobecriticalaboutthecurrentstateofdemocracyin
Hungary,theydidnotlinkittoanykindofpotentialtotalitarianturn.Theyalso
tendtobelievethatincasetheirfreedomwasunderthreat,theywouldfind
the way to protest and try to stop the process. Or just simply leave the
country…
13. Propagandaandinformation
a. They were quite good in defining propaganda and differentiating it from
information. As an example, the current communication practices of the
Hungariangovernmentwerefrequentlymentioned.
It’s the world of illusion. Sooner or later people will believe that everything is
great,everythingchangedandgoesbetter.Buttheywon’tseewhat’shappening
hereinthecountrysideandhowbigproblemswe’vegot.
b. Basedonthedefinitiontheygaveonpropaganda(suchasbiasedandselected
provisionofinformation),theyseelotofitsoccurrencesinpresenttimesin
Hungary.
Wehearonlythepositivenews,andthegoodsideofeverything.Iftheylistento
itenoughtimes,peoplecanbelieveanything.
14. Demagogueryandpopulism
a. Inmostofthegroups,participanthadahardtimedefiningthesetwoterms
andinmakingadistinctionbetweenthem.Therefore,itwastrulychallenging
totalkaboutthistopicindepthdetail.Theywerenotreallyabletolinkactual
politicaleventstotheseexpressions.
b. In relation to demagoguery and populism, manipulation came up as related
term. Several participants agreed that people’s attention is diverted from
major issues when small and insignificant events are exaggereated in the
mediaaccordingtotheinterestsofpeople.
People’sattentionisdiverted.Flea-sizedissuesaremanifiedintothesizeofan
elephant,whiletheyarebuildingPaks299inpeaceandquiet.
Yeah,Ithinkmanipulationgoeswellwithbothoftheme,butinadifferentway.
99
Paks2 will be a new nuclear power plant, according to the current plan it will be built by Russian companies using Russian technology.
66
15. Migrationcrisis
a. The issue of migration came up as very important, and the participants
seemedtoberatherstrictonimmigrantscomingtoHungaryandEurope..
ThisyearwehadaChristmasmarketbutinParisorBrusselspeoplewereafraid
tocome.
Respondent 1. Because of the immigrant crises in a year they get 400 more
peopleinthepoliceschool.Nowtheywouldliketohave1200moreonlybecause
of the immigrants. That’s how they want to defend the country, and I think
that’s good. Respondent 2. Yes, I think we all agree here. Everyone think we
don’tneedthemhere.
Ithinkitwasarightdecisionofthegovernmenttobuildthefence,astheiron
curtain,tokeepthemoutside.
Diagnosingkeycontent
16. Historicalevents
a. Mostofthereallysignificanthistoricaleventswerelisted,withanemphasis
onwhathappenedbeforethe20thcentury.Someshamefuleventswerealso
mentioned, however participants more or less agreed that the history of
Hungarywasratheraboutsufferingfromoutsidepowers.‘Wealwayschose
thewrongside…’
IfIrememberitcorrectly“Praguespring”.Ihaven’theardalotaboutit,only
thatweofficiallyapologized,buttherewasnootherwaytomove,theyforced
ustogo.TherewastheWarsawPact,sowehadtofightshouldertoshoulder.
[Welearnedinschool]Thatwewerealwaysthosewhowereharmed,thatwe
alwayschosethewrongside,weweredoingourbest,alwaystryingtohelp
butwealwaysgethit,welostalargepartofthecountryandhadtopaysome
greatloans.
17. Headingtogoodorbaddirection?
a. Ingeneral,theywerequitepessimisticaboutthecurrenteventsinHungary.
Youngpeopledon’treallyseeabrightfutureforthemselves,buttheyhave
amorepessimisticviewforHungary.
b. Concerningthecurrentpoliticalevents,someofthemevenquestionedthe
currentsystembeingdemocratic…
Thepowerisinahandsofaverysmallgroup.Anationslowlyhasnothingtosay.
