Published in 2006 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings, March 2006, Big Sky, Montana, USA
The Mars Exploration Rover Surface Mobility Flight Software:
Driving Ambition
Jeffrey J. Biesiadecki and Mark W. Maimone
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, CA USA
[email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract—
AUTONOMOUS G OAL S ELECTION
10
D EPLOYMENT R ESULTS
10
S OFTWARE V ERSIONS
11
7
C ONCLUSION
13
8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
13
6
NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers’ (MER) onboard Mobility Flight Software was designed to provide robust and
flexible operation. The MER vehicles can be commanded
directly, or given autonomous control over multiple aspects
of mobility: which motions to drive, measurement of actual
motion, terrain interpretation, even the selection of targets of
interest (although this mode remains largely underused).
Vehicle motion can be commanded using multiple layers
of control: Motor Control, Direct Drive operations (Arc, Turn
in Place), and Goal-based Driving (Goto Waypoint). Multiple
layers of safety checks ensure vehicle performance: Command limits (command timeout, time of day limit, software
enable, activity constraints), Reactive checks (e.g., motor current limit, vehicle tilt limit), and Predictive checks (e.g., Step,
Tilt, Roughness hazards).
From January 2004 through October 2005, Spirit accumulated over 5000 meters and Opportunity 6000 meters of
odometry, often covering more than 100 meters in a single
day. In this paper we describe the software that has driven
these rovers more than a combined 11,000 meters over the
Martian surface, including its design and implementation,
and summarize current mobility performance results from
Mars.
1. I NTRODUCTION
"!#$
%&(')*
Keywords—
*+-,.0/""(123
4.,52674689"!:
04;%<2./"=.
>
04;
90
26/?9@.,5A*
13!,5
04
TABLE
OF
Figure 1. Mars Exploration Rover.
DFEHG3EI
26A*J%K2./"/01H/046@3@L('MN,56"/0*+;!/0!0J*O4
#6H
2.
%<AP%;*M04RQ:4926*1STTU6VW*#.LG9=.0
")46@YXP=.Z
=+
2.4."(1[*\3=./0*"4[N*R]<MF^>_`)#."5=.*"Z
,a*1b!/c0$
Id646@e:@346A%=6Jf')*RYgH26
h P46@ij
@34.-k/492.,l+('m$!/0!/"/[email protected]
046>
n*o4p=.=+
"
qJ@3o%$
#.q=./46A_rEc/"
#.2.!#s
#6
#6",54a%P*#.0R
26*(%K26/c/046@304.!aJ*[email protected]
i
#64./0!0/*2.5@3Y%KAn5t*#.0a.0/0n(1u*i**Z
*
)'N#.0/"N4v*#.F
2.
%<A)%O*7*#6M#6466/"@v+*#
*
$
26@R04R*#.0N=.*",a
1$!/0_
`)#.mw**?
(1:=60/0/"1xA,,a46@3@46=7i
Z
4@681_cEy
z:2.46AL%A,,[email protected]
4:P04l
#6t,5*4.04.!
=A"d6
#.f@681+{ >
09n*"V'N#6t",a!t46@w@.*Y*
A/"/0AO#.'|
R=:J"
04
#.v
t*,aO4@j'N#.*L*
@3*"_-`)#.4R*#.F46@a%O#[email protected]*#.F**
4@a6}
#6$",a!v46@u@.*j#92.,a4w=+
*x'N0/0/26
a
i=./04
#6t4.\:[email protected]{ FA
09n*"_H`)#.t4.\[email protected]{ c,5.0/0n(1jA,Z
,a46@6c*LJ/">
@f
@Y4Y'N#6cN}94.'N4f~f46@Y'N#6
C ONTENTS
1
I NTRODUCTION
1
2
MER F LIGHT S OFTWARE A RCHITECTURE
2
3
M OBILITY M ANAGER S OFTWARE
3
4
L OW- LEVEL D RIVING
4
5
AUTONOMOUS D RIVING
5
P RIMARY AUTONOMOUS C APABILITIES
5
T ERRAIN A SSESSMENT OVERVIEW
7
ROBUST S TEREO I MAGE P ROCESSING
8
T ERRAIN A SSESSMENT
8
B 0-7803-9546-8/06/$20.00 C c 2006 IEEE
1
/4 ' 4.J*0/.jJ2.*,5410c46n*#6#6 Z \37/0*,Z
A*46@ Z \374.!26/07*m
4J*_2' 45('M45@3*"904.!
=.*",5"
0+
#6v*F4,a}t26J%,5Z 6J@)%PnZ
26/XH@3,5
*1u] 23*4.,526F
}904.!$%M",a!%K
26
[email protected]:P*N,
04j(*",a*"4^)*fA
*Ac
#6
**04$
#6P04."
