S I GN I F I C S
LA N GU A GE
A N D
THE
F OR M
A R T I CU LA T E
OF
OU R
E ' PR E S SIV E A N D I N T E R PRET A T I V E
R E SO U R CE S
BY
W E L BY
V
lf
f m sb k h u si f s
m i um
u
mmu i
m i su s s
i
i
T
ss s m
li i — m i m s
slf
u li y i u
y i s u y
su m ly im
l mu l if l
u iy
s
i y
d i
All i
e
t h e re o re c o
e
t h ro g h w h c h w e co
a n d exp re
e
I ts q a t ,
t h e g en e ra
en c e
'
.
—H
th e
ts a
t
E NRY
n ca t e
ore
we
th e n t i c i t
o
d
ve
,
op p or t
'A ME S
to t e q
ac
by
ts
n
w th
t
t
,
t on o
.
th e
,
or e
a re
t p ro
h en ce
f o r th e di g n
t
an
p ee ch , th e
ed
he
gg e t
o ur
e a c h o th e r
ri t
ec
e
o re
t
o te
a n d e n h an ce
p re
e
.
,
’
.
1
9
1 1
,
e.
p or ta n t f o r
n teg r i t y , o f o u r exi
.
MA CMI LLA N A N D C O
S T MA R T I N S ST R E ET
i
LI MI T E D
LO N D O N
t
D
E D I CAT E D
TO
MY
MA NY
'I ND
SY
M PA T H I S E R S
A ND
A LL T H E
A ND
TO
Y OU N G
W OR LD
F R I E ND S
PR E F A CE
’
S I G N I F I CS may be briefly and provisionally defined
as the study Of the nature o f S ignificance in all
its forms and relations and thus Of its working
in every possible sphere o f human interest and
purpose But the fact that this study is com
neglected
even
in
education
renders
a
l
et el
p
y
fully satisfactory definition di ffi cult at present to
formulate
The interpretative function is in
truth the only o n e in any direct sense ignored
A nd yet it is that
o r at least casually treated
which naturally precedes an d is the very condi
tion o f human intercourse as Of man s mastery
Of his w orld
In reading the following pages tw o things
must throughout be borne in mind
First that the plea for Si gn i fic s can only as
yet be written in that very medium— c o n v en
—
language
which so sorely needs to be
i
a
l
t on
,
.
.
,
,
.
’
,
.
.
,
V II
viii
S I G N I F I C S A N D LAN G UAG E
lifted o u t o f its present morass Of shifting con
fusion and disentangled from a rank growth o f
falsifying survival ; and second that the present
writer has no claim to make that plea as it
should be made by those wh o even as things
are could do it far better j ustice
R eaders must also be warned that the book
is not a contin uous E ssay still less a systematic
Treatise I t consists Of a selection made from
a great number Of short papers written over a
course o f years and always without any V iew o f
publication S ome Of these papers were intended
t o explain to correspondents and friends the
writer s position with reference to language ;
and others again were the form in which the
writer recorded f o r personal use some new aspect
as it suggested
o r way o f puttin g the matter
itself I t has been thought that a selection Of
such P apers o f wh ich these are b ut a few
examples arranged and modified as seemed ad
visable would serve to indicate some directions
in which the theme of earlier writin gs could be
developed
In the A ppendix will be found a small sup
e m en t a r
l
selection
o f a di ff erent kind ;
that
p
y
is representative expressions o f the needlessly
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
P R EFA C E
ix
narrow limitations and positive Obstructions of
language which are now beginning to be widely
felt
It must finally be borne in mind that the
suggestions here O ff ered constitute little more
than an elementary sketch Of a vast subj ect
E ven as contributed by the writer there is
abundant material for succeeding vol umes show
i ng the practical bearing O f S i g n i fics not only on
language b ut o n every possible form Of human
expression in action invention and creation
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
I n ow have to acknowledge my debt O f grati
tude to those who have helped me to make
possible this suggestion of a central need and its
true fulfilment
In a previous stage Of the work — that r ep r e
sented by W/za z z' Mea nzhg —I had to return
thanks for the ungrudgin g help of a long list
o f distinguished advisers who were also friendly
critics But Of course I had no excuse for agai n
troublin g those who had so generously responded
to my first appeal
In this case I have to repeat my gratitude
to P rofessor Stout to whom I owe more than
I can express
I must also warmly thank
.
‘
,
.
.
,
.
x
S I GN I FI C S A N D LAN G UAG E
Dr Slaughter and M r G reenstreet an d a few
others w ho have in directly helped o n the work
or encouraged th e worker
My m ain thanks however in th e present
undertaking are due to M r William M acdonald
without wh ose expert ai d I coul d n o t from
somewh at failin g st rength have faced so f o r
m i dab l e a task
V W
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
_
Th e f
of
l
u r l
ne
e tt e r s
a
and
7
of
re
vi
Mr W i ll iam Ma c do na l d ma n l
,
.
e we r ,
t oo
k
p l ace
at
H a r r ow
on
l
H e w as b or n a c r i p p e , b u t t r i u mp h e d
S a tu r d a y
A s a c h i d h e 18 s a i d t o h a v e
o er p h y s i cal wea n es s
He w as w i th He n le y o n th e
r e a d H o me r w i t h e a s e
’
N a t i on al O bs er ver , e di t ed Lam b s wo r s , an d wr o te
v
.
k
l
.
.
v
b i o g r a p h i es ,
Be n j ami n Fr an i n ,
a r i o us
kl
i nc
l u di
n
g
th ose
k
of
Ba
l
z ac
a nd
l
H
E
RE
are
probably
many
who
dimly
realise
T
,
,
and would provisionally admit that o u r present
enormous and ever growing d evelopments of
.
mechanical power and command are there to b e
interpreted in terms Of psycholo gy This must
r
u m abl
a
ect
not
only
the
ve
y
minds
which
r eS
f
f
p
y
are conceiving and applying them to such
tremendous and apparently illimitable purpose
but also the thinkers concerned with the mental
sphere itself its content and its range
We may thus suspect if n o t actually infer
that h uman thought also is o n the threshold Of
—
corresponding developments O f power develop
”
ments to which the new birth Of scientific
method in the nineteenth century was but the
prelude and preparation If indeed we deny
this conclusion or d i spute this assumption we
may e ff ectually hold such a development in arrest
— o r risk forcing it o u t in unhealthy f orms
j ust as th ree hundred years ago the spirit Of
,
-
t
t
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
'
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
B
2
S I GN I F I C S A N D LANG UAG E
scientific discovery was fettered and retarded o n
th e verge o f its great career Of achievement
The explanation is in part if only in part the
same now as it was then For in the pre
Baconian age th e study Of phenomena the
”
inquiry into the causes Of things was not
more inhibited by theological prepossessions and
denunciations than by th e dominance Of an
intellectual nomenclature which ruled realit y out
Of the universe and confidently took its place
in all disquisition o r discussion upon M an and
N ature
The forward step taken was largel y
the result Of a b reakin g Of the barriers created
by traditional terminology a pushing aside Of
fictitious formulas and a coming directly into
the presence o f things in order to learn whatever
”
they had to say for th emselves
and f o r the
Whole
A ll th e conditions — especially the
supreme condition an urgent need— are n ow
existent for a secon d and similar forward step
but upon anoth er plane and to h igher purposes
F o r the fresh advance which now seems i m
minent as it i s sorely needed should be no mere
continuation of the Baconian search th e ac c u m u
lation o f data for a series Of inferences regar ding
the properties Of th e material system as usually
understood but rather th e interpretation the
translation at last into valid terms Of life and
.
,
,
.
,
'
,
.
,
,
'
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
S I GN I F I C S AN D LANGUAGE
3
thought Of the knowledge already so abundantly
gained Wh ile man fails t o make this t ran s l a
tion —to moralise and humanise his knowledge
Of the cosmos and s o to unify and relate it to
himself— his thinking is in arrears and mentally
he lags behind his enacted experience That we
in this age do lag behind and th at we have thus
far failed to achieve a great and general act Of
translation is a loss chiefly due to o u r unanimous
neglect to understand E xpression its n ature
conditions range o f form and function unrealised
potencies and full value or worth A nd there
fore the first message of what is n o w to be
named Si gn i fic s is that we must amend this
really inhuman fault ; that we must now study
E xpression precisely as we h ave long been study
”
”
ing N ature and
M ind in the varying
ranges Of both these terms
We must do this ; f o r until we do it not
merely metaphysical theory but natural fact as
well as moral and social valuations and aims
must continue t o be perpetually misinterpreted
because mis stated G reat tracts Of experience
direct and indirect remain without an ordered
vocabulary o r notation —and better none than
those which many others have —exactly as great
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
1
'
'
.
,
,
,
-
,
.
,
1
Fo r
a defini t ion
A mer z m rz D i cti on a ry
'
1 1 th
edi t
.
of
f
o
this term see th Oxf
Péi / mpby and the E y
e
o
,
or d
n c clo
p
D i t tz m ary ,
'
e di a
the
B r i t a fi fli m ,
S I GN I FI C S A N D LAN G UAG E
4
.
regions Of natural fact remained without recog
and without name until man almost
n i t i on
suddenly discovered that he had been l ooking
for the whats an d hows and whys Of the world
he lived in in the wro n g direction and by th e
wrong method A t last he saw his true way
that Of faithfully interrogating N ature and
rigorously testing h is reading o f h er answer
— and rich has been the reward Of following it
loyally
But th e proper complement o f this
wonderful step forward its very issue must b e
the openin g up Of anothe r true way hitherto
untrodden It must be the recognition and use
Of a method a mental procedure and habit
enabling us t o perceive the treasures of t ruth
the implication s Of reality that even now are
only hidden from us by o ur contented subj ection
to the tyranny o f m i sfitt i n g E xpression — E xpres
sion Of course Of all kinds but mainly expression
in language taken in i ts ordinary sense
O ur punishmen t here is that some Of the
most intimate and h omely as w ell as important
and significant forms o f experience some o f
the plainest facts and most real existences in the
world remain unknowable in the sense of
being unspeakable and therefore unthink
able in any now fittin g sense
A s a fact
however as we are constantly though u n
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
’
‘
,
’
‘
‘
’
.
,
,
,
S I GN I F I C S AN D LANGUAGE
5
consciously witnessin g we can think in an
embar rassed an d hindered way much more than
language in the forms which social and oth er
conventions have imposed upon it allows us
satisfactorily to express I n all thoughtful and
able writing we continually meet with signs o f
a sense o f sh ortcoming in expressing given
conceptions ' but whatever the failure the
conceptions are there
In these cases we do note the inadequacy Of
language to serve I n others and more f r e
quently we note the fear O f its great fund O f
fallacies We constantly find scattered through
o u t the text O f every thought f ul treatise what
are essentially footnotes Of protest o r warning
made needful only by the universal attitude o f a
reader who has never been trained to demand
new and fruitful ideas and to be ready t o
welcome new and suggestive modes o f setting
these forth
For lack Of such training the
reader persistently reads the Ol d prepossessions
into the new statement Of truth and so merely
works over a d na us ea m the bare and dead tissues
thought
once
living
and
active
now
o f used u
p
mummied
O ur language has been f ull Of life since all
its similes all its associations like all its as
sumptio u s were once in perfect accord with
,
,
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
S I GN I F I C S AN D LANG UAGE
6
—
the current conceptions Of nature
our own
—
nature included
and with o ur ideas o f
motion matter and mind
But n o w j ust as
the forms of expression called social convention
and common law n o longer fit o u r knowledge
of the b iological and psychological facts o f life
are confining us to stunte d and mean conceptions
an d are causing c ruel travesties Of
O f morality
j ustice wh eth er social or legal j ust as the form
o f expression called music puzzles and b afil e s
while it fascinates us and leads to barren c o n
j ust indeed as all current forms o f
tr ov er s y ;
expression except perhaps the fast growin g
modes O f mathematical symb olism tend to do
this — s o the form o f expression called linguistic
and our w ord spoken o r written
o u r ph rase
betrays us daily more disastrously and atrophies
alike action and thought
’
‘
,
,
’
‘
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
dmu nd G urney s
P6 7
E xpression in M usic
recent E ssays Music
1
S ee
’
E
”
'
,
on
.
'
2
.
ower
P
R eta ,
of
j uly
S ound
1
90 3 ,
and G h i g
and many other
”
e
r n
’
s
II
A PPARE N T LY we suppose that the gift o f
language is like the gift of a nose entirely
ffi
as
to
its
position
and
o
ce
outside
the
scope
of
)
(
our modifying control A nd it is true that w e
cannot invert o u r nose o r give it four nostrils o r
present it with the power o f hearing o r sight
N either indeed can we develop it into an organ
at
present
transcendent
smell
n o nor even
of
)
(
restore t o it its pristine and sub human privileges
But all this only shows that we had better leave
talking o f gift when speaking of language
of
Rather we have pain f ully earned the possession
Of speech by learnin g to control and order
the sounds producible by o u r evolving larynx
and by continuously consistently arduously
purposively developi ng the complexities o f the
resulting system Of vocal signs In doing this
we have evolved and developed syntax and
prosody and much else that the philologist
orator o r poet can expound to us o r use to
influence o u r f eeling and action The point is
‘
’
’
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
-
.
’
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
SI G N I FI C S A N D LANG UAGE
8
that j ust wh en the need Of addin g consensus to
a so far accomplished control was most urgent
and its neglect most certain to b e disastrous t o
intellectual fortunes ; j ust when a high
our
civilisation and what w e call the modern era Of
discovery and its reaction on philosophical
thought and practical life set in we b egan to
lose more and more the very idea o f a social
control and Of power to direct the development
Of the most precious Of all o u r acquirements
that O f articulate speech
I can never forget the amazement I felt
when I first began my study Of philol ogy and
linguistics and the origins o f language and
realised this fact and its full significance Th e
writers o n e and all t reated language n o t as y o u
would treat muscle as a means o f work to be
b rought under the most minute elaborate and
unfailing functional control but as you migh t
treat some distant constellation in space and
its to us mysterious movements We might
describ e such a heavenly Obj ect and then lay
down what seemed to be the conditions of its
existence and activities We might point o u t
precedents possible ori gins possible destinies
possible e ff ects o n other systems including o u r
own But we should remain consciously and
profoundly helpless to modify in the most
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
S I GN I F I C S A N D LANG UAG E
I O
redressing and giving better finish to a frame
work Or o f improving o n conventional grammar
prosody and so forth but as the development o f
an expansive and so to say organic power as yet
onl y in emb ryo A nd surely it is evident that
no rhetoric and but little imagination are n eeded
to convey an idea Of what may b e hoped for
when this result has been at last through a
sane
education
b
rough
t
about
I
t
s i n i fic al l
g
y
is indeed the plainest Of common sense that
concentration Upon th e value Of all Sign and
the e ff ective c o—
ordination Of all o u r means Of
enhancing and realising this to the very utmost
must bring about a forward step o n e o f the
greatest Man has ever made and th e world has
ever seen
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
-
,
,
,
.