Idounderstandthattheygottwo-thirds[intheparliament],buttheyshouldnot
change the laws that were adopted decades ago. On Monday, Tuesday they
changeiteveryday…
18. Limitingfreedomofspeech
a. Atfirst,theygotveryangryabouttheideaoflimitingfreedomofspeech,
especiallythefreeaccesstoanycontentontheInternet.However,bygoing
deeperintothistopic,itturnedout,that(inafewcases)inexchangefor
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moresecurityandpredictabilityoflife,theywouldsacrificea‘portion’of
theirfreedom.
19. Protectingsociety
a. Incertainsituations,itcouldbejustifiedandacceptedbythecitizensthat
theirrightsarelimited.(Butitshouldnotlastforever.)
Ifthestakeisthesecurityofthecountry,thenIthinkitisacceptable.
Itcantakeplaceonlyintimeofwar.
Thegovernmentmeansthepower,theydecidewhattheybelieveisrightineach
situation,wehavetoacceptitandassoonasispossibletrytosolvetheproblem.
Alotofpeople,ifnotallofthem,iftheyknewthetruth,theywouldn’treactina
properway.Forallofus,itisbetter,iftheydonotknowthetruth.
Tillitprotectsmyphysicalintegrity,securitythat’stheline.(…)Inthecaseof
dangerit’sokiftheylookintomypurse.
***
Moderator’sgeneralnotes:
Mygeneralfeelingwasthatthetopicscoveredduringthegroupdiscussionswerenew
andsometimesstrikingtotheseyoungpeople.Forsomequestions,theysimplylackthe
required background knowledge and experience in order to have an any kind of
establishedopinion.(Ofcourse,thisisalsooneimportantoutcomeoftheresearch.)In
everygrouptherewereoneortwoyoungpeoplewhomoresensitivetothesetopicsthan
theothers.Theirviewswere–certainly–morevisibleanddominant.Thisresearchalso
highlightedtheseriousneedforsuchdiscussionstobeincludedinthesystemofformal
andinformaleducation.
Abouttheprocessofrecruitment:fortheorganizationofthegroupdiscussions,werelied
on professional recruiters. Therefore, the composition of the groups was balanced in
termsofgender,socialbackground,etc.Mostoftheparticipantsdidnotknoweachother
before,sotherewerenocliquesformedinthegroups.
Researcher:Dr.OlgaGyarfasova,sociologist,associate
professoranddirectorofthe
InstituteofEuropeanStudiesandInternationalRelations
ComeniusUniversity,Bratislava
MAINFINDINGSOFTHEFOCUSGROUPSCONDUCTEDINSLOVAKIA
68
Contextualization:socialrelations/mood
1. Youngpeoplesurveyedhaveverycriticalopinionsabouttherecentsituationin
Slovakia–hypercriticism,therearenopositivefeaturesofrecentsituation.Maybe
whatispositiveistakenforgranted.
Mypersonalopinionis,onthebasisoflast,veryrecentparliamentelection,thatthecollapse
ofpoliticalcultureismoreandmorevisible.
Corruptionisahugeproblemhere;wearetalkingaboutmillionsofcorons.
Ithinkthatthemostsuitablewordtodescribethelastyearwouldbeinstability.Thelackof
professionalisminthepoliticalworldisrecentlyextremelyhigh.
I would describe it even differently. When I walk down the street, watching people I find
themesad,mostofthemaresad.That’shorrifying.Maybeit’sbecauseoftheelection.
Iwouldcallitchaosanddiscouragement.Inonewordoverlastingdiscouragementbecause
oftheeconomicandsocialproblems.
2. Some of them think positively about charismatic leaders – that might be the
importantthingtocheckinquantitativeresearch.
It’slikenowinpolicyifwedon’thaveoneleader,whoissupposedtodecide...Weshouldhave
adiscussionbutweneedonepersontofinallydecidewhattodo.
I’dalsosaythatcharismaticleader–itmightseemthattheirtimehasgonebutwhenwe
lookatourrecentelectionwecanseeclearlythatpeoplestillchoosecharismaandImaybe
heldbycharismatoo.
