Clinical Endocrinology (2014) 80, 471–477
doi: 10.1111/cen.12265
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Cardiovascular risk factors in children and adolescents with
congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency
Anbezhil Subbarayan*, Mehul T. Dattani*,†, Catherine J. Peters* and Peter C. Hindmarsh*,†
*Department of Endocrinology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children and †Developmental Endocrinology Research Group,
UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
Summary
Objective The prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) varies widely. In the light
of recent changes in treatment regimens, we have reassessed the
prevalence of these risk factors in our current cohort of patients
with CAH due to P450c21 deficiency.
Methods A retrospective cross-sectional study of 107 children
(39 M) with CAH aged 92 years (range 04–205 years). Anthropometric, systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure data
were collected and expressed as standard deviation scores (SDS)
using UK growth reference data and the Fourth Task Force data
set, respectively. Fasting blood glucose with plasma insulin and
lipids was measured, and insulin resistance (HOMA IR) calculated using the homoeostasis assessment model.
Results 236% (33% men; 18% women) of the cohort were
obese (BMI SDS>2). BMI SDS was significantly higher
(P < 0001) when compared with the UK population. Nineteen
(209%) of 91 patients (20% men; 21% women) had systolic
hypertension and 8 [88% (86% men; 89% women)] had
diastolic hypertension. Mean SBP [108 (SD 135)] mm Hg was
significantly higher than the normal population (P < 0001), but
mean DBP was not (P = 007). Both SBP SDS and DBP SDS
were not related to BMI SDS. 95% of the subjects had hyperlipidaemia, but HOMA IR was more favourable compared with the
normal population.
Conclusion Despite a reduction in steroid doses over the last
decade, a number of children with CAH are still obese and
hypertensive. Whether this reflects general population trends or
indicates a need to further optimize treatment regimens remains
to be determined.
(Received 26 February 2013; returned for revision 26 March 2013;
finally revised 10 May 2013; accepted 4 June 2013)
Correspondence: Peter Hindmarsh, Developmental Endocrinology
Research Group, UCL Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street,
London WC1N 1EH, UK. Tel.: +44 207 405 9200 ext 5813;
E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an autosomal recessive
disorder of adrenal steroid biosynthesis most commonly caused
by mutations or deletions in the CYP21A2 gene.1 This leads to a
variable deficiency of the enzyme 21-hydroxylase (P450c21) leading to a range of manifestations [salt-wasting type (SW CAH),
simple virilizing type (SV CAH), nonclassic type (NC CAH)].
Deficiency of P450c21 leads to decreased secretion of cortisol
and aldosterone with an increase in steroid precursors prior to
the block. Reduced cortisol stimulates adrenocorticotrophic hormone secretion via negative feedback which then leads to adrenal hyperplasia and increased adrenal androgen production.2
These individuals also have decreased adrenal medullary function3 which has been suggested to lead to obesity and insulin resistance (IR) via the leptin pathway.4 The treatment aim
in CAH is to replace the deficient hormones (glucocorticoid mineralocorticoid) and reduce the excessive androgens. The
management of CAH poses a great challenge as the therapeutic
window for glucocorticoids is narrow. Current treatment regimens do not match the circadian rhythm often leading to poor
control of the disease despite the use of supraphysiological
doses.5,6
The combination of hyper/hypocortisolism, hyper/hypoandrogenism and adrenal medullary hypofunction due to the
disease and its treatment may make these individuals more
prone to develop cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity,
hypertension, IR and dyslipidaemia.7 Although treatment has
changed, the optimum method of delivery of steroids and
monitoring of treatment remains to be defined. Even with the
recent publication of guidelines,8 there are variations in dosage
schedules and methods of monitoring treatment across the
globe. This may explain the different prevalence rates reported
for cardiovascular risk factors in children and adults.9–15 Over
the last 10 years, we have modified our treatment regimen for
P450c21 deficiency in terms of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid dosing and have undertaken an audit of practice to
reassess the prevalence of these cardiovascular risk factors in
our current cohort of patients with CAH due to P450c21
deficiency.