III
is true that we sometimes seem to lay claim
to such control as when we praise an orator or
writer f or his command O f language
But
there is in fact no such command There is an
amazing and an even contented subserviency and
helplessness leading t o o Often to inexcusable
defect or deviation Of sense
We conceive that the nearest approach to
the mastery which is o u r true birthright was
achieved in what we call the classical era A nd
we are still living in an almost literal sense on
its legacy B ut the spirit of its conquests and
domination is lost and with that the lesson Of its
e ff ective greatness T O a large extent though
in varyin g degrees in di ff erent races w e avail
ourselves Of attitude gesture and tone b y these
primitive means shared in varying ( and Often to
us imperceptible ) modes and degrees by the
whole organic world But o u r speech constantly
mocks us and our interest This is not the fault
Of E xpression itself in any form least Of al l of
articulate expression that loyal creation and
IT
,
”
'
.
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
I I
S I GN I FI C S AN D LANG U AG E
12
unfailing servant of Man ready and untiring as
inexhaustible waitin g only for o u r recognition
and f o r that commandin g guidance which only
in the most important case Of all we have failed
to apply N O it is our ow n fault
The idea that such neglect and helplessness
are inherent in the case is peculiarl y inept
A rticulate expression is the elab orated and trans
fig u r e d form Of attitude gesture and tone ; and
more yet Of the marvellous skill of han d directed
by creative b rain o f th e inventor and worker
the representative Of imagination and reason
Why do w e only invent m echanical i n s t r u
ments when the greatest instrument Of all lies
in comparative neglect as a thing with which
we have nothin g to do beyond doin g what we
can with it as it is ? Speech gives o u r mind
o u r thought
our conception ; it conveys o u r
knowledge describes our di ffi culties records ou r
endeavours and o u r successes o r defeats warn s
o r encourages
notifies Obj ectio n refutes error
exposes blunder o r inaccuracy ; and finally
explains and enables us t o apply the principles Of
achievement Of any kind Having the O ff ered
service o f such a power as this why should we
sligh t o r disregard its promise o r b e content
with anythin g less than its highest e ffi ciency
which will also b e ours
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
‘
,
,
’
‘
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
IV
most important elements O f experience are
distinction and unification comparison and com
bination — analysis and synthesis
We first
analyse what is called a confused mani f old
really a generic or given manifold
Then
we synthetise what we have distinguished to
the uttermost
If the result were an actual
complex say a system of motions particles or
masses we should take care not to muddle up
the constituents We might pay t oo Obviously
dear for that I But in language this elementary
rule O f practical o r even rational procedure is
violated by o u r pernicious misuse and perversion
O f one o f the most splen did O f all our intellectual
instruments namely the image or the figure ;
the image wh ich is not merely the analogue but
in a b road and true sense the linear descendant
the retinal image indirectly giving us the
Of
immediate reality O f the material world —O f
perception
N o w we do know th e danger O f actual
T HE
,
.
,
’
‘
.
,
,
,
,
.
‘
,
,
,
.
13
1
4
.
AND
S I G N I FI CS
LANGU AG E
optical illusion and o f delusion arising from
disease Of min d or body We do understand
that i f we supposed w e saw solid earth beyond
a cli ff edge and walked over it we should b e
killed ; and w e infer this although w e had not
deliberately realised o r examined it But we do
not see that we are killing o r inj uring ourselves
mentally by tumblin g down logical precipices o r
into metaphorical pits and so o n because O f th e
traps set by false mental images in language
U pon the presumptions suggested by th ese dis
t o r t i o n s Of image we t oo Often act and in o u r
thinking are continually influenced by them
Therefore it is hardly an exaggeration to say
that within the realm Of speech o u r procedure
is that o f the insane
Hence the divi sions the antagonisms bet w een
men Of goodwill H ence the unsound pessimism
and the equally o r more unsound optimism which
distort o u r interpretation Of the world
Hence indeed the insoluble problem even
that Of L ife itself though if really a problem
it must Of course be soluble If we coul d b ut
see this ; if o u r insanity Of mental image could
be cured o r rather averted in childhood ; if
o u r imagery were
rectified ; then ideas would
emerge which now are killed in the germ
Then conceptions would be formed which now
.
-
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
’
‘
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
S I GN I FI CS AN D LANG UAGE
1
5
never come t o the birth Then mental organ
isms would come to per f ect maturity which
now are stunted and deformed The n beauty
dignity grace Of which as yet we have less than
a possible measure might be hoped f o r
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
V
Of
H R O U G H the prevalence
m i s fitti n g
imagery
which continually misrepresents the real aspects
and relations of things and warps o u r reasoning
as well as o u r visio n Of the world we are really
living in what is ( comparatively speaking ) a kind
o f lunacy a state o f general illusion
material
isin g here and there into definite del usions
ab out w hich we are controversial and emphatic
We need a linguistic oculist to restore lost
focussing power to bring our images back to
reality by some normalising kind O f lens Mean
while the dementia O f our metaphysics popular
and professional spreads unchecked Mind and its
’
—
presumed states are internal z m zoe some non
entity not specified Matter is all outs ide this
nonentity
Distinction is all o n e with division
Roots become generatin g spores for the purposes
Of argument o r discharge the functions o f ova
T
,
,
,
‘
,
,
’
.
,
.
,
.
,
'
.
1
.
.
,
.
The obvious f ac t that s pace is internal precisely a s much
li t tle —as it is extern al is s trangel y enough ignored We
might as well treat the spatial as upward while u s ing downward
f
the non spatial
1
‘
or
’
,
,
‘
or
’
‘
-
.
16
’
.
‘
’
VI
P R O F E SS O R ' A R L P EAR S O N lon g ago submitted that
in consequence Of the fetishistic use o f the terms
m atter mass motion force space time cause
atom body law etc ( especially in text books)
physical science has made a false start But the
biologist th e ph y siologist th e psychologist have
all been dependent on such terms since n o
oth ers were current when they adopted their
terminolog y ; and have taken them perforce in
untenable and misleadin g senses In these sen ses
they have everywhere used them both directly
and figuratively and have passed them o n into
literary and popular usage Therefore if P rof
P earson s position is capable of b eing maintained
even in the b roadest sense P sychology and
E thics have s o far made a false start also
It
follows that their premisses are liable to vanish
alon g with the superannuated connotations Of
the main artery terms of physical science A t
all events if the modern scientist is compelled t o
—
use the Old terms taking them over as Chemist ry
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
.
,
’
,
.
-
.
,
18
S I GN I FI C S A N D LANG UAG E
1
9
took over th e terms o f A lchemy as A stronomy
took over the terms o f A strology — due care
should be taken to charge them publicly with
new meanings and so bring the popular mind
into e ff ective relation with its own vocabulary
O wing to this not having been done the popular
mind to day is still largely steeped in the logic Of
magic and yet seldom suspects it A nd perhaps
For the securest
most where it least suspects it
stronghold Of myth is j ust the mind which in
th e name O f common sense refuses to question
its o w n certainties
L et a single example be cited Of the way in
which the s o called common sense mind startin g
from a misconception O f the facts confidently
uses this misconception as the source Of analogies
and metaphors to which it gives authoritative
and directive significance O ur eyes as science
”
now tells us are focussed to infinity
I t is
their nature to look away ' the distant vision is
more germane to them ( and us) than the i n s p ec
tion Of things minute or immediately near
H ere surely is a truth o f great illuminating
potency But the common sense mind starts
from quite a di ff erent conception Of the facts and
draws a corresponding inference It assumes a
morbid shortsightedness as normal It supposes
that the hard thing the e ff ort th e strain is to
,
,
.
,
-
.
,
.
,
,
.
-
-
,
,
.
,
'
.
,
.
,
,
‘
.
’
-
,
.
.
,
,
,
S I G N I F I C S A N D LANG UAGE
ao
look far away to look beyond this o r that
'
limit
that our eyes are formed to see
with least trouble the things close to us and
therefore are most properly occupied with these
things A nd so the false premiss gets translated
by the fatal process Of false metaphor into a
common sense and unanswerable protest against
every tendency to any kin d o f transcendental
ism as being futile a foolish attempt to reverse
the w hol esome order w hich makes the near
world within touch o r grasp our b usiness fits
th e mind for that and condemns us to stretch
and strain painfully if w e would look towards
what i s b eyond o u r reach —
z /m
t is
our
arm
,
’
‘
‘
,
.
,
,
-
'
,
,
,
‘
,
/
r tr et e z .
H ere then w e have an instance Of h o w th e
use Of analog y and metaphor derived from a false
v ie w O f the facts may result in an e ff ective
arrest o r more mischievous misdirection Of
thought and so in a further and deeper obscuration
of truth
A reference to the function of th e rods and
cones as the receivers Of light would aff ord
another instructive instance o f useful analogy
excl uded and lost to us by the persistence of
phrases which perpetuate the e ff ects O f earlie r
ignorance But indeed the same testimony and
lesson occurs throughout all our thinking We
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
S I GN I FI CS A N D LA NG UAGE
21
are al w ays appealing to facts to furnish us with
illustrations and we are right in doing so But
if our appeal is really to a mere fancy which we
are treating as a fact ; if we seriously take the
centaur as we take the h orse and the man
and use its supposed movements as the analogues
Of something w e want to illustrate arguing from
the o n e to the other as though a man horse
were a fact in nature ; then Of course we
r e import
into o u r reasoning by a misuse Of
expression the very errors and fallacies which
reason is chiefly occupied in exposing and
removing
If we appeal to a centaur at all it must be as
a fabulous monstrosity used to illustrate some
thin g else monstrous B ut we too Often use
facts o f the centaur or satyr o r dragon or
ph oenix class whereby to express the reasonable
the congruous the orderly the real ; for
instance matter force S pirit cause etc in thei r
popular o r inherited sense
They create di ffi
c u l t i e s which else would not exist
,
.
’
‘
’
‘
,
,
‘
’
‘
’
-
’
‘
,
,
-
,
,
.
,
.
‘
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
VI I
W E always tend unconsciously to make what
ever we have expressed in images and through
metaphor behave like th e real thin g o r the
original which we took as illustration or in
analogy H ence results endless confusion th e
real source Of which is not detected and is
therefore permitted t o continue its mischievo u s
work
Take our use Of Inner and O uter as meta
h
o r i c al expressions O f the mental and physical
p
Th rough the influence o f that usage we i n
our
s t i n c ti vel
try
to
make
our
minds
ideas
y
and thoughts behave as if they were shut up
inside definite bounds that is as i f t h ey w e re
Objects in space Hence a false psychology and
educational ideals an d methods that aim at
the development —o r production — Of thinkin g
machines from which y o u grind o u t any desired
p roduct coupled with a thought cabinet with
innume rable drawers a thought cupboard with
innumerable shelves and cavities
’
‘
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
'
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
-
,
.
22
S I GN I FI CS AN D LANGUAGE
2
3
But sometimes this tendency is overcome in
some related metaphor which has to be f orced
into harmony with the falsity thus produced
E g we speak Of introspection of looking into
our own consciousness etc
The mental eye
wh ich looks inward is so far assumed f o r the
purposes Of the occasion to be Outer despite
O f its bein g mental and so
ex lz
ot/zerz
inner
(
jp
)
But biology knows of n o visual organs which
introspect which turn on an axis o r are fixed
to look inwards
We are not intended to
inspect o u r o w n internal economy in action
But having settled that the mental world
exists inside some kind Of containing outline
we have to invent impossible mental eyes that
look inward b efore we can use the intro
N
O wonder science protests
s e c t i v e method
p
against that method though she does not seem
to realise the initial reason f o r such protest
Take again the Basis and Foundation We
try to consider things which are really —like
the world itself— quite independent Of a firm
base as founded securely upon this and
that
But all foundation o n which we b uild
has no security f o r itself save a deeper laye r
under it and beyond that — nothing or the
ether
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
’
‘
,
’
‘
/
.
,
,
,
’
‘
.
‘
.
,
‘
’
.
,
.
.
‘
’
’
,
’
.
,
.
,
VI I I
A M O N G th e many defeatin g absurdities Of current
imagery perhaps that Of laws Of nature is
O ne would really think some
on e Of the worst
times that nature had primo rdially summoned
councils and decreed laws o r even b rought
in a bill in some N atu ral A ssembly discussed
it passed it clause b y clause carefully defining
its regulations and penalties ' A nd on e would
think that nature s lawyers an d j udges ex
poun ded o r lai d down her laws and en f orced
her decrees imposing th e statutory penalties
for their infringement F o r Of course we are
supposed to b reak nature s laws
though
the i dea is as grotesque as it would be to
suppose that we can break the
law o f
identity and di ff erence or the law that
’
‘
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
.
,
’
’
‘
,
’
‘
’
‘
’
‘
,
It may b e said and is constantly said in
similar cases that the image b eing a mere
convenience no on e is misled by it
That is
surely in all cases a profound error True that
,
,
.
,
.
IX
examples may here b e noted o f a kind o f
metaphorical usage which Oftener tends to th row
dust in o u r eyes than to throw light o n any
subj ect starting as it does from veiled fallacy
o r fal se assumption now discredited by growing
experience o r widening and increasingly exact
knowledge
A s we have alread y seen the use Of Internal
and E xternal Inner and O uter Within and
Without Inside and O utside as means o f
contrasting mind and body consciousness and
nature psychical and physical thought and
reality is radicall y misleading S O also is the
use Of basis and foundation to express a primary
in lesser degree the use
o r ultimate need ; and
Of ground and root for the same purpose The
first introduces in all sorts O f connections the
fallacies o f primitive cosmogony
G round is
only needed for standing walking dancin g upon
for planting in o r building or mini n g very
rarely f or graspin g o r holdin g Roots again
A
FEW
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
‘
.