I’mclosertocharismaticleaders,Idon’tknowwhatcouldkeepusunited,therearealways
somegroupseventodaythatwouldneedacharismaticleader,withouthimtheywon’tknow
whattodo.
3. Familyisveryimportantfortheyoungpeoplesurveyed–themosttrustworthy
socialenvironmentforrespondents.Theydofeeltheauthorityoftheirparentsand
teachers.
Formeclearlymyfamily,ourrelationaffectsus,wedon’tfeellonely,thankstomyfamily
Idevelopandgoon.Thanks’tomysisterandparents,eveniftheyremindmemymistakes,
it’showIlearnandgrowth.
69
Ithinkmostofuswouldprobablychoosefamily.
Ithinkthattherelationsinmyfamilyareverygood.Normallywedon’targueorhaveany
conflictsbetweeneachother.It’skindofaharmonybetweenus.
4. TheyoungsurveyedSlovakshavemanyideasaboutwhattodointheirfuturebut
areratherpessimisticasforthejobperspectives.
That’swhyIsharethescepticismaboutthewholesystemandthepresentsituation.Idowork
inschoolnowintotallydifferentdomainthathasnothingincommonwithmystudies.But
Itrytodosomethingconnectedtomystudies,addsomethingnew,lookaround...
LastyearItriedtoplansomething,whattodointhenextonebuteverythingchangevery
quickly. Man can’t ever say where he wants to be in 5 years, because even in 3 months
somethingmighthappen.Thebestideaistodoyourbest,dothesimplejobs...
Slovakiainthehistoryandnowadays
5. Youngsurveyedpeoplemostlydon’thaveanydoubtsthattheworldwasandis
ratherunsafetyplace,buttheyfindSlovakasarathersafeenvironment.
I‘dliketoagreewiththeconstatationthatworldwasneverandwon’teverbeasafetyplace.
HereinSlovakiaIfeelsafetyofcourse.
6. The elements of totalitarism that they find in today´s Slovakia – corruption,
oligarchy, electoral result of the extreme-right party (general election held on
March5),thefocusismoreonconcreteexamplesthananygeneralizations.
7. Asforthegovernmentlyinginfrontofthesocietytheygenerallythinkit’swrong
buttheymostlyfinditpossibleinsomeratherundefinedmoments.
Idoagree,Idon’tlikeliesbutontheotherhandpeopleandsocialpsychologyare…that
sometimesit’seasierway–tolieinaimtosafeaboatfullofpeople.Therearealwaysmany
waystothepoint.
I’d also agree with the argument that in some moments, probably to avoid panic it’s
somehowjustified.
8 They tend to agree that a society needs certain people, who have adequate
knowledgeandexpertise.
70
I think we would need the elite that would consist of people from different domains and
professions.Thatwouldcommitthemselvesandhavetherightexperience.
8. Burningsocialissues–theinterestingthinghereisthattheymostlyindicatemoral
problemsnottheeconomicones.Theytalkedaboutlackofvaluesandvirtues.As
fortheotherspherestheytalkaboutdemographicproblemsandthecaseofRoma
minority.
Thelackofmorality,thatleadstomanyotherproblemsascorruptionetc.
Ialsoseethelackofvalues,reallyoursocietydoesn’tcareabouttraditionanymore,we’ve
just made a choice and afterword’s we realize that something don’t work. Serio. The
corruptionjustcameintomymind.That’sinmyopinionmostburningprobleminSlovakia.
Peopleareextremelyenvious.It’sevenhardtoimagine.
9. The revolutions from 1989 are differently perceived in Bratislava and in the
regions, memory of the parents which is transferred to younger generation are
muchmorepositiveinBratislava–theparentswholivedinthecapitalcitywere
moreofteninvolvedinmassdemonstrationandhavepositivememoriesofthose
events.Ingeneral,thepre-1989situationisseenasalmostaparadise–everything
was cheap, everybody had an apartment and a job- the previous regime is
idealized.