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
471
472 A. Subbarayan et al.
Patients and methods
Patients
We undertook a retrospective analysis of the medical records of
all patients with CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency who
were followed up in the Paediatric Endocrinology Department at
Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children between 2007 and
2012. The diagnosis of CAH P450c21 deficiency was based on
clinical and biochemical assessment and confirmed in all cases
by genetic analysis of the CYP21A2 gene. All patients were
treated with oral hydrocortisone (10–15 mg/m2/day) in three
or four divided doses. SW CAH was diagnosed in the presence
of hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, raised plasma renin activity
(PRA) and low plasma aldosterone concentrations. In addition
to hydrocortisone, these children received 9-alpha-fludrocortisone (50–100 lg/m2/day) in one to two divided doses. Infants
with SW CAH also received sodium supplements (15–30 mEq/
kg/day) in four divided doses until their first birthday. In addition to regular clinic review 3–6 monthly, all underwent annual
reviews.
this same method with the sensitivity of 011 mmol/l and a CV
of 14% at 135 mmol/l.
Glucose was measured using dry slide enzymatic (glucose
oxidase) method (Vitros 5600 Clinical Chemistry analyser, Ortho
Clinical Diagnostics). The assay sensitivity is 11 mmol/l, and the
CV is 15% at 46 mmol/l.
Insulin was measured using a two-site immunometric chemiluminescent immunoassay (Immulite 2000 Siemens Diagnostics).
The sensitivity is 2 mU/l with a CV of 177% at 39 mU/l and
39% at 189 mU/l.
Statistics
All patients with CAH had at least one detailed review per year.
Patients were admitted for 24 h. An intravenous cannula was
inserted, and plasma cortisol and 17-hydroxyprogesterone
(17-OHP) concentrations were measured as detailed in Table S1.
At 0800 h, a further sample was drawn for the measurement of
fasting blood glucose and plasma insulin, cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations as well as plasma renin activity (PRA),
androstenedione (A4) and testosterone. Six hourly blood pressure
measurements were obtained using an oscillometric method
(Philips IntelliVue MP30, Germany) with appropriate size cuffs.
The average systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressures (DBP)
were derived from these measurements. Height was measured
using a Harpenden stadiometer (Holtain, Crymych, UK) and
weight using Seca digital weighing scale (Seca, Birmingham,
UK). Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using Quetelet
index (weight in kilograms/height in m2).
Anthropometric data were expressed as standard deviation
scores (SDS) using the 1990 UK growth reference data.17
Patients with BMI SDS >2 were classified as obese.18 The systolic
and diastolic blood pressures were expressed as percentiles and
SDS using the Fourth Task Force data set.19 For children
<1 year old, the normative values were taken from the Second
Task Force report.20 Patients with average SBP and/or DBP
≥95th percentile for gender, age and height were classified as
hypertensive and those between 90th and 95th centiles as prehypertensive.19 IR was calculated using the homoeostasis model
assessment (HOMA) method and compared with a data set
from 94 short and tall normal individuals at Great Ormond
Street Hospital for Children. Fasting total plasma cholesterol
concentrations >55 mmol/l and fasting plasma triglyceride
concentrations >155 mmol/l were considered to be elevated.
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 21. Nonnormally distributed data were logarithmically transformed prior
to analysis. Normally distributed data are expressed as mean and
SD, whereas non-normally distributed data were expressed
as median and interquartile range (IQR). Mean data were
compared between groups using Student’s t-test. When more
than two groups were compared, one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) with Tukey’s post hoc test was used to determine significance. Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was used to
explore relationships between blood pressure and chronological
age, steroid doses, BMI SDS and mean cortisol concentration.
A P-value <005 was considered as depicting significance.