,
,
,
.
26
,
,
S I GN I FI C S AN D LANG UAGE
2
7
only belong to a plant stage Of existence and are
sent dow n to obtain nourishment and give a grip
o r hold for the plant
Y e t all these are used
indiscriminately as though they covered o r illus
t r a t ed the whole range of accessible realities and
characteristic experiences of Man There is in
fact the whole scheme O f material substantial
static analogy and metaphor for the psychical or
mental o r intellectual ( o r S piritual ) sphere
There are again the metaphors
rather
—
perhaps the figurative phrases which depend
on
ab solute criterions of time space etc or
on an absolute cosmical centre and o n i m
passable gulfs which split up the whole fabric
o f experience and the inclusive sum of knowledge
into isolated fragments and thus bring into
existence insoluble enigmas
these last mostly
it may be dependent on the prevalent confusion
between di s tinc tion a nd di v i s i on or s epa r a ti on
There are the misused metaphors o f sense ;
beginning with grasp or touch and tangible
and ending with speculation the visionary
insight a clear outlook a comprehensive
view etc ; these again all used i n di sc r i m i n
ately as covering the whole field O f experience
and Of equal illustrative value in every connec
tion In all these cases the e ff ect o f the attempt
to give to strictly limited or specific images an
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
’
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
’
‘
‘
,
’
,
‘
,
,
.
’
’
,
’
‘
,
,
’
‘
’
‘
’
‘
‘
,
,
’
,
.
,
,
,
.
28
S I G N I FI CS AN D LAN GUAG E
almost universal prevalence and application is
that their real value in use — the value which
the y might yield in intellectual use — is largely
forfeited and we are n o t even aware Of the loss
Finall y there is th e imagery which gives
peculiar sanction and almost sacredness t o th e
straight line produced to infinity though n o on e
has ever seen it there
But Of th e tolerated
inanities Of superseded analog y there i s indeed
no limit
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
'
W E all compound for sins we are inclined to
”
By dam n in g those we have no mind to
Thus
we are now freely banning as superstition the
animistic and mythical beliefs Of our forefathers
regarding the nature o f things
Ye t all the
w hile we retain these very associations in our
inherited language the surface sense only being
altered and the Ol d associations being u n
consciously but coercively called up in the
subconscious region whence come the most
powerful O f o u r impulses and tendencies since
t/z er e acts not merely the individual but the Race
whose tradition he carries
A t any rate our ancestors did not do that
Their expressions called up the associations then
valid and their metaphors entirely harmonised
with their supposed realities and facts
The
di ff erence between then and now is that our
metaphors are divorced from our facts ; and
this Often involves worse confusion than the
'
,
.
.
-
,
,
’
‘
,
.
.
,
.
29
3
O
S I GN I F I CS A N D LANG UAG E
wildest fetishism o r when it does not defeats
us by excluding that appeal to association which
is the very optic nerve of th ought as reflectin g
reality
,
.
,
XI
W H A T a new mental world we should enter if
we learned to pause in the act o f using imagery
and to scrutinise intelligently o u r o w n and o u r
Opponent s
figurative habits
What dis
c o v er i es we should make as to why some tr u e
and fruitful thought is s o unwillingly received
is even rej ected with protest by those to
or
whom we should have expected it especially to
appeal I We refer these e ff ects now to cussed
ness in things o r in human nature ; but then
we should perceive that the initial cussedness
is rather in o u r barbaric speech than in the
mind to which it gives such distorted expression
Then would come an era in which instead o f
begging o u r reader not t o take o u r imagery
seriously n o t to apply its implications but to
regard them as incidental excrescences of con
v en t i o n al expression
we should rather bid him
in certain cases t o lay these implications to
heart f o r all th ey were worth o r could
yield
,
’
’
‘
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
31
3
S I G N I F I CS A N D LAN GUAGE
2
We could safely a ff ord to do so for then we
should select the imagery which is to convey
meaning with the same scrupulous dis
our
crimination which the j eweller th e surgeon o r
the electrician uses in selecting the implements
for th e finest processes o f his work
O ur
analogies then would not only h Ol d water
pure water from the well of truth —but they
would stand fire —
the hottest fire of criticism
They would w or k in all
o r the crucible Of test
senses n o t onl y as being consistently applicable
but as rendering profitable service ; indicating
rich harvests pointin g the way to fresh lines O f
inquir y and modes Of interpretation The more
they were analysed the more they would suggest
and convey as their implications came into
V iew
True that th e reality and the image can
seldom if ever entirely coincide that the most
felicitous illustration stops short somewhere and
fails to cover th e whole ground
But if the
indirect mode Of express i on so Often the only
one available f o r conveying the most precious
and vital truths O f life were gradually assimilated
to a world o f order instead of remaining a
tolerated chaos we should all b e taught betimes
to recognise the limits o f comparison o r parallel
When in doubt we should ask whether this o r
,
,
.
‘
‘
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
’
‘
.
,
,
,
.
,
XI I
To give one o u t of th e mass of illustrations
needed ' S uppose a man engaged in controversy
”
says I take my stand upon that fact
Three
question s ma y arise
Does
he
mean
what
he
says
That
is
1
?
( )
does h e really intend to convey the image wh ich
the words express ? I f s o we might go on t o
ask h ow does on e take on e s stand upon a
fact
I S one found invariably trampling it o r is
it always under one s heel ? Does o n e never
move with regard to it so as to look at it or use
it especially in an argument
Is
he
telling
us
the
actual
truth
or
is
it
2
( )
on some other fact unavowed o r unrecognised
that he is really takin g his stand
fi
u rat i n
Is
h
e
accurately
that
is
g
g
( 3)
appropriately and th us helpfully
The last question is hardly ever asked and
yet it is the key to th e other two
For suppose that another man in the same
controversy takes his stand
upon anothe r
'
.
,
.
,
,
”
’
'
,
,
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
‘
34
S I G N I FI CS AN D LANG UA G E
35
fact
Then in any case if the figure is
—
accurate that is appropriate —they can never
meet or even approximate and t o the argument
there will be no end
But if the first man says
I take my
”
departure from that point or I start on that
”
line and the second replies A nd I from ( o r
”
—
this
oth
er
then
the
possibility
o f deflection
on
)
at least comes in t o help them t o a solution o r
agreement
F o r alter direction in either case
and the lines may sooner o r later meet at on e
point perhaps at several or the t w o may even
run for a little way together Then they may
o nce more diverge —o r they may cross
N ow will any one deny that the latter is a
better image than the former for what w e
require in discussion ? that is a more help f ul
t ype of image f o r mental process incident and
purpose
G eneralising we may say ' G rant but the
idea o f motion — the minimu m intellectual pos
—
tulate in a moving world and there is always
the hope and almost the certainty o f the most
widely divergent views o r ways of putting
it consistent with reason and f act meetin g
somewhen somewhere A nd meanwhile thei r
holders may have traversed a whole universe
o f assimilable experience
N o t we will hope
’
‘
.
,
,
.
'
,
'
,
'
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
’
‘
,
.
’
.
,
,
S I G N I F I CS AN D LANG UA G E
6
3
as a rolling stone gatherin g no moss b ut as the
little creatu re which gathers silica as it creeps
to form an exquisite sh ell home
O r better
still as the a m mb a ingests and transforms food
n e w subst anc e f o r its o w n vital growth acquired
by sensitive contact with the nutritive reality
around it
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
,
.
XIII
U P O N the whole therefore it may be truly said
that imagery as we are content to use it is liabl e
to be insane in two senses ' in the sense Of
a s te
w
r avin
and
in
the
sense
of
In
the
first
g
place it is as though we were shouting at random
and talking nonsense ; in the second as though
we were throwing food out of the window
and money into the sea The t w o combined
represent sheer and cruel loss and paralysis o f
thought
P aralysis o f t hought
For do what we will
we cannot escape the law which u n ites as in o u r
very eye image and obj ect reflection and reality
sign and what it signifies figure and the fig u rat e
and generally token or symbol and what they
stand for Those of us who consciously think
pictorially are so far more o r less able to realise
the gravity and extent of this insidious danger
But those of us who do not are in far worse
case
They do not even receive automatic
warning of the mischie f going on A nd the
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
.
37
8
3
S I GN I FI CS A N D LA NG UAGE
di ffi culties which their thinking presently en
counters are of course traced to the wrong
source — probably charged t o N ature o r to
h uman ignorance o r to the innate perversity o f
original principles B ut it is needless to defen d
N ature which presents problems as it were in
order that we may learn how simply the y may
be solved ; while as to original principles w e
may complain o f their innate perversity when
we have begun to agree as t o what they are
A n d as to h uman i gnorance that is scarcely a
valid excuse s o lon g as we do o u r best to pre
serve such ignorance b oth by the tolerated mis
fits O f imagery in actual use and by th e n eglect
t o provide for a constantly growin g adequacy
o f language ' n o t me rely th rough accretion o f
new w ords but also through the drastic critique
of
imagery and th e resulting acquirement o f
more fitting idioms figures an d expressive form s
in general
I t is part of th e same costly folly to allow
as we do such dail y additions in S lang and
popular talk as tend t o create fresh confusion
A nd this is the more reprehensible because both
slang and popular talk if intelligently regarded
and appraised are reservoi rs from which valuable
new currents mig h t be drawn into the main
stream of language —rather perhaps armouries
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
S I G N I FIC S AN D LAN G UAGE
39
from which its existing powers could be con
r e equipped and reinforced
ti n u o u s l
y
The poet very largely shares with the
scientist the responsibility o f maintaining and
worsening the evil tradition o f unsound and
therefore insane imagery For instance when
M r William Watson writes o f foundations in
”
the world s heart he deserves to undergo such
a world s experience and to have figurative
foundations in his o w n figurative heart ' F o r
foundations — w e must hope o f solid and i m
movable stone o r preferably of impermeable
concrete — i n a physical heart would be more
fatal even than ossification In truth N ature
seems t o have taken a deserved vengeance
and left us to the solid stone basis o r f o u n da
tion o n which we are always out o f place
insisting ; left us to talk portentously o f L ife
while in the same b reath we explain that it
is built up ( from o u r fixed foundations ) '
and therefore must be a mere aggregate of
cemented b ricks o r stones with no nexus but
cement
Considering all these things the question
suggests itself Can w e be fully alive yet Have
w e even a glimmering o f the Sense o f which
we talk so vaguely and confusingly
Do we so
much as suspect what such a Sense as ours ought
-
.
'
.
,
'
.
’
,
’
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
‘
.
,
,
4
S I G N I FI CS A N D LAN G UA GE
O
to be and do an d preserve us from ? Do w e
ever dream o f the almost U topian results which
m u st accrue when th e sense Of o u r symbols
becomes really fitting ; when we find really
good sense and common sense and are sensitive
in the best sense in o u r estimate and treatme n t
o f the cardinal questions o f that expression o n
which alike depend practical activities and t h e
thinking which alone controls directs interprets
applies and utilises them
There is need o f some great poet to write
worthily from a fresh view point on the P ower
o f the Word —the w ord which we blow about
as th ough it w e re b ut cha ff gravely explainin g
indeed that it is merel y word and so implicitly
o f no moment
But o u r use o f words is never
that for whether positive o r n egative excessive
o r deficient
present o r absent even our words
”
are o f moment always
For the first time
say s a recent writer
there swept over him
that awful sense of unavailin g repentance for th e
word said which m igh t so well have been left
unsaid which most human beings are fated t o
feel at some time of their lives
A ye ; b ut
the author should have included the w or d un s a id
which has Often helped o r hindered and in all
h uman ways signified s o much I ndeed that
word merel y is constantly misused and per
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
’
,
.
,
,
,
'
.
,
'
,
,
’
.
,
,
.
‘
’
,
4
2
AND
S I GN I FI C S
LAN G UAGE
with a mean sense a capricious idle abusive
meanin g — o r as also a Child a S on a Divine
M essenger and R eason itself are bearers and
expressions o f the S ignificance of life
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
X IV
we even appraise the value o f the Symbol ?
Can we say by any e ff ort o f imagination place
ourselves a t the standpoint o f th e unfortunate in
the limbo o f th e A symbolic h ungering and
yearnin g f o r the Sign that gives significance
albeit with no likeness to itself yet giving us the
world of the indicated and implied ; signalling
t h e messages which are there to be interpreted
and to be acted upon as rousing drawing r e
assuring o r warning us
We know somethin g o f the thirst of the
excluded when lovin g the holy we know
ourselves unholy ; when looking up with i n
t el l ec t u a l reverence to knowledge and the will
and power to wield i t — to the creative or
victorious energy o f the leader the man we
call great —w e know ourselves ignorant supine
indi ff erent in comparison stupid or S illy super
fic i al o r ( as we say of th e h a r dm i n de d) common
place and unresponsive
Well at least it is something to know ourselves
CA N
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
43
S I G N I FI C S A N D LANG UAGE
all that and worse F o r
is th us confessin g
and lamenting ? That is a divine discontent
But sharper than all the pangs of such perception
sadder even than such sense o f humiliation an d
banishment would b e th e pangs of the prisoner
Of th e asymb olic limbo looki n g up with infinite
longin g an d yearning at the treasures w e s o
amazingly disregard or ab use and despise
A ll oth er powers have come under the higher
brain o f M an that w on derful enabling i n s t r u
ment o f orderly creation which does for mind
what s o called L aw conceived o f as a marshallin g
and directive principl e in the physical world
may b e pictured as doin g for motion and matter
But th e real power o f symbol in its articulate
and l ogical form the real function o f the word
in this sense th e power o f sense itself o f mean
ing itself and o f that significance which i s pre
eminently th e glory o f speech this power is as
yet practically in abeyance and almost pitiably
ignored For we are all guilty o f or tolerate in
this matter a dereliction an ignoration an d a
waste which w e shoul d n ot su ff er to contin ue
for a day in any other case of vital importance
o r even o f interested curiosity
.
.
,
,
.