Therearemanypeoplethatsaythatitwasallgoodtime,breadandmilkwereverycheap.
Itwasgoodbecausetheygetflats.
10. As for the possible reasons for totalitarian turn they talk about: fear and
helplessness,apathy,needofleader,lackofmorality,hugecrises.
Iwouldsayit’sfearandhelplessness.Andfromtheeconomicalpointofview,lackoffounds
leads to uncertainty or apathy towards the regime and then tends to the situation when
peopledon’tseeanychanceforchangeinfaceofthethingsthatarehappening.
Maybesomepeopleneedtheleader,theyfeelconfusedandsomeoneofferthemesomething
thatlooksbetter…
Someonehadaplanandpresenteditinawaythatsnaretheelectorate.
I would also say that the lack of morality. And the attempt to shift the responsibility on
someoneelse.
71
Fear,economicuncertainty.Devastationofthesociety.
Hugecrisis
Thevisionofbetterfuture.
11. The concepts of propaganda vs. information and demagoguery with populism -
although they are good in distinguish the differences between information and
propagandatheythinkthatintoday’sworldtheyaremostlymixed.
PropagandaandinformationIthinktheyaremainlythesesamethingsnowadays.Theyare
stronglyconnectedandit’shardtodistinguish,whatshouldbecalledpropagandaandwhat
shouldbecalledinformation.ConsideringTVnewsforexample…
Inmyopinioninformationshouldbeobjectiveandpropagandaissomemanipulationbutin
today’sworldit’shardtodistinguish.
Asfordemagogueryandpopulisminmostofthegroups,participanthadahard
timedefiningthesetwotermsandinmakingadistinctionbetweenthem.
ImustadmitIdon’tknowthoseterms.
Promisingsomethingunreal.
12. Asforthemigrationcrisisyoungpeoplefeelquitesafebecausetheydon’tthink
thatSlovakiamightbetheplacethemigrantswouldliketosettledown.Theyare
mainlygladthatthegovernmenthasnotagreedforthequotasystemandwould
liketohelpimmigrantsmainlyonthespot.
It’sallaboutthatthatthisproblemhasn’triseinEuropeandnowherenear,buttherein
Syriaandshouldbesolvedrightthere.NothereinSlovakia,orinAustriaorGermanybut
therewheretheyallshouldcomeback.
13. They find Slovakia as a rather democratic country but they are aware of the
presenceofdifferentgroupsofinterestthatmayactinratherundemocraticway.
14. According to youths force against some groups is justified, especially when it
concerns extremist groups, above all those who had been banned by court and
then became active again. If not using the force then at least be cautious, by
followingtheactivitiesonsocialnetworksandalike.
72
ThereisadepartmentattheMinistryofInteriorwhichisassignedtofightextremism,those
peopleshoulddoit.
InŽilinathefirstassociationswithsuchgroupswereRoma.
Yes,of course. Cigáni(Roma).Yes, yes. Becausetheir kids havesuchbadmanners,so the
entire„banda“(gang)has.
Thebottomlineofthearguingis–theRomahavemorebenefitsthanwehave.
Astheproof“realstories”arementioned:
Yes,recentlyoneguywroteontheFB,thatoneyounggirlcametothepostofficeandshe
received 1 300 euro for 2 kids. The guy simply gazed at, if this is possible, that another
mother,whohas4kidsreceivesjust200euroandtheotheronewhodoesnotwork,nobody
inthefamilydoesnotwork,receivessomuch–1300.
Similarly,inŠamorín,butheretheanti-Romaattitudeswerelessexplicit.
15. Limiting freedom of the speech is justified, above all when fighting terrorism,
which is much more dangerous than the extremist or alternatives groups.
However, there were considerations, especially in Bratislava group, that such
limitingcouldbeabadprecedence.
Butitiscasetocase,becausetherearemanycases,whensomebodystartedtolimitfreedoms
of an entire group, for example Arab minority, only because there were some terrorists
amongthem,so,itcouldbemisused.
