Chapter 2
Europe
“Perhaps more than that of any other world region, Europe’s geography is the product of its role
in world-spanning economic and demographic systems” (Marston, Knox, Liverman, Del Casino,
and Robbins, 2013, p. 58).
Overview
This chapter focuses on the “cultural region” known as Europe, a construct of modern
cartographic practice that is sometimes defined by the Ural Mountains to the east, separating this
“continent” from Asia. Taking a historical approach, focusing predominantly on the fifteenth
century onward during Europe’s “Age of Discovery,” Industrial Revolution, the Cold War, and
the emergence of the European Union, this chapter introduces students to the importance that the
European region (via such practices as imperialism) played in the economic and political
development of this world. Comparisons are made between the “command economies” linked to
“state socialism” in Eastern Europe and the development of “capitalist economies” in Western
Europe as well as the “reintegration” of Eastern Europe with the rest of the region.
The chapter also introduces students to the complexity of European identity in relation to
both the emergence of the European Union and issues of in-migration from former colonies and
surrounding countries, particularly in regards to a large and growing Muslim population.
Moreover, the chapter covers issues related to migration from country to country within the
region, as well as the increasing urbanization of this region’s population. At the environmentsociety nexus, this chapter compares and contrasts the various landscapes linked to both the
physiographic differences that have emerged geologically and climatically over time, as well as to
the cultural formations that have developed across the region in relation to those differences. The
chapter suggests how this “region” might be integrated further in the future, as the close
proximity of urban spaces and a commitment to transportation development continue to expand in
the region. In conclusion, we are presented with future challenges, among them an aging
population that will place heavy demands on younger generations of laborers and disrupt the
allocation of resources to other pressing social and environmental issues, such as climate change.
Learning Outcomes
The objectives of this chapter are to:
1. Understand how Europe’s landscapes developed around regions of distinctive geology,
relief, landforms, soils, and vegetation;
2. Explain the rise of Europe as a major world region and understand how Europeans
established the basis of a worldwide economy;
3. Describe the reintegration of Eastern Europe;
4. Identify the principal core regions within Europe and describe the patterns of urban
development;
5. Assess the importance of languages, religion, and ethnicity in shaping ongoing change
within Europe.
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Strategies for Teaching Europe
In Chapter 2, students are introduced to the complex environmental, sociocultural, and politicaleconomic geographies of Europe. The main goal of this chapter is to allow students to appreciate
how and why Europe became such a dominant imperial power globally. Students should begin to
comprehend how Europe’s “development,” particularly in the last 500+ years, has been
intimately tied to other world regions – in short, Europe is a very global space. In offering a set of
leading questions, I provide an approach for teaching Europe as a region that is inextricably
linked to other places.
A. Where is Europe?
1. This might seem a rather simple question, but from a pedagogical perspective, it can
provoke a lot of interesting dialogue among students. For example, you can project the
following image (Figure 2.2), asking students, “Where does Europe begin and end? How
did you make those decisions?”
Figure 2.2
2. Students might find it quite challenging to demarcate with any real specificity where
Europe begins and ends (although the western boundaries might be simpler because of
the Atlantic, but then again the location of Iceland and Greenland challenge the
continuity of the European land mass). Next you can project either Figure 2.3 or 2.4 to
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begin to assess the political boundaries and environmental characteristics of Europe. This
raises another level of questions about who and what counts as “Europe.” One
particularly interesting case is that of Turkey. One might be inclined to identify Turkey as
part of the Middle East, but its current bid for EU candidacy has strengthened the
economic and cultural ties between this nation and the European community.
Alternatively, Turkey can lead you into a discussion of how the names of other world
regions, such as Near East, Middle East, and Far East came to be constructed as part of
Europe’s own imagination of where its borders begin and end.
Figures 2.3
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Figure 2.4
3. This approach will immediately turn your students’ attention to a discussion of Europe’s
physical geographies and the relationship between those physical geographies and their
human ones. You can begin to dissect the region environmentally while also building a
set of questions about how and why Europe came to be (politically, economically,
socially, and culturally). In laying out the environmental diversity of the region – from
the northern spaces of Scandinavia to the southern spaces of the Mediterranean – you can
provide a deeper discussion about how diverse Europe really is and what that means for
its past and future development (for example, dominant industries across different
countries). Use the video Blue Danube? (see below) to further flesh out the interesting
human–environment dynamics of Europe.
B. What role does Europe play in the making of today’s complex world regional geography?
1. As Chapter 2 highlights: “Perhaps more than that of any other world region, Europe’s
geography is the product of its role in world-spanning economic and demographic
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systems” (p. 58). This is a bold and important statement, for it suggests that Europe (as a
region) has had long-term global effects. It is vital that students understand this point, as
Europe’s political-economic and sociocultural dominance during its colonial and
imperial periods dramatically reorganized both global relations and local places.