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
XV
might be useful ( and there may be more
warrant f o r it than we know ) if we were to
regard the physical world as a complex acted
metaphor o f the mental world and both as
essentially expressive of a common nature
Be it premised that language is a term
which admits o f be i ng used in a wide sense as
poets and philologists both know and teach us
May it be then that as o u r eyes reverse the
position Of external obj ects and the brain has to
restore it as our consciousness gives as at least
world wide the field o f view which is in reality
no larger than the eye itsel f ' so in fact does
N ature speak to us in a language of unerringly
fitting metaphor and valid analogy by simply
doing what she does mani f esting her doings
gradually to our growing intelligence through
what we call sense but keeping a margin o f
reserve in her yet undiscovered or unrelated
secrets ? M ay it be that o u r speech is but
an awkward half adj usted and therefore confused
IT
,
.
’
‘
,
.
,
,
-
,
,
’
’
‘
,
‘
-
,
,
45
’
S I GN I FI CS AN D LAN G UAG E
and ambiguous renderin g o r r e presentation o f
the irrefutable eloquence of natural phenomena ?
We look to the material for metaphors of the
mental ; we trace up most words and phrases
—
perhaps all t o the physical But we are also
constrained to reverse this p rocess w e fin d e g
that emotional terms best picture and h elp us
to realise some qualities in physical n ature A nd
in fact does not th e physical world require th e
mental world as that whereby to represent itself
as we know that the red rose requires the light
f o r its redness while in its turn the li ght is only
completed o r rendered operative by that responsive
activit y w e call sight
S upposin g that we per
postulatin g
s on i fie d N ature in a scientific sense
her as a unified series o f impressions would S h e
n o w be found speaking of us in a metaphor as
we of her only with speech reversed
That i s
would her every word be taken metaphorically
from the action or process o f consciousness
reason reflection j udgment ? Thus might we
not say that motion and mass and the s o called
matter assumed as behind them are as full o f
mind metaph or as mind is of matter metaphor ;
the mind metaphor arising in the conscious world
and reaching us th rough intelligence and intellect
as matter metaphor arises in the unconscious
world and reaches us th rough sense
-
.
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
-
-
-
,
,
-
,
,
XVI
W H E T H E R we see it under that aspect o r
another the fact remains that n o t only N ature
in the ordinary sense o f the term b ut also these
human constructions which consist in adaptation
o f N ature s properties and material to the use
and service o f m an are all charged with poten
tial metaph or o f the highest illustrative value
F o r the sake o f an instance let us consider the
familiar allegorical way o f speaking o f h uman
life as a voyage
We S peak o f steering o u r way o r navigating
”
voyage o f li f e
With this
o u r course in the
we contrast the rudderless drifting which ends
in wreck o r at least reaches no harbour and
lands in no port o r goal at all the sailors on
the awful deeps of li f e
We image in o u r
minds the sudden hurricane the impenetrable
fog the persistent gale the heavy seas which
are to try the soundness of o u r life ship s
timbers the training and seamanship o f her
o ffi cers and crew and her general seaworthiness
,
,
’
,
.
,
.
'
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
-
’
,
.
,
47
S I G N I FI C S A N D LAN G UAGE
We recognise the need not only of e ffi ciency
b ut o f knowledge —and that not merely te r
r e s t r i al but cosmical —i f w e would attain with
the least possible delay o r danger the haven at
which we would arrive A nd last w e picture
to ourselves the rugged coasts the sunken rocks
the hidden reefs the entangling weeds o f the
shallow waters to which the track o f most Of
us is confined and which in any case confront
us in more o r less th reatening forms at both
ends of o u r voyage as wel l as at intermediate
calling places
A nd now let us ask those wh o are o u r
b eacon givers in the w orl d of earth and water
for such facts as may a ff ord at least n o t false o r
merely fanciful but true t o nature illustrations
o f what th e beacon givers of mind and conscience
ough t to bring us f o r help in o u r life voyage
H ere are some answers received from on e
source o u t o f many A C/znp ter on Lig /z t/zous e
Wor k by the late P rofessor Tyndall
In the
first place let us note that
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
.
,
-
'
,
-
,
,
-
-
-
.
,
1
,
.
,
t mos phe re t hrou g h whi c h t he ray s ha ve t o p as s fr o m
t h e li g h t h o u s e t o t h e m a r i n er i s t he t r ue s t ph o t o m ete r
T he
O p a c it y o f t h e a t mo s p he r e i s en tire l y du e t o s u s pe nded ma tte r
fo rei g n to pure ai r
A t m o s phe r i c o p c i t y i s n o t du e to
T he
a
.
,
a
.
is
exceptionally val uable The wealth f illustrative ma terial tha t
really ill ustrates and yet is never utilised is little su s pected
1
I t mus t not be supposed t hat an instanc e lik e this
.
o
.
on e
5
S I G N I FIC S A N D LAN G U AG E
O
principle t o b e that if revealin g pow er i s to
come and mariners be safely guided on their
w ay there must be layers o f flame o f which
the inner ones shall radiate through the outer
for
A nd even that is n o t the only need
lateral divergence must be given to th e rays
else much will still remain in outside shadow
of
which w e need a warnin g right and left
But all we yet have reach ed by o u r means o f
mental aid and guidance falls short o f group
flashi n g
In the material b eacon this gives the i m
”
pression that there is life in it ; that it is
”
actively exerting itself t o warn and guide
A n d what after all is life ? H as it not been
said t o be in some sense
latent in a fiery
”
cloud ? Why may i t n o t have afli n i ty o f
some kind ( th rough consciousn ess ) with li ght ?
T o quote again
A p i t
te d wi t h p h y s i l g i a l pti de s erv s m
,
,
,
.
’
‘
,
,
.
‘
’
.
'
'
.
,
,
'
,
,
1
o n
c on n ec
o o
c
o
cs
e
en
ti on h e r e T he o pti c n erv e i s p ar ti a l ly an d ra pidl y para l y s ed
b y li g ht an d t h e v al ue o f t he g r o u p flas h i n g li g h t i s en han c ed
b y t h e f c t th a t duri n g t he i n terv al s o f da rk n e ss t h e ey e i n
g r ea t par t r eco v er s i ts s e n s i bi li t y an d i s r en d er ed more a pprec i
T h e s udd en n es s o f t h e il l u mi n a
a tiv e o f t h e s u c c eedi n g s h o c k
ti o n an d t h e prepa red n e ss o f t he r e ti n a are po i n t s t o whi c h I
T he thrilli n g O f di s ta n t li g ht n i n g
a lw ay s a tta c h ed i m p or t an c e
thr o u g h de n s e c lo u d s s u gg e s t s an idea to be a i med at i n
.
-
a
.
.
S ince thi s wa s written electricity ha s brought li f e and ligh t
into very clos e relation
1
,
.
S I G N I FI C S
peri men t s
AND
LANGUAGE
5
1
thi s c h ara c t e r
T h e m o r e I thi n k o f i t
a d t h e m o r e I e xperi me n t u pon i t the mo r e i m p or tan t doe s
thi s q u e s ti on o f fl as he s ppe ar t o me
I t IS t s s u dden n e ss
t ha t re d ers th e li gh t n i n g fla s h s o s t ar tli n g l y vivid th o u g h a
c lo u d
of
ex
.
,
n
,
a
i
.
n
r
.
Too seldom do we try to translate f acts like
these into the dialect o f mind —
vision
The
sight nerves of o u r mind get numbed and dulled
by that continuous light impression which we
i gnorantly treasure
A n interval Of darkness we
abhor a time of shadow is to us a horror We
even strive to null ify its service insisting on
persistent unb roken light from whatever source
o f whatever quality without o n e respite to the
tired mind eyes ; and then we shake o u r h eads
and cry
We cannot see ; at least there is
”
nothing visible we are sure of that
A nd yet
the pause may be the means o f better seeing
may be the actual secret o f the keenest sight
we have The l a w o f rhythm claims Obedience
thus each self and all the race must say A men
A nd let us bear in mind that laws like this
a c t through vast ages of development
A week
o r even a thousand years of darkness may mean
to race o r unit one vibration What matter if
to rested eyes light flashes comin g when they
can use it to good purpose revealing making
clear the ways of life
.
-
.
.
,
,
,
,
-
'
,
.
,
.
.
,
’
‘
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
XVI I
T
H ERE are few things more unintelligent because
,
wasteful where economy is especially needed
than o u r use o f ce rtain popular metaphors
This is o n e of the many cases in which presen t
education as it were permits notorious and t e
movable obstacles to block the path o f mental
advance or connives a t the true lines of that
advance being constantly warped Th e result is
something fairly equivalent o n the mental plane
t o mis pron unciation an d mis spelling on the
social o n e
We rightly correct with care these last
tendencies not merely as a matter o f c ustom but
also because neith er ignorance n o r neglect o f
rule nor peculiarities o f dialect however racy in
their e ff ect must be allowed to complicate the
u nanimity
and ease of intercourse
Having
corrected slipshod usage in matters o f sound an d
form we proceed t o grammar and replace
caprice o r disorder by consistency and order ;
explaining always that n o t merely custom but
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
-
-
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
52
AN D
S I GN I FI CS
LANG UAGE
53
economy and expressiveness are at stake Finally
we add some trainin g in at least elementary logic
su ffi cient for the conduct o f social life and think
ing at various given levels of requirement o r use
O ne may venture indeed t o think that some
o f these precautions are t o o rigidly taken ; that
expressiveness apt fitting pungent illuminative
ill ustrative suggestive is o f ten needlessly sacri
fi c e d by o u r hastily denouncin g instead o f
adoptin g some apt and significant idiom o r
accent o r spelling of unsophisticated dial ects o r
But then if
o f th e child s spontaneous speech
we did in that direction seek to enrich economise
and invigorate language we should have to be
careful in so doin g to make it less cumbersome
less wordy less pedantically f or m ul ati v e than
popular speech frequently is We must see that
o u r contributions neither impoverish n o r sacrifice
quality in accumulatin g a larger choice ; that
they lessen neither dignity grace nor delicacy
E ven the whimsical when admitted must be
obviously subservient to the o n e great need and
rule ' concentrated apt e ff ective an d terse
expressiveness When usage has been made as
flawless as we can make it beauty must i n ev i t
ably follow But the instrument must be in
perfect tune before the musician can entrance
us o r even attract us by his playing
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
’
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
‘
.
’
.
S I G N I F I C S AN D LANG UAG E
54
.
in this sphere of imagery analogy
—
metaphor trope etc
i n short of linguistic
—
comparison reflection parallel o r likeness w e
find o n e Of the most notable examples o f o u r
inconsistency
Whereas we press convention
and formality into a rigid board school o r
acad emic mould an d risk loss on this side
we are curiously careless
generally indeed
unsuspicious —
o f the fact that we are liable to
be po w erfully swayed by the unintentional sug
gestions of language ; as when the common o r
direct use o f a word o r ph rase infects so to
speak its analogical o r metaphorical use
O ur analogical use of th e terms solid ground
basis foundation h as been already dealt with
b ut is worth considerin g more closely N othing
can be more interesting o r educative than the
racial h istory o f th e stress we lay on these
physical facts and the mental use we make o f
them N othin g can b e more admirable than
the service the y can and often do render But
it is none th e less lamentable that f o r many
generations teachers should inste a d o f leading
in the path of rational linguistic advance have
followed fortuitous degenerative usage and
perpetuated actual ignorance o f facts actual
confusion o f thought in the use Of analogies o f
this kind Before the days o f G alil eo as it
N ow
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
‘
’
-
’
‘
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
S I G N I F I CS
AN D
LANG UAGE
55
must b e remembered and insisted on the use of
solid ground basis and foundation as figures of
universal and primary necessity o r o f ultimate
security was entirely j ustified The earth itself
was assumed to be securely founded ; and its
being detached from its basis and set whirling in
space was the last thing which there was any
reason to fear Solid ground was the need of the
very world we lived o n ' to be supported on
nothing was crashing ruin
Well so it still is for us men We must
have a firm substratum to stand and yet more to
b uild upon T o build yes with wood brick
stone o r concrete o u r shelters defences huts
towns A ll must be as firmly founded as the
tree is rooted
Y e t even now we are making aeroplanes not
merely g eop l an es ; and daily inventing fresh
means of speeding th rough air without touch o f
earth o r water Therefore we have less excuse
than ever f o r forgetting the secure and powerful
flight o f the bird o r the fact that the earth o n
which we build so heavily rests o r rather floats
more safely on the bosom of space than a soap
bubble on the air A nd when the time comes
when some o f us shall work and practically live
in the air in some roomy air boat anchored in
o u r garden and only descend to solid earth for
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
‘
'
.
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
,
6
5
S I G N I F I CS AN D LA NG UAG E
food o r other need we may then perhaps
recognise practicall y what science has long a g o
announced to us that the ultimate foundations
o f all visible power are neither builded nor built
upon but are sources Of energy an d centres o f
force the suns and atoms of the cosmos A nd
recognisin g this we shall perhaps permit the
fact to have its proper influence not only on our
views o f life but o n o u r ways o f expressing that
and ourselves
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
8
5
S I G N I FI C S AN D LAN G UAGE
them What such vitiation costs us is to b e
seen in the p resent enormous waste o f exposition
and controvers y as well as in di ffi culties and
deadlocks actually created by the lack o f a real
consensus in the quest and achievement o f an
adequate consistent ever intensifying and ex
pandin g E xpression
I f we realised the situation and acted upon it
the results must at first appear miraculous like
recovery o f sigh t b y the lifelon g blind ; o r
rather perhaps like the exploits o f the primitive
kindlers o f fire and constructors of weapons
tools boats w heels etc and o f grammatical
language itself wh o were the real leaders o f
the race
But for this very reason it is easier at pres ent
t o take concr e te cases
in which the choice is
bewilderingly wide since we are all in the
”
same b oat
From o n e en d to the other in o u r
speech and writin g we have the too futile
complaint that this o r that obsolete convention
o r current custom compels us here
hinders us
there in way s which ought not to be tolerated
for a moment A nd th e complainin g author
himself inevitably though in varying degrees
falls into the trap wh ich he is denouncing
U ndoubtedly we are all in the same boat
For th e critic who w rites from the point of view
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
'
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
S I G N I FI CS AN D LANG UAGE
f Si g n i fic s ,
59
that i s from the really expressive
descriptive and interpretative standpoint has f re
quent occasion to remember that he has no other
means of protest and exposition than current
language the very one which so urgently calls f o r
them A ll that is said o r written therefore by the
s i n i fic i an is necessarily itself subj ect to the very
g
criticism which he brings and urges A nd mean
while th e literary expert o r the art i st I n verbal
expression only reveals by his mastery of phrase
o r his brilliant use o f imagery o r comparison
and by the ease dignity and harmonious flow o f
his diction how much more w e might hope for
if his powers were really set free and his readers
trained t o welcome what as workin g in a purified
and enriched medium he could give us
o
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
XIX
S T O R I E S used to b e told
f
a man wh o always
explained to his servants that when I ask f o r
”
a corkscrew I mean a carving knife
O ne
knows now that this is quite a common form of
memory disease But w e all virtually do this
without the warn in g ' We take for granted
that th e n eeded shift —the tacit he does not
mean what h e says but the other unsaid thing
—is automatically made as no doubt to some
extent it is
But why in this w orld of crowding obstacle
to a clear mental path do we tolerate even th e
minutest avoidable barrier to the smooth an d
swift runnin g in coupled order o f thought and
speech ? I t i s j ust as cheap and eas y t o use th e
root image o r the foundation image or other like
ones in the case where th ey do fit and some
other image o r figure where they don t as it is
to persist in a falsifying usage A ny o n e wh o
has learnt to notice these things ma y many
a ti me detect in conversation th e sub attentive
o
'
-
.