16. Toprotectsocietyisnecessary,buttherearenoconcreteideashowtodoit.In
general the respondents agreed on „it depends“. However, see the state as the
executorofpower.
Statewhichcannotuseitspower,isnotastate.
Characteristicsoftherespondents:
Inmanyrespect–deepdifferencesbetweenBratislava(capital)andotherlocationswere
observed.ManydilemmasraisedintheFGinterview–humanrightsvs.safety;liesvs.
protection–wereverydifficulttodecide,youngpeopledonotthinkinsuchframes,the
responseswereverymuchdependentonthegroupdynamics,oftenconcludedwith„it
73
depends“. Especially those who are younger than 20-22 had difficulties to respond to
questionswhichwereabstractandtoogeneral.
Abouthalfoftherespondentsareactiveinlocalcommunity(sports,workwiththekids
–summercampsandalike).Intermsofthekeyquestionoftheproject–perceptionof
totalitarism–therespondentsareawareofproblemsinoursociety–likecorruption,
socialinequalities-buttheytakedemocracyforgranted.
MAINFINDINGSOFTHEFOCUSGROUPSCONDUCTEDINPOLAND
1. Respondentsstressthepresenceofaverystrongpoliticalandideologicalconflict
intheircountry.Divisionsrelatetodifferentdimensionsoflife.
Wehavemoreandmorepeoplewhoarewealthyandmoreandmorepeoplewholivein
extremepoverty.[...]Thereisnolongersuchagroupthatliveingoodmaterialconditions
[...]Aswehavemoreandmorestratificationofwealth,socialrelationsbecomevery
difficult,becausepeoplefeelmuchbetterormuchworse.
Polandisstronglydivided
Manyrespondentstalkabouttheeconomicreasonsoftheproblemsofpresent-day
Poland.Sometimestheyidentifythesourceofthisproblemas"badcapitalism"or
"incompletecapitalism."Aseparatethemeisadiagnosisofthecrisisofvaluesormoral
problemsassomethingthatmakeslifedifficultorunbearable.
Ithinkitisacrisisofvaluesandnorms.Becauseoncethereligionwasthemostimportant
thinginpeoples’lives,thatwasclear.Nowit’snotsoobviousanymore.Oncethemorality,
democraticvalues,andfreedomofspeechwereimportant.Nowithaschanged.
TheyoungPolessurveyedarealsonotconvincedifthethingsinthecountrygointhe
rightdirection.
[Thepoliticians]justgobackandforth…
Formeitislikeinthenineteenthcentury,thesameasinthePrussianpartition.Thosewho
cancopegototheparliamentandtheoneswhocan’tgoawaytoAmericaasitwasthen.
Today’sAmericaisNorway,Germany,France.
Eveniftheythinkthesituationisgoodtheynoticethehardworkthatneedstilltobe
done.
Ithinkthatweliveinthe„bestPoland”possibleanditisourdutytorespectitandworkon
this.Itisbecauseofpoliticalissues,andthelabourmarket,andthefactthatthereisno
workforyoungpeople,thatwehavewhatwecallPolandAandB,it'sall[an]artificial
[division],someonegainsfromthatandsomeoneelseloses.
2. Parentsaretheirfiguresofauthority,eveniftheyrecognizetheirmistakesthey
believethattheyshouldberespected.Theyreferwithsimilarrespecttotheir
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teachers.Apartfromthesetwogroups,however,theyarenotquiteabletopoint
outtheconcreteexamplesoffiguresofauthority.
Youcanlearnfromthemistakesofyourparents,Iagreewiththat.Myfatheralso
sometimeswasnotthebestfather,butIthinkweshouldrespectourparentsdespitetheir
mistakes.
IamastudentandhereattheUniversityImetseveralteacherswhomIcouldcallmy
figuresofauthority,becausetheyreallydowhattheydowithagreatpassionand
commitment.IthinkthatwhenIamateachermyself,becauseI'mdoingalsopedagogical
studies,Iwouldliketoworkastheydo,I’dliketo“infect”thestudentswithmypassion.