2. In teaching this region, you should turn your students’ attention back to Chapter 1 and the
maps of colonial holdings. You can frame your discussion regarding European
development – from feudalism to mercantilism to imperialism – by asking students to
consider how European expansion (a) impacted other world regions and (b) impacted
Europe itself, which changed because of the relationship it had with its colonies (e.g.,
think about the development of the industrial sector and the value of primary
commodities that might come from other regions, or how spices, sugar, and products,
such as coffee, changed the tastes of Europeans).
Figure 1.23
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Figure 1.24
3. It is possible, now, to turn students’ attention to the questions and concerns found in the
Culture and Populations section of the chapter, particularly on the focus around identity
and migration. In particular, students can be lead through a broad discussion of how
Europe’s so-called “other” ethnic minorities from outside the region are a vital part of
Europe’s current development.
C. What are the tensions that historically surround the “integration” of Europe?
1. The historical geography of Europe is one of integration and segregation, as conflict and
tension have surfaced out of the varying practices and approaches of the local
governments in the region. These tensions have manifested themselves in the outward
expression of colonialism (see the “Scramble for Africa” discussion in Chapter 5) and in
the conflicts on the continent – two world wars followed by the longstanding political
tensions of the Cold War.
2. Using Figure 2.16, you can provide students with the geographical context for the
expansion of the European Union and you can lead them in a wider conversation about
how the past geographies of this region – which has, over time, divided this space
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between “capitalist” and “communist,” between “wealthy” and “poor” – are foundational
to cross-regional socioeconomic, environmental, and cultural relations today. Tying this
discussion of EU expansion into a discussion of post-Cold War development in the
region (see p. 68) helps students comprehend the complexity of Europe and forces them
to appreciate both what brings it together as well as what has the potential to fracture the
coherence of the region in the future (turn students’ attention to Turkey, for example, as a
“candidate country”).
Figures 2.16
3. In a very mundane way, then, this conversation also affords the opportunity to discuss the
diversity of the subregions within Europe, with the example of the “Golden Triangle” and
“Southern Crescent” resting as key points in the conversation. What are some of the
economic, political, and sociocultural differences within Europe and how do those
difference tie, in part, to each subregions’ history of global connection?
4. Finally, you can turn students’ attention to the future of the region, asking: what are some
of the problems with and possibilities for further regional integration in the future? What
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external global pressures and tensions (from global conflict, migration trends, economic
relations) might disrupt the European Union plans to effectively create “Europe?” What
role do organizations (such as NATO) play in this region’s future? And, what is Europe’s
role in the world in the future? To this end, the section on Europe’s Muslims (see
Visualizing Geography, p. 80) encourages students to think about tensions in defining
Europe culturally. As well, students can reflect on the underlying causes and effects of
the sovereign-debt crisis in Europe (beginning in late 2009) and what these say about the
challenges to economic integration and the shaping of cultural and political identity of
Europe. For example, how does the politics of aging fit into these debates (p. 82)?
Video Analysis
1. The video, Blue Danube? from the World Regions Geography Video series, can be
utilized to develop a conversation around regional integration and the importance that
transportation networks, such as waterways, have historically played in Europe’s regional
development. It can also be used in class to discuss the conflict and tension between the
goals of economic development and environmental sustainability.
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Guiding questions for class or exam: What is the relationship between the Danube’s
development and the politics of EU expansion in the twenty-first century? What are
some of the concerns associated with the river’s expanded development? What and
how might humans modify the Danube to increase the river’s economic viability for
transportation? What are some of the consequences of those changes to the river?
2. If you want to use a full-length feature film to discuss issues related to migration and
politics in the region, you could develop an interesting discussion around the film Bend it
Like Beckham.
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Bend it Like Beckham is a story of a young woman who is of Indian descent living in
Britain. Using this film as a basis, have students provide an analysis of the factors
that prompted Indian migration to Britain (see Chapter 10) and what impact that
movement has had on Indian culture and life for those who have migrated. Have
them contextualize their analysis within a discussion of European colonization and
the postcolonial relationship between Britain and its former colonies.
3. As a companion to the expanded section on Muslims in Europe in the fifth edition, you
could show the 2011 documentary film entitled Short Tales of the Hijab.
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Short Tales of the Hijab (2011) traces the stories of four Muslim women in Europe as
they reflect on race relations and Muslim integration in their respective countries
(France, Germany, Belgium, and the UK). The film circulates around the object of
the veil, which in recent years has become symbolic of large debates over religious
freedom, European cultural identity, and issues of security and terrorism. This film
shapes these debates geographically to show that the Muslim experience in Europe
varies dramatically from region to region.