.
'
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
.
-
6o
S I GN I FI CS A N D LAN G UAGE
61
results o f leaving o u r linguistic instrument out
of tune What should we say to a violin player
who smiled and said What does it matter that
Y o u all know what
my instrument isn t tuned
note I mean to play you can all by habit set it
right o r ignore it A nd the same excuse avails
for the player of a false note which may easily
become a convention t o people who have
ears
0
he does n o t mean F
defective
sharp but F flat
Doubtless to o many of us
have defective ears in this sense and b oth commit
and tolerate much discord without knowing it
B ut still the commonest strummer wh o wrote or
printed a j ingle and then played it would be
pul l ed up by his h earers if he not only used flats
and S harps and othe r notes indiscriminately but
j ustified it by saying
N obody is misled '
These th ings are all convention and on e n ote
does as well as another if it is accepted as the
proper thing
A nd it is true that these things in musical
composition or rendering do little harm beyond
tormenting the sensitive ear The practical
world goes o n placidly while we play sharp for
flat and accepts the o n e for the other But the
corresponding state o f things in all expression ;
the obscurity and ambiguity o f our expressive
perhaps
faintly
s cor e the use in language of a
)
(
.
,
’
.
,
’
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
”
'
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
62
S I G N I F I CS A N D LANG UAG E
discordant note o r a half tuned instrument — even
though passably righ t to an artificially dulled ear
—t/2a t is an unthinkabl e loss t o th e interests and
th e powers of Man whose ideal surel y is to b e
embodied harmony like the normal organism
and consciously faultless E xpression Discord in
this domain does n o t merely torture the mental
analogue of a musical ear It makes for mental
confusion and Obstruction ; it needlessly adds to
di ffi culties al ready serious enough and lessens
the too scanty treasure o f illuminative thought
and communicative power
E ven at the best we can do and th ink and
say t o o little that is reall y worth while in
the fullest sense
O ur noblest eloquence is
confessed by the worker thinker poet to fall
short o f a true mark But w e are profoundly
stirred ; great and wise and beautiful things are
conveyed to us and we rise in response beyond
the self o f commonplace with which w e have
no right to b e content O nly that response i s
unconsciously impoverished and even distorted
by quite avoidable drawbacks which we n o t
only complacently tolerate b ut teach to children
thus ensuring thei r permanence and stifling th e
instinct o f right expression which though in
quaint forms shows itself clearly in the normal
ch ild until succ essfully suppressed A nd th ough
-
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
S I G N I FI CS AN D LANG UAGE
63
we do n ow and then recoil from a glaring
misuse o f term in the rising generation and
lament such a lapse from our good ways we
never see that the fatal seed has been sown th e
fatal tradition of a far more extensive misuse has
been handed on by us
that in scores and
hundreds o f instances we have carefully habitu
ated the child trained it t o say o n e thing when
it means another o r t o b e content to leave much
of language in rags o r else cramped by antique
armour
A nd be it remembered n o t language only
suff ers by this toleration o f what is perverse and
impoverishing In art some painters or com
posers would apparently make up f o r the lack o f
original genius or freshness o f idea by a deliber
ate reversion t o barbarism o r by an elaboration
which is merely artificial and S ophisticated
This tendency i n fact runs through all forms o f
—
expressive activity and is there any form o f
activity n on expressive be it only o f the inanity
of the actor ?
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
’
‘
.
,
.
,
,
-
,
XX
characteristic function o f man in the lon g
evolutionary ascent which he has accomplished
may be described as Translation In mind that
function has had its work t o do b ut in the b ody
its e ff ects are most obviously apparent Man
has translate d win g into arm paw into hand
snout into nose
H is translations of vital
function and ensuing translations o f structure
have indeed been innumerable inevitable
triumphant Why P Because they were always
ascending adaptations ; because th ey always
meant readiness to change to develop to be
modified even to atrophy an d thus make room on
occasion for the purposes of a vital ascent
Man then has b een organically and typically
plastic B ut h is language except in secondary
senses or for superficial purposes is still rigid
If he has any intentions in regard to speech it
manifestly does not heed them as the paw and
the wing o f an earlier day heeded the promptings
the phyletic will and took new form and
of
T
HE
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
64
XX I
W H A T b roadly speaking is th e di ff erence
between th e most perfect o f modern instruments
machin es apparatus o f any kind and those
organic instruments ou t Of which they have
been developed o r f o r which the y have been sub
stituted ? Th e di ff erence consists for practice
in their greater precision and accuracy B ut
this greater p recision and accurac y is alway s
understood as n o t restrictin g b ut widening the
e ffi ciency o f the instrument
A s its exquisite
complexity increases it becomes increasingly
adaptabl e ; and it automatically stops or even
changes its action wh en a knot or gap o r other
incident in working occurs I t i s even said that
when some unfavourable condition occurs which
necessitates the intervention of intelligence a
bell is sounded which brings the expert L ittle
by little the instrument assimilates by the will
of its maker some fraction of his own power
o f adj ustment an d o f flexibility in providing for
small changes o r o f avertin g dan gers I n all
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
66
S I G N I FI C S AN D LA NG UAGE
67
such examples of engine and instrument we
have in fact a proj ection o f man s o w n pre
rogative o f adaptation E very instrument is
broadly speakin g an extension o f s ense and
o rganic function
We have still however only a constructed
machine invented and manufactured ; with its
limitations relatively rigid and narrow however
much they may have in recent years expanded
It is desirable therefore t o supplement this ideal
o f precision by relating it again with the admitted
evolution o f th e hand from flipper and paw
This latter evolution excludes the idea of actual
manufacture and even o f a conscious an d rational
will But it implies a form o f what may be
called Racial or P hyletic Will that will which
profitin g by the very existence Of favourable
varieties able to rise above and overcome adverse
c onditions makes the work o f natural selection
possible
N ow let us combine these two ideas Think
o f the exquisite delicacy in both cases
Realise
the marvellous subtlety o f the response o f
violin microscope o r spectroscope and of the
even more astonishing instruments which are
almost crowdin g upon us and then consider the
consummate skill of the trained hand free
éeca us e determined and because loyal to fact an d
’
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
68
S I G N I F I CS AN D LAN G UAG E
order—and y o u have some suggestion o f what
language is n ot y et but has to become Some
thing of it b ut n o t all F o r L anguage is Thought
in audible activity
.
,
.
,
.
XX I I
indeed the example which language has to
follow and its ultimate scope and limitations
are th ose o f th e phenomenal world itsel f We
are therein aware thanks mainly t o the work
of science that there are many processes and
changes going o n and things existing round us
which we cannot directly s ense o r feel
In some cases though we cannot see h ear o r feel
directly we can do so indirectly w e can inve n t
instruments which are sensitive to stimuli t o
which w e are entirely insensitive This b rings
us an immense extension o f o u r range o f sense
perception
Y et o n th e other hand unless
we can either r e acquire forms of excitability
which are found in the animal world—and to
some extent still in th e uncivilised world o r in
pathological forms —or else evolve fresh response
power on a still ascending organic spiral we
must in the last resort be hampered by a
narrowness o f sense -range which even threatens
to increase
BU T
,
,
.
,
,
’
‘
’
‘
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
-
,
.
69
7
S I G N I FI CS AN D LA NG UAG E
O
I n both respects that o f acquiring command
o f an ever more e ffi cient instrument and that o f
intensifying the range o f natural awareness the
world o f phenomena accessible to us cannot so
far h e said t o have translated itself adequately
into o u r world o f words —into L anguage We
experience much that w e ca n not articulately
express an d th erefore cannot usefully study or
record A nd why
Because after all language
in the present sense o f the word is comparatively
a late acquisition ; and for reasons which can
though dimly b e discerned the development o f
articulate expression has lagged behind all other
forms o f development since its first great advance
in what to us are classical periods
A nd yet the fact o f this arrested development
if we only could see it obj ectively as an historical
phenomenon m ight well move us to wonder
F o r throughout history there has been appar
ently a w idely felt instinct that somehow
articulate reasoning— th e highest because the
rationally ordered form o f response to our environ
ment and o f analysis o f experience —was o u r
supreme attrib ute and p rerogative Th e G reek
L ogos is o f course th e m ost conspicuous instance
of
this recognition B ut it may b e found I
believe th roughout O riental tradition and in
ruder forms in most types of barbarous and even
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
S I GN I FI CS AN D LAN G UAGE
7
1
savage myth It seems strange that man should
so completely have lost S ight o f th e full value of
that to which apparently he has hitherto in the
more exalted as well as the most primitive
historic phas es of his being rendered instinctive
homage We shall do well in this context to
remember that though in the spiritual sphere
inspiration is first attributed to the speaker
and writer and revelation comes mainly in
speech o r w ritin g yet both form s really apply
to all original conception and even to all original
composition not to the literary alone
.
,
,
.
‘
’
‘
,
,
,
’
,
.
XXI I I
L A N GU A G E might in on e aspect b e called ar ti c u
late music A nd we may be grateful to t h e s o
called stylists although in their e ff orts after beaut y
the y sometimes sacrifice instead of t r an s fig u ri n g
significance and always tend to defeat themselves
by making significance secondar y F o r at l east
their work recognises some analogy between
th e order ed harmon y of music which we call
attunement and the true ideal o f language
A nd thus we are reminded that as y et language
in ordinar y use barel y rises above th e level of
n oise and only suggests the perfect natural
h armony which ought to be its essential character
The reason f o r this h owever is n o t merely that
in language we have failed to develop a full
control o f o u r singing power or that we are
still content with the rude instruments o f ancie n t
days although this is t o a great extent true
We may put it in another wa y and as already
suggested may sa y that in civilised speech we
h ave acquired linguistic instruments o f real com
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
‘
,
’
,
,
.
,
,
72
XXI V
W E may experimentally assume that every pro
cess really ascer tained in physiology fits has i ts
corresponding process in psych ology
The
danger is that we are n o t yet advanced enough
to apply safely the translations in detail which
this natural correspondence should make possible
and instructive ; and a mistranslation would be
worse than n one But if th e systematic corre
it
shoul
d
follow
that
s o n den c e b e postulated
p
the advance of knowledge in each sphe re ough t
to contrib ute towards advance in the other Th e
intrinsic unity is perfect witness the existence
o f psycho —
physics an d even the fact that already
language is full o f expressions b orrowed from
both sides though usually in th e wron g way
and conveyin g the w rong idea
I ts as s u m p
tions being o u t o f date too much o f i t is like
talking o f railways and steamer tra ffi c in terms
of horse or bicycle tra ffi c even as p resently w e
may be talking of the mis named aviation in
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
-
74
‘
’
S I GN I F I CS AN D LANGUAGE
75
terms of tramping and rolling This is hardly
a car i cature
T o some extent of course language should
carry on the many traditions o f experience
But a language loaded with dead traditions has
its nerve channels choked and its reflexes dis
located ahd the ensuin g general paralysis results
in a diseased exuberance o f expression O f the
typical expressive diseases n o adequate diagnosis
o r even description has yet been made
M ost
generally they are o f a di ff use non acute
negative kind analogues o f a low o r deficient
vitality
Healthy action sound development
from simple to complex and thus to a higher
level of simplicity and economy is usually sup
pressed i n children by their teachers ; so are
spontaneous and needed returns to an early
heritage o f pregnantly significant idiom What
E nglish has lost in this way can only b e guessed
at The epigrams of folk speech which linguistic
folk lore collects and preserves a ff ord examples
and so do the few early narratives we have But
much can never have been committed to writing
o r been noticed even to be ridiculed
M eanwhile to return t o o u r analogy linguistic
disease in various forms is assiduously imparted
o r at best left untreated
We h elplessly accept
general paralysis our dropsy our cancer
ou r
.
.
,
,
.
-
,
.
,
.
-
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
.
-
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
6
7
S I G N I F I C S A N D LA NG UAGE
of speech ; an d th e many forms of mental
indigesti on which result from indulgence in
unwholesome speech food are b ut on e t y pe o f th e
mental ills caused b y and causin g the expres
ills F or th e mischief is of cours e
s i on al
reciprocal
I n o n e case—that alon e called bad language
we do realise this ; we do understood t h e
powerful reaction on mind and character w hich
forms o f speech may involve But unhappil y
bad language in a wider sense i s imposed upon
o u r writers and thinkers from the first and c on
v en t i o n chains them t o it
-
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
XXV
can be of course no question of the
c onvenience and economy o f using o n e word in
many senses The ever increasing richness and
variety Of experience would else make v o c ab u
lari os impossibly cumbrous
The wealth o f
variation in language far from being an evil is
a priceless advantage O utside th e region of
technical notation mechanical precision of ou t
line o r constancy of content would be b oth the
cause and S ign o f arrested growth o r decaying
life What is wanted is to secure that each o f us
shall know better where others are and he himself
is in the matter o f expression ; also that we
shall allow more than w e do yet f o r the general
failure to classify and appraise the shifting
penumbras which surround the symbols o f
thought We are t oo apt to assume the true
analogy o f language to be a world without
atmosphere in which every outline is clear cut
and sharp ; whereas a truer analogy is that of
the world enveloped in an atmosphere which
T H E RE
,
,
-
.