Mostoftheyoungpeopledon’tseemtobealienatedortofeellonelyintheir
closestenvironment.
3. Youngpeoplesurveyedareratheroptimisticwhentalkingabouttheirjob
perspectives.Theyseeawiderangeofopportunitiestogrowanddevelopin
Polandbuttheyalsonoticethesignificantdifferencesinsalariesintheircountry
andabroad.
Iamnotworriedaboutthefuture.ButI’vebeenworkingforwhatIhavesinceIwas10.I
canhandleit.Butwhenitcomestotheeconomicsituation?Goabroad.Icanclearlyseethe
differenceswhenIamabletoearnmorethroughillegalemploymentinNorwayforhalfof
thelocalratethanhere[inPoland]inamonthwhileworkingasaspecialist.Soifwe
compareitwasonlyhalftherate,it’sashock,overthereit’saweeklywageandherea
monthlysalary,andonlyifweassumenoexpenses.Theeconomicsituationisdifficult,at
leastforme.
Inmyopinion,thesituationingeneral,eveninthelabourmarket,isnotsobad.Thereare
countrieswhereitismuchworseandIthinkthatourresponseliesfirstandforemostinjob
mobility,theabilitytoretrainquickly.Andnowevenbetterconditionsarecreatedforthis.
Istudyphilology,soIthinkabouttheeducationmarket.Icanbeateacher,butfromwhatI
knowitishardtobecomeone.SorightaftergraduationIwillgoabroadtoearnsome
extramoney,thenI’llcomebackandI'llbelookingforajobinmyprofession.OfcourseifI
findajobrightaway,thenI’llstay,butthesituationissuchthatmostpeopleimmediately
goabroadafterleavingcollege,toearnsomeextramoney.Alotofpeopledothat.
WhenitcomestoworkinPoland,alotdependsontheindividualperson.Ifamanhasan
ideawhathewouldliketodo,heknowswhathewantstoachieve,itwillwork.Ifhegets
hisowncompany,evenbetter.As[apreviousspeaker]said,stepbystep.
4. Theynoticetheproblemsassociatedwithimmigrants,buttheyfeelrathersafe.
InmyopinionPolandisaverysafecountry,thelevelofsecurityisincreasing.Inmediaand
politicsthisisusedtointimidatepeople,tosomehowmanipulatetheresultsofthevoting.I
donotthinkitgoesthatway.Youhavetohaveyoureyesopen,butyouneedtobecarefulno
matterwhereyouare.
Furthermore,securityisnotviewedasapriority.
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I would say that we cannot treat safety as the crucial idea, the supreme idea should be
freedom. And people who will treat freedom as less important than security, will be
dangerous.Ifwegiveupourfreedominthenameofsecurity,well,wewillregretit.
Whattheymainlymentionisaneedtohelpimmigrantsratherintheirhomecountriesor
intheneighbouringcountries.
5. Asforthepossibilityforthegovernmenttolietothesocietyinordertoprotectthe
citizensfromimpendingdangertherespondentsinmostcasesstresstheabilityto
keepsilentincertainsituationsratherthantolie.Theyarealsonotconvincedthat
anynarrowgroupsshoulddecideonstatematters.
Ibelievethatthereshouldn’tbesuchgroupsthatwouldimposeitswill.Thatwouldn’tlead
toanygood.Thesocietyisvariedandthisdiversityshouldbereflectedeverywhere,
everyoneshouldhaveequalrights,nooneshouldhavemoreorlessthantheothers.
Yet,fartheron,theyadmittheneedforelitesinthelifeofsocieties.Theymentionclergy,
journalists,professorsorjudgesasthemembersofthesegroups.Importantly,they
mentionthelinksthatsomerepresentativeofthoseprofessionshavetothepast
politicalregime.
Judgesasawholegroupnevercutthemselvesofffromthepast.Thesearethesamepeople
whoruledinthepreviousregime,toalesserextent,becausesomegotretired,butstill.
Therefore,peoplewhosentencedpeopleduringtheMartialLawshouldneverbecalledthe
elite.