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Examples of Additional Resources
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European Union Official Website: http://europa.eu/
European Union Policy Website (Europa):
http://europa.eu/policies-activities/index_en.htm
o EU Capital of Culture Program:
http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm
o EU Agriculture Policy:
http://europa.eu/pol/agr/index_en.htm
Kundera, Milan ([1988] 1999) The Unbearable Lightness of Being. New York:
Harper (a great book to discuss the 1960s and 1970s in the “eastern bloc” of Europe).
Pamuk, Orhan. My Name is Red and Snow. A Turkish writer who explores the
political and cultural relationship between Turkey and Europe.
The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) – for news, events, documentaries, etc.:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/
Le Monde (English version): http://mondediplo.com/
The New York Times Learning Center: http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/ (for
interesting activities on understanding the European debt crisis)
The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life:
http://www.pewforum.org/PublicationPage.aspx?id=718 (a collection of data on
Muslim-European relations)
Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities
1. Using a flow chart on the board or overhead, have students trace, through group
discussion, the major highlights of Europe’s environmental land use management
practices over time. What impacts have humans had on their environment and land cover
in this region?
2. Discuss the term “flexible production region” (p. 70). How has this practice facilitated
economic growth in the Southern Crescent subregion of Europe? How does this compare
to earlier industrial development in Europe’s Golden Triangle? What impact has flexible
production had in South Asia in comparison (thinking of Bangalore, in particular)?
3. Put Figure 2.24 on an overhead for the entire class. Have students write a brief paragraph
explaining what (and how) the map represents the spatial distribution of minority ethnic
groups in Europe. What are some of the strengths and weaknesses of this type of
representation? What other data might be valuable for developing an analysis of the
spatial distribution and diffusion of minority ethnic groups in the region?
4. Using Figures 2.3 and 2.4 have students trace the relationship between climate regions
and Europe’s key physiographic regions.
5. Europe is a relatively dense region demographically. Yet this region is home to some of
the most prosperous economies in the world. Initiate a discussion with students about the
problems of associating regional population density with poverty, and discuss issues of
neo-Malthusian population politics. Also, consider why Europe, with its dense
population, has been able to maintain economic prosperity.
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Thinking Geographically
1. How has Europe benefited from its location and its major physical features?
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Europe has direct land and sea routes to Asia (through Southwest Asia [Middle East])
and Africa (post-1488 around the Cape of Good Hope and more recently through the
Suez Canal in Egypt). The central location of European cities in the Classical Period
(1000 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.) facilitated the movement of primary goods to Asia in
exchange for finished products from Persia, India, and China. Also, ocean or air
travel to the Americas or East Asia is roughly equivalent in terms of distance and
time to travel.
Europe consists mainly of peninsulas and islands. The abundance of surrounding
water-moderated temperatures, low-lying valleys in the Central Plateau, and good
grazing lands in other physiographic regions have allowed populations to grow over
time. In addition, waterways, particularly oceans, seas, and rivers, have facilitated
international trade. Europe has also benefitted from the large coal deposits, which
helped in the development of the Industrial Revolution.
2. What key inventions during the period from 1400 to 1600 helped European merchants
establish the basis of today’s global economy? Why?
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In this period, key technological inventions, including the quadrant, the astrolabe, and
the ability to determine latitude and longitude at sea, meant that extended trade
networks were established across the globe. In addition, private and state financing
systems were developed, such as banking, loan systems, stocks and bonds, and
commercial insurance. Moreover, there were several technological advances (based
on many Asian inventions) in the development of “windmills, spinning wheels, paper
manufacture, gunpowder, and the compass” (p. 59) that helped push mercantilism
forward as economic sectors matured and divisions of labor were further entrenched.
3. Which imports from the American colonies helped transform Europe? Focus on natural
resources and new crops.
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Primary commodities were key imports from the Americas. These included gold,
silver, cocoa, beans, maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sugarcane, tobacco, and vanilla.
4. How did the European Union (EU) develop? Why is the EU’s Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) so important?
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The EU evolved from efforts to rebuild Western Europe’s infrastructure and
integrated economies following World War II. The U.S.-funded Marshall Plan
provided investment capital. In 1967, the European Community (EC) was formed
from Euratom, the European Coal and Steel Company and the European Economic
Community. In order to distance Europe from the United States, reestablish economic
prosperity, and accommodate changes in post-industrial society, the EC expanded to
the EU in 1992.