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
77
S I G N I FI C S
8
7
AND
LA N G UAGE
causes outlines to melt and vary t o shift and
disappear to be magnified contracted distorted
veiled in a thousand changing conditions These
chan ges are not drawbacks o r dangers except in
so far as they deceive o r ba ffle ; they are th e
reflections o f life itself as well as o f its h ome
A nd in proportion as w e are worthy o f th e
human name in its highest sense w e are abl e t o
understand the significance o f to allow for even
to exploit that element o f uncertainty o f possible
deception which thus acts as a powerful stimulant
The normal
o f th e higher cerebral activities
result Of such a stimulation b oth on the physical
and mental planes is th at we learn to interpret
and to see order and consistenc y behind what
have seemed the vagaries of natural hazard
A n assured comman d of language —o n e as yet
n o t even fully possessed by our greatest writers
so lon g as the immense maj ority o f thei r readers
have been b rought up to misread them o r to
—
read them in incompatible senses would corre
s o n d to that command o f mechanical resource
p
which is the amazing result o f the renascence o f
the s i g n i fic al function in that on e di rection
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
XXVI
A N E CE SS A R Y distinction which is continually
i gnored is that between verbal and sensal
Th e
verbal is question o f symbolic instrument regarded
as a thing detached and o u t o f actual use ; the
sensal is question Of value conveyed thereby o n
any particular occasion The two are at present
hopelessly confused But n o word in actual use
is merely verbal there and then it is sensal also
Yo u may have endless variety in the subtle little
tunes o r airs that we call words o r word
groups and in the written symbols which again
stand f o r these ; but this endless verbal variety
ought to give us an endless sensal treasure Th e
sense and m eaning the import and significance
which language carries o r makes possible
constitute its value What we call its beauty
partly a verbal and partly a sensal e ff ect is
as al ready suggested akin t o that of music
which is much more significant than most o f
1
.
.
.
.
‘
’
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
this word h rej ected we shall require another
convey s a needed variant f rom sensible
1
If
e
,
,
.
79
'
bu t
it
8O
S I GN I F I CS AN D LAN G UAG E
us suppose
H armony and melod y ought to
convey much more to us than they do
But the idea o f convey a nce is essentiall y that
o f the biological tradition and transference which
made ascent possible
Some developments o f
sense which we had on the animal and doubtless
o n the primitivel y h uman plane have been lost
through relaxation o f the stress o f vital need
Y e t in the interests o f new mental need w e must
even try to regain some o f these wh ile acquiring
fresh ranges Of all senses and fresh sub tlety of
application A nd with this must go as part o f
the same enhancing and vivifying process fresh
delicacy and force o f reasonin g and fresh i n t ol er
ance o f the Confusion in language at pres ent
unheeded
.
.
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
82
S I G N I FI CS AN D LAN G UAGE
this gift almost alon e on the emotional and
imaginative side
The poet does o n his o w n
ground surmount the di ffi culties of language an d
by a sort o f miracle arouses in us responses which
if we dispassionatel y analysed his m ethod w e
shoul d see to be due to an induced thrill o f
sympathetic vibration that must igno re th e
obstacle and exploit emotionally th e utmost
power o f a yet unworthy medium o f expression
But as things are w e agree to discount his
message which indeed fails to reach many at all
o r to touch with any perfect healing the deepest
ills or answer the pregnant questions o f life It
is but too evident also that the message of
religion as yet tends rather to accentuate i n ev i t
able di ff erences than to interpret and gather up
these into an organic richness o f response
Religion like poetry comes as it were as an
isolated lu n g o r an isolated heart and language
is largely t o blame for the persistence of this
dividing tendency which so e ff ectually breaks up
the normal unity o f a sane human wh oleness o n
its highest levels
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
XXVI I I
”
L A N GU A G E in its present s en s e I have said
F o r be it confessed at once that I would transcend
the level and limits Of mere language
A
mere tongue does not satisfy me except as a
necessary compromise —a detail What we n ow
call lan guage is but o n e th e most c o m p reh en
mode o f expressing ourselves
s ive and delicate
o f feeling and thinking together o f articulating
o u r nature o u r kn owledge our h opes o u r ideals
A ll I care for is first and always that Si g n i fi
cance which is reached through sense and mean
ing and which (i f you give these free play ) must
ultimately involve and induce beauty of sound
a n d form
I am quite ready for the most drastic
changes as well as for the most scrupulous and
a nxious preservation of o u r existing resources all
o ver the world
I want G reek I want Chaucer
I want E speranto or rather its worthier successor
w hen that shall appear I want the 'ulu clicks
I want modes o f expression as yet unused though
we must n o t say undreamt Of since there are
'
.
,
’
‘
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
83
S I G N I FI C S
84
AN D
LANG UAG E
’
many scientist s and idealist s diagrams symbols
and other thinking machines all ready and in
order to rebuke us
It may be true that th e larynx and tongue
must remain the main means Still y o u have
refinement of gesture and o f expressive action
the potentialities Of which are practically u n
explored ; and you have the whole field Of
written symbol and o f M orse alphabet Of
the artist s tools and the laboratory apparatus
Open to you L et us learn to think in radiations
and in ether waves L et us t ran s fig u re grammar
and prosody A lready the poets give us hints Of
the plasticity and beauty an d wonder Of words
We analyse y et we do not touch the secret but
why not catch at least some Of the infection ?
A nd let us learn t o use machinery in higher ways
let us annex it to the service o f thought Of beauty
Of significance L et us in deed fearlessly accrete
words and phrases from all forms of S cience A ll
the ancient philosophers whom we revere ab
sorbed the scientific terminology o f their da y an d
used it seriously and exactly S till more should
we now do this when science is giving us not
only rudder and compass but such turbines of
mind as the world has never seen N ay is not
acceler ation itself j ust gni céemng and the whole
Of
contemporary mechanical development on e
’
,
’
‘
,
.
,
.
,
,
‘
’
’
‘
,
’
,
.
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
S I G N I FI CS AN D LANG UAGE
85
parable ? L anguage must be regenerated
It
must be re conceived and re born and must grow
O f what that may be and
t o a glorious stature
become if only we resolve that it shall be the
greatest words o f the greatest thinkers give us
but a hint It is quite ready to serve us ' it i s
only we w h o are t o o stupid and vulgar to be
worthy Of such waiting on We think in the
pigmental and get o u r C olour through mud
L et us think in the spectral and get o u r colour
through the rainbow The true Word let us
realise is n o t merely a conventional noise o r
scrawl o r stamp ; it is the L ogos it is Reason
It is more than that I t is that which can truly
say I am ' it i s the revelation of the Way
through truth to life
.
-
-
,
.
,
.
-
.
’
‘
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
‘
’
.
.
XXIX
social phenomena O f language Ob serves
M A Dauzat are extremely complex First
synthesis and then analysis defy the inquirer
est
rebelle
But
this
ought
au
(
to b e the case no more as n o less than in any
other kind o f research which involves the social
conditions Of life
It all depends o n how we
tackle the problem If in any subj ect o f human
study w e may accept disorder and caprice as o u r
masters calling those enslavin g factors the i n
evitable concomitants o f freedom Of will and
Of an innate tendency to error Of course the
writer s complaint holds good But i t is time
we ceased to make use of the false contrast
between the invariable as mechanical and the
chaotic as voluntary Th e will in soun d health
has all the trustworthiness o f the natural order
and constructed machine lacking only its indis
criminative pressure and its senseless persistence
which dynamically uncontrolled and statically
Obstructive makes for ruin
T HE
,
1
.
.
,
.
'
,
,
.
.
,
’
‘
,
’
.
.
,
,
.
,
1
La Vi e da l ang ag e,
86
p
.
H
.
S I G N I FI CS AN D LAN G UAG E
87
The truly sane mind never errs never swerves
from natural loyalty to the real I t must seek
knowledge and ensue it else i t can have no
worthy peace But there is a misunderstood
ignorance which really means the attainment
of
a temporary frontier ; a pause merely to
enable us to organise a fresh expedition f o r the
exploration Of what lies beyond For frontiers
of knowledge and capacity exist to b e crossed ;
and wh en e very child shall be permitted to
t e enter and according to its share o f the racial
powers to dominate its lost cosmical kingdom
we shall hear no more Of barriers except the
h ealthy ones Of sanity there and ours t o bar out
error alone ' barriers that are themselves the
very condition Of really fruitful exploitation of
reality and so o f yet further advance
A ll this then applies to language and to its
te mporary cond itions and permanent tendencies
O nce let us begin by a clear understanding Of
the true gist trend goal and j urisdiction Of
expressive communication and we enter a whole
new world Of power to discern and appraise and
thus to c o ordinate and act o u t Of and upon those
realms Of experience now most tragically arresting
or misleading us
O nly this fresh factor this guiding c o n c ep
tion o f what L anguage is and must become will
,
.
,
.
’
‘
.
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
,
S I GN I F I CS A N D LANGUAGE
88
need first to be applied in education
When
such an application reall y begins much will hav e
been gained besides more p erfect communication
in the linguistic sense We shall hear n o more
then Of ability which might render the highest
service to the rac e being wasted in routine work
o r driven to suicide and even crime by sheer
desperation induced b y n o n recognition Of gift
Thos e n ow blin d and dull t o the unused h uman
resources will have recovered a quick and keen
sense a racial sense O f the presence of these
resources in unlikely directions— will in fact have
—
o
o
b een trained t look u t f o r them and will
with this have evolved in regard to the genuine
ness o f claim t o power of an y kind a m uch
more discerning j udgment than is yet possible
except in the rarest cases
When the present state o f things as it has
been vaguel y and generall y indicated in t h e
preceding pages i s widely real is ed and admitted
it will be acknowledged that a radical regenera
tion Of education beginnin g in the nursery
is urgently called for
A s h owever this
regenerated education will run with and not as
now against a sanely broadening and deepenin g
stream o f e ff ectiveness and human conquest in
individuals and societies as it will mean in fact
the application Of normal powers n ow more o r
.
,
.
,
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
XXX
MEA N W H I LE we have first to realise that to be
inexpressive is for us the deepest o f disgraces
involving the culpable neglect o f o u r most
precious power the shameful disregard Of o u r
highest call For all nature all reality is
expressive in an inexhaustible sense ' b ut Man
has th e potenc y o f a higher because an articulate
and interpretative expressiveness H e alone
reaches the l evel o f th e why and th e because
inaccessible until the what and th e how have
—
been reached and he alone can if he will
raise this level t o undreamt Of heights which are
even now touched here and there by the hand
Of genius B ut except perhaps in the case O f
math ematics —and that only as separated O ff from
the interests o f all b ut specialised minds —and
Of the rare poetry which in th e deepest sense
should mean touch with the b eauty the honour
th e divine grace and the infinite range Of truth
h e misses as yet the noblest of all inheritances
and the crown of his powers that o f the
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
90
S I GN I FI CS
AN D
LANG UAGE
9
1
interpretative expression which is w h at many o f
us—
vaguely o r ambiguously or conventionally
call Revelation
There is no veil over ine ff able priceless Reality
to be withdrawn ' only over clouded human
eyes
O ne sees with reverence its reflection
even now in the eyes less clouded than those Of
most o f us in the eyes o f the saint the thinker
the worker ; above all in the heavenly trans
parent simplicity O f the true child s eyes A ll
these expr es s in their degree and at moments
and in so doing reveal But we allow what we
call E xpression and especially that articulate
language which should be our t ruest servant and
greatest faculty not merely to fail in revealing
b ut to mask and even falsify the urgent realities
ever waiting f o r their appointed revealer We
do not even yet kno w what E xpression in its full
compass might I nclude and deliver to us But
already we admit from time to time that some
attitude o r act some gesture o r some change of
these —all Of them acknowledged lesser varieties
—
Of expressive resource may like some change
o f condition in natural Obj ects
be profoundly
suggestive and even explanatory
L et us then resolve that articulate expression
shall at last become worthy of Man o f one
whose first duty and highest power is to interpret
.
.
,
,
,
’
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
S I GN I FI C S A N D LANGUAGE
2
9
and thus to reveal ; whose prerogative it shall
be to lay Open t o the pure eye o f the candid and
fearless because faithful mind what are only
secrets and mysteries to o u r ignorant sophistr y
and our Often grotesque b ut enslaving belief
Truth is
F o r there i s n o ultimate di ffi culty
not innately mysterious S o far fro m trying t o
b affie us in order to enhance its command Of us
and keep us humble as creatures Of the ground ;
so far from inducing spiritual coma o r delirium
Realit y throws wide her
o r dangerous Obsession
blessed arms Opens wide all ways and paths
which lead to h er very heart the heart Of th e
Real She asks only that th e word Of the enigma
shall become a fittin g w ord that the expression
Of Man wh o himself is to 5e h er expression shall
be worthil y in carnated
that what is the ver y
life blood o f man s thinkin g shall be enriche d
by purification ' that in such a Word whil e
wealth o f connotation and association m ay be
boundless a confusin g or impoverishing am
b i g u i t y shall be reckoned as intellectual disgrace
as spiritual anathema
A nd upon such a way let us bear in mind th at
Reality o u r true goal never breaks us up into
rival and th us mutuall y defeatin g and impotent
groups never creates cults which exclude a
,
.
.
.
1
,
,
,
,
.
‘
’
-
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
1
atin
L
na mi lz s = o f
’
t he
ground near the ground
,
.
S I G N I FI C S AN D LANG UAG E
94
r e el s
p
fa ls e
—th
a
s
d
or a t i on
l
e
h
o
e
s
e
f
p
t
h
,
Qf
y
—
s ha ll v a n i s h w i th the r i s i n
despa ir s
g
ou
e
S un , w i th t he hea r i ng
y
our
tr ue
I open
an
an
d the hir th
f
o
f
o
f
o
my
my hoing ,
as
tha t
at
d w a iting her i tag e
a ll '
l ea s t y ou l ea r n
t ha t need not he,
nes s t ha t
c ul t
a
.
ha ch
I
heep
to
ex r es s
or
p
fa l s i ty
n othz n
me
tha t
s ee
hly , w i thout
no
s
ha mes y ou,
defea t s y our hig hes t p ow er s
.
or
fl
aw
hla nh
AP PENDIX
live in old cells we move in ld grooves we go on using O ld
watchword s apparentl y unconscious that these are t f date
and have lo t t heir savour f meaning
D
we t need a
leaven f independent thought to make us distinguish what is f rom
what has ceased to be real and essential ?