Theeliteisabletoinvolvepeople.Tobelongtotheelite,youneedadesiretoworkforthe
community.Andas“theelite”IdonotmeanonlythePrimeMinisterorthepresident,but
everyone.that’ssomethingthatwashappeningbeforethe[2ndworld]war,therewasa
doctor,alawyer,aprofessor,andsometimesajudge.Someonefoundedthefootballpitch,
someoneboughtthebookstothelibrary,thethirdsetupacommunityhallandeveryone
ofthemwasthepartoflocalelite.
Moderator:Andjudges,professors,clergy?Respondent:Ithinktheycan,becausenot
everyonehasaccesstoeducation,andsincetheyhaveevolvedandhavesomespecialized
knowledge,theyshouldshareit,sothatthesesimplepeoplewhodonothaveaccesstothis,
canalsohaveagraspofthesituation.Andthentheycouldbenefitfromtheknowledgeof
theseelites.
6. Thelatterpointisalsoconnectedwiththeshamefuleventstherespondents
identifyinthehistoryofPoland.Themomentstheymainlystressarethosewhen
Poleswereshootingtheircountrymen,whentheybetrayedeachother.As
regardsothernationstheyrememberabouttheinvasionofCzechoslovakiain
1968andtheexpulsionofJewishcitizensfromPolandinthissameyear.
Mines,shootingminers,inthe“Wujek”mine,forexample.Openingfireonprotesters,wetalk
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aboutpeacefulrevolutionbutwecannotforgetaboutthosevictimsandalloftheoneswho
wereimprisoned.
The young people surveyed do not seem to have problems discussing the difficult
fragmentsofthepast.
Youshoulddiscussit,weshouldtalkitoverandthinkabouthownottomakethesame
mistakes.
Historyrepeatsbecausenoonelearnsfromit.
7. Certainlytherespondents’perceptionofpoliticsrequiresacloserlookin
quantitativeresearch.Asignificantpartoftherespondentsseepoliticsasa
remedyforalltheproblems.
Certainlytheycould[solvetheworld’sproblems],buttheyneedtothinkitup.Weneedto
rememberalsothatwetendtoforgeteasilywhatweexperiencedbefore.Weshouldbase
politicsonthepreviousexperiences.AnywayIthinkit’spossibletosolvetheseproblemsby
politicalactions.
Iwouldsaythatthegovernmentcantrytosolvethoseproblems,butit’snotasiftheyhave
amagicwand.Theywon’tdoitstraightawaybuttheycanseektosolvesomeproblemsand
theywilldoit.
Ithinkpoliticsistheonlywaytosolvemanyoftheproblemswe’vegot.
Relativelyfewrespondentspointedoutthat:
Everysolutioncangenerateanewproblem.
I think that there are some problems that would never get a good solution, for example
poverty,corruption.Itcanalwayshappen.
8. Alsothereasonsforwhichtheyouthturntowardstotalitarianideasneedadeeper
exploration. They seem not to understand the possible causes of the rise of
totalitarianregimes.Theymentionpovertyandeconomiccrisis.
Ithinkitisallaboutthecontrolofthestate,whichwediscussedearlier.Sothemorewegive
tothestate,themorewegotowardtotalitarianism.Themorewedonotlikethefactthat
thestateisincontrolandwewanttochangeit,themorewerunawayfromtotalitarianism.
9. The good point is that the youths mainly recognize the differences between
propagandaandinformation
Information is reliably constructed ... should be, by definition. Propaganda is subjective,
aimedatinfluencingtheopinionoftherecipient,andhasonedistinctovertoneandhasto
convincepeopletothinkinonewayandtoreceivethisinformationonlyinoneparticular
way. The information serves to present the facts, but you can present some [portion of]
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information,butnottheother[portions]forpropagandapurposes.
You can present the information in a propaganda way. Propaganda is also a way of
communicatinginformation.
Inpropagandathereissomethingmissing,oneelementthatmakesthetruthbecomesalie.
Theyalsodonotseeanyreasonforlimitingthefreedomofspeech.
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