Hormone assays
Results
Methods
Cortisol. Serum total cortisol was measured using competitive
chemiluminescent immunoassay (Immulite 2000 Siemens Diagnostics). The sensitivity of the assay is 55 nmol/l, and the
coefficients of variation (CV) were 11% and 4% at the levels
819 nmol/l and 499 nmol/l, respectively.
Plasma renin activity (PRA) was measured as described by
Menard & Catt.16 The assay sensitivity is 017 nmol/l/h, and the
CV is 49% at 049 nmol/l/h, 62% at 084 nmol/l/h and 79% at
137 nmol/l/h.
Cholesterol was measured using dry slide enzymatic (cholesterol oxidase) method (Vitros 5600 Clinical Chemistry analyser,
Ortho Clinical Diagnostics). The sensitivity is 129 mmol/l with
a CV of 18% at 38 mmol/l. Triglycerides were measured using
General characteristics
The records of 107 patients (39 men), aged 04–205 years
(median 92 years) were analysed. Of these, 57 (533%) patients
were in the age group 0–99 years, 37 (346%) in the age group
10–149 years and 13 (121%) were in the age group ≥15 years.
Seventy-nine (74%) patients had SW CAH, and the remainder
had SV CAH. Table 1 shows the biochemical parameters of
control in the patients. With the current regimens, the overall
biochemical control was inadequate with high premorning dose
17-OHP concentrations and increased mean 24 h 17-OHP
concentrations. Forty-four (63%) of 70 patients had high plasma
androstenedione concentrations, and only 23 (33%) had normal
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Clinical Endocrinology (2014), 80, 471–477
Cardiovascular risk factors in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia 473
Table 1. Steroid doses and biochemical markers of control
Age groups
Hydrocortisone
(mg/m2)
Mean (SD)
Fludrocortisone
(lg/m2)
Mean (SD)
Mean 17-OHP
(nmol/l)
Median (IQR)
Mean cortisol
(nmol/l)
Median (IQR)
Androstenedione
(lmol/l)
Median (IQR)
Plasma renin activity
(nmol/h/l)
Median (IQR)
0–99 years
133 (49)
1214 (515)
10–149 years
13 (35)
84 (397)
≥15 years
14 (45)
67 (277)
All age
133 (44)
n = 54
27 (6–80)
n = 32
56 (18–132)
n = 13
61 (9–149)
n = 99
38 (8–123)
n = 55
187 (151–214)
n = 35
175 (144–200)
n = 11
203 (154–223)
n = 101
184 (151–210)
n = 32
27 (1–127)
n = 28
139 (68–288)
n = 10
159 (52–215)
n = 70
93 (2–19)
n = 50
57 (27–94)
n = 27
39 (23–65)
n = 11
36 (2–57)
n = 88
5 (24–72)
102 (50)
levels and 3 (4%) had low levels. Mean PRA was <10 pmol/ml/
h, suggesting adequate mineralocorticoid replacement.
Steroid doses
Mean daily hydrocortisone and 9-alpha-fludrocortisone replacement doses were 133 (SD 44) mg/m2 body surface area (BSA)
and 102 (SD 50) lg/m2 BSA, respectively. These doses varied
depending upon age: mean hydrocortisone and 9-alpha-fludrocortisone doses were 133 (SD 49) mg/m2 BSA and 1214 (SD
515) lg/m2 BSA, respectively, in the 0-99 years age group, 13
(SD 35) mg/m2 BSA and 84 (SD 397) lg/m2 BSA, respectively,
in the 10–149 years age group and 14 (SD 45) mg/m2 BSA and
67 (SD 277) lg/m2 BSA, respectively, in the ≥15 years age
group (Table 1). There was no relationship between hydrocortisone dose and age, whereas the dose of 9-alpha-fludrocortisone
was negatively correlated with age (r = 06; P = 0000) in both
sexes [Fig. 1(a)].