O ne is sometimes
driven to conj ecture that the f aculty f independent thought i s f
the time weakened
distracted
numbed ; or may we hope
and believe that the thought is there and is only de fi cient in
”
expression ?
(1)
language which is quite adequate i eve yday li f e
language in which we describe ourselv s as i f we were things living
beings assigned t a parti ular time
that kind f la guage which
is use f ul and legitimate f everyday purposes be omes altogether
misleading when we get to the problem f what is the true nature f
realit y A d t h great di ffi culty which the metaphysi ia
has
f ace is j ust these incrustations f the everyday point f view the
t
language which we g t in to the habit f using and the no t io s whi h
pass curren t and which give rise to what we may call supers t i t ions
f common s ense based upon them such as that the mind m y be
”
properly spoken f as a thing
( 2)
T what end led hese new and f ruit f ul physi al concep t ions to
which I have j ust re f erred ? I t is o f ten described as the discovery
laws connecting phenomena B ut this is certai l y a mis
f th
leading and in my O pinion a ver y inadequa te accou t f t h
subj ect To begin with it is t only inconvenient but con
phenomena things whi h do t appear
f usi g to describe as
O
O b 5 9 ( Ti m
N ati n l C u l u
(1) L d R s b y
p ) ( 2) R B H al da Th P thw y t R l ty S i s I p 4
WE
o
,
,
ou
,
s
o
o
.
o
no
o
o
or
or
or
,
r
n
,
e
o
,
o
c
or
n
c
,
O
e
n
.
o
c
o
o
n
o
e
o
,
n
,
c
,
o
o
.
t
o
c
’
‘
e
o
,
.
er
o e
.
.
,
n
n e,
o
e
t
a
a
95
no
c
,
'
e
,
’
‘
or
or t
no
,
o
n
,
,
.
n
n
.
,
re
a
,
a
r e,
o
”
ea z
c to
,
er 1
er e
1
,
.
,
es
0 1
.
0
.
AND
S IG NI F I CS
6
9
LANG UAG E
which never have appeared and which never can appear to being
s o poorly provided a s our s elves with the apparatu s f s ense perception
B ut apart f rom this which i s a linguistic error too deeply rooted to
be easily exterminated i s it ot most inaccurate in substance to sa y
that a knowledge f N ature s law s is all we s eek when inve s tigating
N ature
(3 )
s
,
,
o
.
,
n
,
’
o
I n the expressions we adopt to prescribe physical phenomena
we nec es s arily hover between t w o extreme s We either have to
choos e a word which implie s more than we can prove or we have
to u s e vagu e and general term s which hide the essential point
instead of bringing i t out
O ne o f the principal ob s tacles to
'
.
,
,
.
the rapid di ff usion f a new idea lies in the di ffic ulty f finding
s uitable expre s sion to convey i t s essential point to other minds
Word s have to be s trained into a new s en s e and scientific con
constantly res olve themselve s into di ff erence s about the
i
t
meaning f words O n the other hand a happy nomenclature ha s
s ometime s been more power f ul than rigorou s logic in allowing a w
train o f thought to be quic kly and generally accepted
(4 )
o
o
.
,
ro v er s e s
o
.
,
ne
”
.
Tou s le s observateu r s s ont auj ourd hui convaincu s qu il f au t
di s tinguer avec p e i i des fl x c utan é s ou tendineu x des
r eflexes in f é rieurs ou sup é rieur s qu il est pu é ri l de con f ondre sous
l e m eme nom des amaigrissements t de s atrophies des tics t des
s pasmes des s ecousses é motives t d clon us ; i l f au t s e de cider a
comprendre qu on doit pas davantage employer a tort t a travers
le s mots d é monstration per s uasion suggestion association id é e fix
qu il f aut di s tinguer dans les t roubles de l p i t les id é e s fixes
de telle u telle esp ece les diverse s f orme s de la conscience le s diver s
degre s de la dissociation psychologique
C ette pr é cision d u langage permettra s eule de
it e
erreurs i é i t bl d comprendre mieux les malades t de f aire a la
t accomplis l es é tudes
p y c h i t i des p g e analogue s a ceux q u
de neurologie C est cette analyse psychologique qui s era le point
de d é part des m é thodes de p y h thé p
(5)
’
'
’
’
r
re
c s on
e
es
,
’
,
e
’
’
u
e
,
e
,
ne
e
‘
,
,
,
’
’
,
o
e,
,
es
r
,
,
,
’
.
'
reco n n a
n
s
v
a
a r c
es ,
e
ro
,
’
r s
r
n os
e
on
’
.
'
r a ze
s c o
.
' Ba l f o ur s I nau gu r a l A ddress as Pr es i den t o f t he Bri t A ss o c
A u gust 1 9 0 4 ( Na tur e repor t A u gust 1 8
(4 ) Pr o f esso r A r t h u r
S c h us ter B ri t A ss o c ( Na tu r e r ep o r t A u g us t 4
( 5 ) M P i err e
'
-c c
?
an
t
t
e
u
e
u
u
n
N
r
s
e
v
os
é
e
Q
'
q
( Rev u e S ci en ti/i que 'anua ry 3 0
(3 )
A
’
.
.
,
,
.
’
,
I
90 9 )
,
.
.
’
,
,
,
.
”
,
,
S I G N I F I C S A N D LA NG UAG E
8
9
dans telle au tre i 1 f aut voir comment vous avez ét amen é a parler
de nombre t a introduire mot dans ces deu x phrases ( 9 )
The indiscriminate con f ounding f all divergences f rom type
into
heterogeneous heap under the name V ariation eff ectuall y
c oncealed those f eatures f order which the phenomena severally
present creating an enduring O bstacle to the progress f evolutionary
s cience S pecific normality and distinctne s s being regarded as an
acciden tal produc t f e x igency it was thought sa f e to treat departure s
all were variation s
f rom such normality as comparable di ff erence s
ali ke
We might as well use e term to deno t e the di ff erence s
betwee a bar f sil ver a s tick f lunar caustic a s hilling
a
teaspo n N o wonder tha t the ignorant tell us they can find no
order in variation This prodigious con f usion whic h ha s spread
obsc uri t y over every part f these inquiries is traceable to t h
original misconception f the nature f specific di fl c as a thing
”
imposed and not inherent
( 1 0)
Within the cell body are m ny collection s O f t en in the f orm
f granules f s ub s tance s which have
t the protoplasmic attributes
They constitute the deuteroplasm f cer tain cytologists Bu t
these enclosed substances may be as f removed f rom protoplasm
as starch grains I t i s ab s urd to use the termination plasm f
s uch well d fi d products f cell activi ty as these The subj ec t
is un f ortunately obscured by onflicting terms N omenclature s
which were inven ted with the O bj ect f giving d fi i t
to ou r
idea s have served but to perpl ex them The term protoplasm
should be reserved as a synonym f the s ub s tance w hich is most
alive the substance in which chemical change is most ac tive t h
s ubstance which has in the highe s t degree a potentiality f growth
A natomical distinctions are better expressed in anatomical terms
We s hall t reat f s uch distinctions when con s idering the organisa
tion f the cell
( 1 1)
No
can say what capaci ty living cells may have f taking
subs t ances f rom the blood returning some f them and excreting
others This u nknown capacity l eads to results which when the y
do t appear to be in accordance with the laws f physic s are
e S i
t meth d
pp 6 6 6 4 5 ( 1 0) P f W
( 9) H P i
B
s n B i A ssoc A u gus 9 4 ( N
p r t A u gust 5
( 11 )
’
e
,
”
ce
e
.
'
o
one
o
o
,
.
o
,
on
.
o
n
o
o
,
or
,
,
.
,
.
o
e
,
‘
e,
e ren
o
o
.
'
-
o
a
,
o
,
no
’
‘
.
o
.
ar
’
‘
.
-
e
ne
,
o
or
.
c
,
.
n
e
o
e n es s
’
‘
.
or
,
,
o
e
.
.
o
”
o
.
'
on e
o
o
,
,
.
,
no
o
o n ca r
.
a te o
Al x
e
.
,
Hi
r
ll
,
t
.
,
.
c en ce
The Body
e
t 1
,
at
’
.
a tu r e r e
0
War h pp
,
o e,
8 9
-
.
.
1
o
,
,
1
-
,
ro
.
2
,
.
.
A P PEN DIX
99
commonly termed vital The term is a stumbling—
block which
”
has tripped up generation s f phy s iologists
( 1 2)
O nce upon a time there was a very bitter controver s y as to the
respec t ive meri t s f N ewton and Leibniz in the discovery and
elaboration f the infinitesimal method Much f the di s pute was
due to the use f language appropriate onl y to the discrete aspects
the purpose f describing it when regarded a s
f quantity f
”
continuous
( 13 )
The word in s tinct is e f those un f ortunate words whi h
are supposed to be understood by all words whi h are more f atal
impediment s to the advance f s cience than almost anything
”
can be
( 14 )
Malheureusement nous sommes si habitu é s a é claircir l par
l autre ces deu x sens du m eme mot a les apercevoir m eme l un dans
l autre que nous é prouvons une incro y able di ffi l té a les distinguer
moins a exprimer cette distinction par l langage
u tout
N ous é prouverions une surprise d m eme genre si brisant les cadres
d langage nous nous e ff orcions de saisir nos id é es elles m emes a
l é t t naturel
nous tombons in é vitablement dans les erreurs
de l
i ti i m
A ussi
prennent elles pas dans notre
esprit la f orme banale qu elles éti t de qu on les en f era s rtir
pour les exprimer par des mots t bien que c h e d t esprits
elles por t en t l m eme nom elles
sont pas d tou t la m eme
”
chose
(15)
N ames lie near est the sur f ace f what we take f granted ;
hence u di fficulty in saying e x actl y what w rds or ghosts f
words we have been using and whether an y ( 1 6 )
I in f er there f ore that the pragmatic philosophy f religion
like most philosophies whose conclusions are interesting t urns on
an u nconscious pla y up n words A common word—i this ase
the word true —is taken at the outset in an uncommon sense but
as t h argument proceeds the u s ual sense f the word gradually
slips back and the onclusions arrived at seem there f ore quite
Th
( 12) A l x H i ll Th B dy t W k p
( 1 3 ) R B H ld
5
ti Phi l
P th w y t R l i ty S s I p
G
Exp l
( 14 )
p hi
P II p 3 ( 15 ) H B gs E i l d
i mm di t d l
i
pp 9
d G w th f th Mi d
( 16 ) P f W M i t h ll S t t
pp 3 7 3
’
‘
.
o
.
o
,
o
o
.
o
or
o
o
.
'
‘
on
o
c
c
,
o
.
’
'
,
un
’
’
,
’
cu
,
,
e
au
o
a
.
,
‘
-
u
’
,
a
’
ass o c a
on s
-
ne
e.
’
ro n
r ev
s
e
e
’
o
z
,
a u r es
,
u
ne
,
’
.
'
or
o
o
r
o
o
,
”
,
.
,
'
,
o
,
,
,
o
n
.
c
,
,
e
c
,
e
a
ar t
.
.
a
.
1,
2-
o
,
.
o
.
ea
.
10 1
e
,
.
.
o
er i e
,
er
ro
,
.
a
.
.
on ,
.
or
20 2
,
.
c
.
.
r o t e,
.
ss a
20
su r
e
es
,
,
’
on n ees
r uc ur e a n
’
e
a
.
or a
o
a es
e
ro
a n e,
os o
e
ca ,
a con s c en ce,
o
e
.
H
2
n
,
S I G N I FI C S AN D LAN G U AG E
100
di ff erent f rom what they would be s een to be i f the initial definition
”
had been remembered
( 17 )
N o word ha s had more accu s ations f ambiguity and con
sequently f unsuitability f s cientific u s e alleged again s t i t than
the word value V alu e in u s e we are told is
thing and
value in exchange is quite another and that i s u nque s tionably the
case i f we treat the phrases a s mu s eum specimens i f we put them
”
each in its s eparate case and examine them there ( 1 8)
I avoid using the word soul
purpo s e becau s e the endless
con f used controversy abou t it h rendered it like many other
words unfit f u s e as a philo s ophical term unle ss with constant
”
accompan y ing definition
(19)
The term D ivision which is the established designation f
the procedure we have w to examine is not happily chosen
We cannot appropriately speak f dividing a word
the meaning
meaning s are di ff erentiated rather than divided
f a wor d f
The very term D ivision ( as also su h other metaphorical expres
sions as parts j oints etc ) seem s al most to imply a ph y sical
division a division f some individual thing into it s component
parts The use f the word has the f urther disadvantage f pre
j di i g the interpretation to be put upon the process in i ts logical
”
aspect
( 20)
I t has clearly to be said that the definition f preco ity
requires a little more care f ul c nsideration than it sometimes rec eives
at the hands f those who have inquired into it and that when we
have care f ully defined what we mean by precocit y i t is its absence
rather than its presence which ought to astonish us in men f
geniu s
I t is no doubt true t hat in a vagu e use f the word
genius is ver y o f ten indeed precocious but it is evident that this
statement is almost meaningless unless we use the word precocity
in a care f ully defined manner
( 21 )
tout homme qui éfléc h i t est amen é 5 f aire en toutes
choses t s ur laquelle repose a vrai dire toute vie toute action
43 4
( 1 7 ) B t an d R uss l l P h i l phi l E y pp
( 1 8) W W
d E
C li l
E
mi M th d
mi F ll i
p 6 ( 19) G t
Expl
ti
Phil ph i
Pa t II p 3 ( 20) W R B y Gi bs n Th
P bl m f L g i p 4
( 21) H av l k E ll i s A S t dy f B i ti h G i
.
'
o
or
o
,
,
’
‘
on e
,
,
.
,
.
’
‘
'
on
,
as
,
or
,
,
.
’
‘
'
o
,
no
,
.
o
o
.
’
‘
c
’
‘
’
‘
,
.
,
o
,
o
.
u
’
‘
or
,
or
,
o
c n
.