The EU’s CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) dominates the EU budget and has a
large effect on rural economies, landscapes, and standards of living throughout the
EU. It also affects food prices in urban areas. CAP stabilizes farm product prices and
subsidizes participating farmers.
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5. What migration patterns characterized Europe during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries? Consider movement within Europe as well as movement to and from Europe.
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With the emergence of capitalist modes of production, there was an increased pattern
of migration from rural to urban areas and from rural areas of agricultural production
to areas of coal mining.
World Wars I and II led to the forced migration of millions of people within Europe:
Greeks moved out of Turkey; Jews migrated out of Europe, and so on.
In the post–WW II period, migration has been driven by economics: retired peoples
to resort regions; migrant workers from economically peripheral countries to
industrialized countries; and migrants from former colonies to the colonial core.
Apply Your Knowledge
1. Find a European city at the same latitude as a city with which you are personally familiar.
Use the Internet to find climate data (monthly temperatures and rainfall statistics, for
example). Describe and provide a reason for the differences between the two sets of data.
(Hint: two excellent sources for this type of information are the following web sites:
http://www.worldclimate.com and http://www.bestplaces.net/climate/)
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In addition to latitude, factors such as altitude, proximity to water, presence of
forests, presence of mountain ranges, the nature of soil, and the location and density
of populations and industries are all formative of climate patterns and help account
for regional differences at the same latitude.
2. Identify and research three cities that have been important entrepôt seaports. Use the
Internet to compile profiles of their present-day economies.
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Three examples of significant entrepôt seaport cities in Europe are: Rotterdam (along
the Rhine River), Paris (along the Seine), and London (the Thames). Marseille,
Barcelona, Hamburg, and Genoa are a few others. Key characteristics to observe in
understanding the connections between Colonial mercantilism and the development
of modern industry are: the geographic origin and types of products passing through
these cities, the resulting diversification of labor, and impacts on intellectual
movements. For data on European cities, go to the European Commission’s Eurostat
website:
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/European_cities.
3. Research what happened to Berlin during the Cold War. What has happened to the Berlin
Wall and the adjacent “no man’s land” since the reunification of Germany and the
reintegration of Eastern Europe? What have been the problems and opportunities that
Berlin has faced as a result of reintegration?
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“No man’s land”, the “death strip” where defectors from the East were at risk of
being shot, has since been redeveloped into a park-like walkway called “The Green
Ribbon”, a physical symbol of regeneration for the city. Since 1989, subsidies from
West Germany and other Western states have aided in the economic reconstruction
and reintegration of the eastern portion of the city (new buildings, parks, shops, etc.),
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yet economic discrepancies exist between the two regions. In addition, the urban
landscape is still a physical reminder that many of the conflict and mental divides
persist between West and East residents, particularly among older generations. This
project offers students a good opportunity to reflect on the politics of memory and the
relationship between memory and landscape.
4. Provide an example of European Union policies that are directed toward (a) the
environment, and (b) regional policy. What can you find out about the effectiveness of
these policies? (Hint: A good starting point is the European Union’s own website:
http://europea.edu/pol/index_en.htm)
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In considering the effectiveness of environment and regional policy, take into
account: geographical location, economic history (in particular the legacy of
centrally-planned economies in Eastern Europe), regional governance structures, and
diverse environmental challenges faced in different places. For example, what kinds
of challenges does the history of heavy industrialization in post-Soviet states pose for
environmental policy today?
5. Choose one of the geographically peripheral countries of northern or southern Europe and
determine the problems that the country faces in terms of regional development. How has
European Union policy attempted to address these problems?
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This question is an opportunity for students to reflect on economic tensions between
the core and periphery regions of Europe as part of the 2009–2012 debt crisis. Some
countries to consider: Portugal, Ireland, Greece, and Italy. They should understand
the historical foundations of the debt crisis and why certain core countries are at an
economic advantage over neighbors on the periphery. Place this discussion within the
context of a discussion of the Golden Triangle and Southern Crescent (p. 69 and p.
70). Consider what kinds of steps the EU has taken to bridge the economic gap
between the core and periphery.
6. Select three European countries and conduct an Internet search to investigate the rates of
religious adherence of their populations. How might you account for the difference in
religious beliefs among the three countries? (Hint: A good source of data is the European
Commission’s survey of social values:
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf
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In this exercise, students could choose countries from regions with different religious
trajectories; for example, the Protestant North, the Catholic South, and Orthodox
East. They should take into account the religious history within each country and the
character of the relationship between state and religion over time. Drawing on the
cited website and other current reports on religion and secularism in Europe, how has
adherence and commitment to religion changed over the years? How does this vary
between generations and religions? Important to consider are changes in the religious
landscape of Europe as a result of migration.
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