Obesity
Table 2 shows the anthropometric data in 106 patients in the
different age groups. Twenty-five (236%) of 106 subjects (33%
of men, 178% of women; v2 = 007, P = 009) in the cohort
were obese. In the whole study group, weight SDS and BMI SDS
were significantly higher (P < 0001) in both sexes when compared with the UK population mean. Height SDS was similar to
the patient’s mid-parental height SDS and the reference population except in the older age group (≥15 years group) who were
significantly shorter (P = 001). There were significant positive
correlation of weight SDS (r = 0327; P = 0001) and BMI SDS
with age (r = 0368, P < 0001) [Fig. 1(b)], but this trend was
not seen with height SDS irrespective of sex. BMI SDS was not
related significantly to hydrocortisone dose (r = 017; P = 007)
but was negatively related to fludrocortisone dose (r = 038,
P < 0001).
Hypertension
The average SBP in 91 patients with CAH is shown in Fig. 2(a).
Nineteen (209%) of 91 patients (20% men; 21% women) had
systolic hypertension and 10 (11%) patients were noted to have
prehypertension. Mean SBP [108 (SD 135) mm Hg] and mean
SBP SDS 076 (SD 119) were significantly higher than the reference population (P < 0001). There was a significant negative
relationship between SBP SDS and age (r = 033; P = 004)
but only in men.
The average DBP in 91 subjects is shown in Fig. 2(b). Eight
(88%) of 91 patients (86% men; 89% women) had diastolic
hypertension with no difference between sexes. Mean DBP [59
(SD 108) mm Hg] and mean DBP SDS 019 (SD 101) were
not significantly higher than the reference population (P = 007).
DBP SDS was negatively related to age (r = 03; P = 002) in
women only. Only 3 (33%) patients had both systolic and
diastolic hypertension.
Factors influencing blood pressure
The relationship between systolic and diastolic blood pressure
was explored using stepwise multiple linear regression analysis.
SBP SDS was predicted only by CA (adjusted r2 = 009;
P = 0008), and DBP SDS was predicted by mean plasma cortisol and 9-alpha-fludrocortisone dose (adjusted r2 = 022;
P = 0000). Neither SBP SDS nor DBP SDS was significantly
related to BMI SDS (r = 011, P = 028; r = 01, P = 036,
respectively).
Insulin resistance
The difference in the insulin–glucose status between the normal
and CAH individuals is shown in Table 3. Fasting blood glucose,
fasting plasma insulin and HOMA IR in the CAH subjects were
lower than the normal individuals. HOMA IR was positively
related to age (r = 028; P = 003) but not to BMI SDS
(r = 015; P = 026).
Hyperlipidaemia
Of 63 subjects, 6 (95%) had high plasma triglycerides concentrations and 2 (3%) had high plasma cholesterol concentrations
with no differences between sexes. These were not related to age,
BMI SDS, blood pressure and hydrocortisone dose.
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Clinical Endocrinology (2014), 80, 471–477
474 A. Subbarayan et al.
Table 4 shows the anthropometric data between the SW and the
SV types. The height SDS and weight SDS of SV CAH subjects
were significantly higher compared with the SW CAH subjects
(P < 0001 for both). There was no significant difference in the
prevalence of hypertension, insulin resistance and hyperlipidaemia
between these two groups.
(a)
Discussion
(b)
Fig. 1 (a) Correlation between chronological age and 9-alphafludrocortisone dose. (b) Correlation between age and BMI SDS.
Comparison of salt-wasting and simple virilizing types of
CAH
There was no significant difference in the age and sex distribution
between the SW and SV CAH groups at the time of analysis.
These data demonstrate that obesity and hypertension remain
problem areas in children with CAH. Compared with our previous data, there has been a reduction in the numbers who are
obese and hypertensive, which probably reflects the lower dosing
schedules used since the last publication.9 The mean hydrocortisone (133 mg/m2) and 9-alpha-fludrocortisone (102 lg/m2)
doses are similar to the recommended doses in the Endocrine
Society Practice Guidelines.8 Of note, there was a significant
negative correlation between the 9-alpha-fludrocortisone dose
and the age which reflects our clinical practice not to increase
the mineralocorticoid dose on a body size basis once a maximum
of 100 micrograms per day has been reached.