'
‘
o
’
c
o
o
,
’
‘
,
o
.
o
,
,
‘
‘
”
.
r
,
e
,
er r
ar
or a
ro
pp
.
e
1
e
con o
e,
(
o
.
c
e
oso
o
6
3 7
.
,
c,
o
ca ,
.
0
oso
,
an
r
.
ca
ss a
con o
.
,
,
.
c
a
s,
a c es ,
.
e oc
.
,
-
1
.
.
.
u
.
1
.
.
r o e,
.
o
o
ce
o
r
s
,
e
en us
S I G N I F I CS AN D LANG UAGE
102
to
uantity
Magnitude
and
Measure
meet
u
s
at
every
But
Q
while in applied mathematics writer s who avoid looseness f
indicate either by defini t ion by clear
t erminology are care f ul t
implication and example the precise meaning which they attach to
these term s in pure ma t hemati s it is a common i f not invariable
custom f writers to use these term s loosely without any clear
intima tion f the shades f meaning intended i f any are i
”
tended
( 25 )
What are purely descrip tive principl es in geometry ? They
are comm nly underst d to re f er to qualitative relations t
exclude all re f erence to metri al relations The inves tigation thus
appear s to start f rom or t be f ounded upon a contradiction To
establish the notion f distance upon principles which exclude this
notion seems at fir s t sigh t to be an absurdity B t it is only the
phra s eology which is absurd because i t does not e x press in accord
ance with the u sual conventions f language the actual process
f thought
The result f t his violation f the conventions f
expression is ambigui ty in the doctrine itsel f H ence the
fli ti g O pinions which have arisen as to the significance f the
theory ( 26 )
,
rn
,
,
.
o
,
,
o
or
,
,
c
,
or
,
o
o
n
,
.
'
oo
o
c
.
o
,
o
,
.
,
o
u
.
,
,
o
o
,
o
o
.
o
c on
.
n
c
o
”
.
irst I would draw attenti n to the simple yet pregnant f acts
wel l established by the labours f philology tha t t h li f e of no
si ngl e word is beyond the l w f development —that finality in th e
s ignificanc e f a word is never reach ed so long a s that word
continues to be used F urther that the significance f a word
depend s ultimately not merely
th
context not merely even
upon the whole treatise f which the context is a part but finally
on the whole f the rest f the language—and probably in the last
subtle a alysis it end s not even there N ow i f we remember
that ultimatel y in a rigorously f ormal s ense definitions depend
upon words axioms depend upon definitions and proo f rea s oning
upon axioms and defini t ions it appea s to be a s impl e and valid
corollary that xi m d fi i ti
dp y
It
tt i fi
l i ty
may indeed be replied that this very argument—and indeed all
arguments —as s ume implicitly the truth f th very axiom or
principle the argument would question Bu t this obj ection
F
'
o
,
,
o
e
,
o
a
o
.
o
,
on
e
,
o
o
n
,
o
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
r
,
a
,
or
,
o
s,
e
n
ons , a n
ra
?
net/er
a
,
a n
na
.
,
o
,
e
.
( 25 ) H a
s ings
t
26 ) Ihz d p
.
.
2
4
1
Ber
.
k l y W ti
e e
,
s
ci s
m in
,
Moder n Ma th ema ti cs pp
,
.
6 0 -6
1
.
A P PEN D I '
19
3
ultimately analysed is irrelevant because the a gument pre t ends to
no higher degree f validity than the axioms upon which it ul tima t el y
rests Whatever limitations may be dis overed to apply to the
apply also to the other ( 27 )
,
r
,
o
c
.
one
”
.
urope had f centu ies been filled wi t h the noise f scholastic
discussion over ques tions incomprehensible to rdinary sense f
whi h the stapl e was f urnished by such terms as uh t
att i hut
te i ty
A d these terms were the established
e exi t
stock i trade as it were t only f philosophical language but f
philosophical thought S uch as they were these were the tools with
which S pinoza had to work Even i f he could have con eived t h
notion f discarding them altogether and inventi g new ones
which however was in his circumsta ces not possible it was onl y
b y keeping them in use t hat he had any pr spect f inducing
students f philosophy to listen t him B ut the power f ul and subtle
minds which had exercised themselves on these ideas had troubled
themselves bu t little as to their relation to actual things and man s
knowledge f them I t was assumed that the f ou ndations had been
settled once f all while the fl d f new ideas unseen and irre
i ti b l was in truth advanci g t break them up
The cunningl y
wrought structure f medi eval philosophy was doomed ; and now
that it has crumbled away philosophy goes houseless th ugh not
despairing ; f a f ter all it is better t be a wanderer than to dwell
in castles in the air
But meanwhile what was a man in S pinoza s place to do ? The
terms were there to his hand still the only urrency f scholars ;
the ideas f which they had been f ramed were dead or dying and
the great scien t ific conception f the unity and uni f ormity f the
world o f ten seen as in visi ns bu t now unveiled in all its power
by D escartes had already begun to spread abroad subduing every
thing to its dominion A sin ere and u nflinchi g eye could al ead y
see that in the end nothing would escape f rom it not even the most
secret recesses f human thought O nly i the light f this
conquering idea could the O ld words live i f they were to live at all
I f any vital truth lay hidden in them f rom f ld it w uld thus be
brought t and bear its due f ruit and what new li f e was wanting
must be breathed into them through the new con eption f the
E
or
o
r
o
,
s
c
ess en c
s en ce,
,
-
n-
rn
e
r
e,
n
.
,
,
s a nce,
o
no
o
o
.
,
e
c
.
n
o
,
n
,
,
,
o
o
o
o
.
’
o
.
or
s s
oo
,
e,
,
o
n
o
o
.
a
or,
o
,
,
o
,
.
’
o
c
,
or
,
o
o
o
,
,
,
,
.
c
r
n
,
o
o
n
.
.
,
o
o
o
,
ou
o
c
( 27 )
B Br
.
a
n f or d
,
A S tudy o
f
Ma thema ti ca l
1
Educa ti on , p 3 1 4 —
5
.
.
10
S I G N I FI C S AN D LANG UAG E
4
nature f things This I believe was in eff ect the task S pinoza
took upon himsel f I t cannot be maintained that it was altogether
f
f
a possible
and
it
is
at
least
doubt
ul
whether
S
pinoza
himsel
;
”
was f ully aware f its magnitude
( 28)
o
,
,
.
.
on e
o
.
We find in all human sciences that tho s e ideas which s eem to be
most simple are really the most di ffi cult to grasp with certainty and
express with accuracy The clearest witness t this f act is borne by
the O lde s t f the sciences G eometry N o di ffi culty whatever is
a triangle When we
f ound in defining a parabola or a circle
come to a straight line s till more when we peak f a line in general
we f eel that it is not s o easy to be satisfied A d i f it occ urs to us
to ask the geometer what is the relation f his length without
breadth to the sensible phenomena f space matter and motion we
shall find oursel ves the verge f problems which are s till too deep
”
all the resources f mathematics and metaphysics together ( 29 )
f
o
.
o
.
,
,
,
or
.
S
,
o
,
n
.
‘
o
o
,
,
,
o
on
o
or
.
N o tolerably prepared candidate in an English or American law
school will hesitate to define an estate in f simpl e
the other
hand the greater have been a lawyer s opportunitie s f knowledge
and the more time he has given to the study f legal principle s the
greater will be his hesitation in f ace of the apparently s imple question
What is L w
( 3 0)
ee
on
’
o
,
,
o
,
,
a
The commissioners recommend that the word lunatic in the
ordinary medical certificate be deleted and replaced by the word s
mentally de f ective person S o f as comprehensiveness goes this
is admirable Whether it is a s u fficiently accurate term to merit
universal acceptance is another matter There will however be
general agreement with the resolution that the word lunatic shall
be hen e f orth discontinued as a descriptive term that asylums
shall be called hospitals that the Board f C ommissioners in Lunacy
shall be cal led The Board f Control and that the term mentally
de f ective shal l be defined in the proposed A t as comprising persons
f unsound mind mentally infirm per s ons idiot s imbecile s f eeble
minde d per s ons moral imbeciles epileptic s and inebriates who are
mentally a ff ected I t is only by suc h a radical change in nomen
l tu
that the obj ect s f including all these clas s e s in
legal
‘
’
‘
ar
.
.
.
,
,
’
‘
’
‘
c
,
’
o
,
’
O
,
c
’
o
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
c a
re
o
P ll k
P ll k A Fi
( 28) S i r F
( 29)
Si r F
.
.
o
o
oc
oc
,
,
Sp i n oz
rs t
one
a
Boot
.
f
o
Hi s Lif e a n d
‘
j ur i spr udence,
p
Ph i l
.
3
.
h
p y,
oso
( 3 0)
pp
.
1
45 6
Ibi d p 4
.
.
-
.
BY T H E S A ME A U T H O R
65
Cr ow n
W HAT
.
.
MEA N I N G
IS
?
I N T H E D E V E LO PME N T
S TU D I E S
O F S I G N I F I C A N CE
hi vo l ume i a p l ea f a thorou gh revi s ion of
our who l s y s tem f e d ucation which f ai ls in the author s O pinion
to l a y the proper empha i upon the que tion f Meanin g d h w
to conve y it I t i a d eman d f o
cience f s i gni fi which s ha ll
train to s ee the importance f me anin g d i g ni fi cance d s h a ll
enab l e u to u s e l g u g w i th a preci ion d e x actne s a dequate to
it s im p ort ance a s our main vehic l e f e x pre ss in g thou ght
T here i s much in th
book which i s ver y s u gg e s tive e s pecia ll y f
those who are e d ucationa l e x pert s
GU A R D I A N
T
.
e
s
s
or
’
o
,
,
s s
’
r a s
us
an
an
a
e.
es ,
s
an
,
an
s
o
an
,
o
o
s
o
s
s
.
,
s
or
.
e
or
,
”
.
TI M E S
a y W elby h
L d
.
much that i s intere s tin g to
as
T he
.
an
is f
an
Of
,
,
o
,
s
,
or
s
’
a
S
s
u ll
.
thou ght knowl e dge
d o b servation ;
not accept
ma y be
d even those who d
unab l e to f oll ow the ome what e l aborate phi l o ophic argument can
appreciate the writer s w i d e r n g e f i ll u tration d a ll u ion d
the in g enuit y with which h p esents her point
La d y W e l b y
di s pl ay
much l earnin g d acutene s d inci d enta ll y cite s o
man y curiou s f act that one rea d s her with un f ai l in g intere s t T h e
l itt l e book i mo s t timu l atin g re d in g
5 TA N D A R D
l itt l e book
s ay
”
so
e
o
s
r
an
s
s
an
s
s
an
,
an
.
s,
s
,
.
s
”
a
.
e x treme l y thou ghtf u l d s u g
book
A wea l t h f i ll u tr tion
acutene ss f ob erva
g ti
tion d an earne s tne f purpo e that are a l tog ether a dmirab l e
the auth or we ll e x emp l i fy in g in her w re s e rche s her d e fi nition in
one p l ace f i g i fi a s an unerrin g menta l s cent f the true
s ense f thin g s
GLA S GO W
es
ve
,
H E R A LD
An
.
o
.
an
ss o
an
s
a
o
o
s
n
cs
an
o
s
o
’
,
a
n
‘
or
’
.
MA C MI LLA N
A N D CO
.
,
LT D
.
,
LO N D O N
.
s
BY T H E S A ME A U T H O R
.
Cr ow n 82 m
6s
.
.
LI N ' S A N D C LU BS
It is
l o g time ince we have rea d a book
I ndee d it i s ot s o
s o f u ll o f th e l i f e of a true s piritua l min d
much a boo k to rea d throu gh a to rea d an d return to a s y ou d o
th e B ib l e it s e l f f rom which it s who l e S i g ni fi cance i s d erive d in
pa s s a g e s s uite d to the Chie f intere s t d d i ffi cu l tie s f the moment
T h e author h a l i f te d u s into a p h a e o f t h ou g ht into which it i s i m
po ib l e fo an y on e to enter without bei n g convince d of the exi s tence
f the d ivine l i g ht
W e cannot too cor d i ll y recommen d a
book which awaken s the S pirit a s h a r dl y a y book f the l a s t f ew
”
y ear ha s wa ken e d it to the rea l meanin g of the Chri s tian l i f e
S PE CT A T 0 R
.
a
s
n
.
s
,
n
,
,
,
an
.
s
s
ss
o
r
o
a
.
n
,
s
a
o
,
.
a va l u b l e contribution t the l iterature f the
s piritua l l i f e d e which we t u s t wi ll g o f to f u lfil the s piration
”
f it s name in the e d a y s f bewi l d eri g d i s cor d amon g C hri s ti n s
GU A R D ]A 1V
IS
.
,
o
an
a
r
on
s
,
o
o
ar
a
a
n
o
.
I t s eem s hardl y p
s ib l e that the s e thou ght s cou l d h ve come f rom an y min d which h d
t been trained
d s tren g thene d
d d ee p
d t au g ht b y l ar g e
ex perience amon g wi d e variet y f human char cter s
La s t l y
th ou gh certain l y not l e t mo g the characteri s tic s which mu s t be
ote d th rou gh out the book i s the pre ence f ver y keen d
”
g enerou s s ympath y w ith every f orm f u ff erin g d d i s tre s s
CH U R CH
Q
U A R TE R L Y R E VI E I/V
os
.
a
a
no
an
an
a
an
o
as
,
a
a
,
.
n
n
s
o
an
a
an
s
.
the mo s t trikin g f e ture s of thi s
ori g ina l work i s that wh i l e the g reate s t d d eepe s t truth s are
approache d f rom th e inte ll ectua l s i d e the re d er i s rai s ed into
hi gh piritua l d d evotiona l atmo s phere ; the mind i ca ll e d into
ener g etic action but in tone s th at a ls o touch th h eart d remi d u s
th at we are on ho l y g roun d
d Cl
i mani f e s t l y the
Li /t
re s u l t f d eep thought d pra y er d
wi ll we ll repa y t th
”
c l er g y d thou gh t fu l l a y men the time s pent in care f u l peru s a l
CH U R CH
T I /WE S
O ne
o
.
of
s
a
an
S
a
a
,
an
s
n
.
o
an
e
,
an
,
s
u es
an
n
s
an
o
an
a
MA CMI LLA N
A N D CO
.
,
Em
,
LON D O N
.
.
e