Obesity is an independent risk factor for CVD,21 and the
prevalence in the general population varies and is increasing
across the globe.22 This has an impact on the prevalence of
obesity among CAH subjects and could partly explain the varied
prevalence of obesity in different studies along with the disease
and treatment factors. The prevalence of obesity in our cohort
was 236% (33% men; 178% women) which is higher than that
reported in the Health Survey for England 201022 (171% men;
148% women). However, men with CAH have a significantly
higher risk of obesity than women when compared with the
normal population. In other studies in children with CAH, the
prevalence of obesity has been reported as 35%15 and 168%10.
The mean BMI SDS in our cohort was significantly less (098 vs
157) compared with our previous report a decade ago.9 While
the prevalence of obesity in general population is increasing, the
most likely explanation for this significant decrease in BMI SDS
could be due to effect of change in the management of these
patients. Interestingly, the mean hydrocortisone dose used in
our previous study9 was significantly higher (175 vs 133 mg/
m2), and this may have played an important role in the reduction in the BMI SDS. A more variable prevalence of obesity was
reported in adults with CAH, but this may reflect the higher
dosing regimens used in the 1970 and 1980s.11,12,15 However, we
Table 2. Anthropometric data
Age groups (n)
0–99 years (56)
10–149 years (37)
15 years and above (13)
All age group (106)
Height SDS
Mean (SD)
011 (166)
008 (168)
09 (114)
002 (163)
P-value
0623
0769
0014*
088
Delta height SDS
Mean (SD)
016
007
103
019
(15)
(184)
(13)
(16)
P-value
Weight SDS
Mean (SD)
P-value
BMI SDS
Mean (SD)
P-value
0494
0849
0037*
0297
027
111
069
061
0261
<0001*
096
<0001*
06 (149)
143 (12)
134 (131)
098 (142)
0004*
<0001*
0003*
<0001*
(178)
(137)
(137)
(164)
Delta Height SDS, Height SDS-Target Ht SDS.
*P-value<005, significant.
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Clinical Endocrinology (2014), 80, 471–477
Cardiovascular risk factors in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia 475
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 (a) Systolic blood pressure
(b) Diastolic blood pressure in CAH.
in
CAH.
could not find a significant correlation between the steroid doses
and BMI SDS in the current study, and this could be due to
small variance in doses used as they are calculated on the basis
of body size. BMI is not an accurate estimate of body fat particularly in CAH where androgen effects on muscle mass may be
important. Consideration should be given in future studies to
the use of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry to estimate body
composition.
The mean height SDS in this cohort was similar to the population mean and the mid-parental SDS in the under 15 year age
group indicating optimum growth with current doses of steroids
used. However, the mean height SDS was lower in the over
15 year age group and was similar to the adult height reported
in the recent meta-analysis.23 This might reflect the previous
management strategies using higher doses of steroids compared
with the current dosage schedule. Although similar trend is seen
when compared with target height SDS, we did not have full
data on bone age to compare.
The prevalence of hypertension varies widely between studies.
The prevalence of systolic (209% vs 58%) and diastolic hypertension (88% vs 24%) was significantly less when compared
with our previous study but still higher than the population
mean.9,24 This may reflect the lower steroid doses used in our
patients compared with our previous study9 (mean hydrocortisone
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Clinical Endocrinology (2014), 80, 471–477
476 A. Subbarayan et al.
Table 3. Insulin–glucose status between CAH and normal individuals
Age <10 years
Fasting glucose
Fasting insulin
HOMA IR
HOMA%B
Age ≥10 years
Fasting glucose
Fasting insulin
HOMA IR
HOMA%B
Normal (n = 56)
Mean (SD)
CAH (n = 25)
Mean (SD)
46 (05)
10 (8)
13 (09)
132 (66)
Normal (n = 38)
Mean (SD)
46 (06)
114 (63)
14 (08)
148 (72)
41 (06)
5 (38)
07 (04)
104 (43)
CAH (n = 32)
Mean (SD)
44 (04)
89 (46)
11 (06)
132 (44)
P-value
<0001*
0002*
0001*
0048*
P-value
007
007
005
0288
*P = <005, significant.
Table 4. Anthropometric data of SW CAH vs SV CAH
SW CAH (n = 78)
Mean (SD)
Height SDS
Weight SDS
BMI SDS
042 (143)
034 (165)
087 (15)
SV CAH (n = 28)
Mean (SD)
P-value
109 (166)
138 (135)
128 (114)
<0001*
0003*
0199
*P-value<005, significant.
dose 133 vs 175 mg/m2 and the mean 9-alpha-fludrocortisone
dose 102 vs 112 lg/m2. Interestingly in another study in the
paediatric age group, the prevalence of systolic hypertension was
only 11% and CAH individuals with normal weight even showed
diastolic hypotension.24 This might be due to the use of even
lower doses of 9-alpha-fludrocortisone compared with our study
(mean dose 48 vs 102 lg/m2). In a recent study15, the prevalence
of hypertension was even higher than our current study even
though the mean hydrocortisone dose used was similar to our
study. These differences may relate in part to the dosing as suggested but may also be influenced by the methods for recording
blood pressure. We aimed to obtain standardized blood pressure
measurements over a 24-h period to avoid, where possible, the
possibility of ‘white coat hypertension’. Both SBP SDS and DBP
SDS were negatively related to age, and this might be due to
reduction in the dose of fludrocortisone, on a body size basis, as
age advances. This might also explain why the prevalence of
hypertension in the adult CAH population is not as high as that
seen in paediatric reports.12,15 Blood pressure was not related to
BMI, in contrast to previous studies9,24 suggesting that the treatment regimen remains an important factor in generating high
BP. The true prevalence of hypertension in our study might be
even lower as we used the oscillometric method that tends to
overestimate blood pressure by few mmHg compared with
sphygmomanometer recordings.25
HOMA IR in our CAH cohort was lower than our historical
controls, in contrast to previous studies where it was significantly higher.4,15 This might again be due to the difference in
the steroid doses, the taking of samples early morning before the
hydrocortisone dose and the difference in the BMI SDS noted
between these studies. HOMA IR was also not related to BMI
SDS or BP in contrast to the above studies. Although there was
a slight increase (95%) in the prevalence of hyperlipidaemia in
our cohort, we did not have proper controls to assess the significance. Variable reports both in adults and children exist, some
showing an increased prevalence12,15 and others not. 13 Some
studies even show that the prevalence of dyslipidaemia is less in
CAH patients compared with the general population.11,14 However, patients with positive family history of dyslipidaemia
should have further investigations to rule out familial hypercholesterolaemia.
One of the limitations of our study is that the full data set
was not complete in all patients. We also did not evaluate other
risk factors such as serum adiponectin, CRP, homocysteine and
arterial intima-media thickness.26,27 However, it is very encouraging to see the decreasing trend in the prevalence of the cardiovascular risk factors in our children with CAH most likely
attributed to significant reduction in hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone doses over the last decade. Several individuals are
obese, and BMI SDS tends to be higher than average. With the
availability of more physiological modalities, such as subcutaneous pumps28 or sustained release preparations,29 ongoing audit
of cardiovascular risk factors is warranted. Assessments such as
these should be incorporated into a best practice quality assurance scheme for patients with CAH.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Audit Office of Great Ormond
Street Hospital for Children.
Conflicting interest
Nothing to declare.
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Supporting Information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online
version of this article:
Table S1. Annual review programme for children and young
people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
© 2013 The Authors. Clinical Endocrinology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Clinical Endocrinology (2014), 80, 471–477