/?'N#./O3@3,5A*
1:Z 6
@5(*",a
P
#6
32.x'N#.4i
#.5'N#./x/":Jt
>*"4i4i/*!t*3}3P46@
J
=[J/0=+3_ %P0
26/)XH@3,
*1 %&(')*W46t
0!046/0/01
=6J5%c*#.l6
/004.R@3J0!4b.23a046A
=+*@[
A\9
A*@.n .#6-!46
@L-S TTFA,t.04.@v
26*(%K26/:=+Z
n*"4R2.=O@.
c4l
#l*4 _
)2.4.}94.'N4R~f+23)
#6x
*04Y#.@?_
`)#.
F
5@3*"426
04.!f*#.*5=.*",a*1l,[email protected]/0')Z
/0/A,5,[email protected]
#6L
=+A"%K1\3>*/"1l#.' ,v26# R
2.*4
#x'N#./4@P=+
"
04J
04.!c>
2
*@."*A
@L@.
0:Z
04.!i=.*0,"
0L%Kv@3*"904.!i/"4.!iA0A2./t*f]<%c'N#.#
J
0!#:/"04.H@3
09"46!46@*2.
4.Z 043Z =./0AF
c
=+A/+J*^A
4@e23*4.,26a=6
# /0A
04W
_ ;')Z /0/F,5,a46@6
4./0 J4.43Z (46@.*@ M>
09n*";
26#L?2J04.!)
#6'N#./0
b@3"!I#./0f"4 J*04 J"/ N
2 3}3N46@q=J%K
,
,5#64.J, #./n*#I@3!4.J
(
_ P0
>
@[@3*"v/"Z
/0' #92.,a4q=*
[
=+A"%K1 A\.A
/01I'N#.# @3*"904.!
=.*",5"
0m
#.*M'N0/0/W=J%K
,l_EF23
4.,52N=6*#jJZ
/0>*"4[,53@3Y/"/0'cL*#.Y
*}Rn5A2.*
4:v(*
04*fA2.4:F'N#.4
/0A
04.!$'N#.#i@3*0:04.!a=.*0,"
0N*
A\3A23*
R,5* OA
0/01l
# h 4l!:/;/03Z
04j
2.=.=./00@Y91$#92.,a4Y=+
*_
`)#.q,5.0/0n(1pJ13J
, #6w
n\ S A4:*",5A*[email protected],
'N#./O%'N#60#j*#.v%K2.xA
4.F'N#./F,a81l+J
*@
~s ,5#64./$43d!2.*"4s@3
0@y%K*, #. i
k*#[email protected]
YG3 (26
4.
_ `)#. *f+3@31 #6
TiA4:*",5A*v!*2.46@w/"46-46@u/*!$
/v=646/
4[
#.f
=I%N
#6f*t
z26"*f@6@3n*"46/mA/0*46A5*
*/"/M
3}3a] TA4:
0,
*x%K*, !*2646@ i
/L=64./&^>_
e#./-6
/004.F*2.!#./01 v,
H
[email protected] Z 0@3v46@ _ S ,5A*-%K
4:JZ Z 6}+_7`)#.FMq
-4*2.
4a04$=./
+2.oe=+04: +A('m4 #.I('M ,5@.@3/0b'N#6/v@3*"
J
0!#:W%K*')@x;}9'm*@W46@L#68-(-c4.,5AZ
H
2.*4@3026F%KL@3*"904.!R/"4.!fA0A2./x_xG9
0!#:
/0"4.x@3*"904.!v
=+@f0)
Am
_ 4:
0,5A* JA4@?46@
#6a
c*2.
4o04o=6/0Aa*2.!#./01iS3!_ 5@.!* JA46@?_
`)#.R
L*f(*0/0/"1wJ*6/"f
0/n%c"U @3!
#.'m5@3
09"46!o4q,
Y*#64 Tu@3!*lJ/0=+a54.
*A,5,46@3@[email protected]*
#6F=+*J0.0/""(1v%?2.46A4:
*/0/"@
/00@9Z
04.!6_fc9}3H/0/"L
#64wl'N#./*aA4J@3*@ ,5.0/0n(1
#6 #@._
$m*#u@."*A
@w46@o=6*#[J/">*"4o,53@3%c@3*0:04.!j4
,a}P26
x%743Z :@fG:**& %FJ04Y=.*3A*
"4.!46@Y` Z
04bEc4/019
%&(')*a*[email protected]
,504.Y'N#.A*#.5*#.R*
'm2./@L4A264*-491H!,5A
*#6 #@.;;"@3
0;/"4.!
"*x#.
4i=6*#W(_ ' 4 @."*A
@ @3*"904.!6O*#.v*P4i=6
Z
,5=3*"/0)1 A* 5a
=A"dL,5.0/0n(1YA,5,a4@Y%K
, #6
!*2646@j"%n=.=N*:Y*0
}91*_ ' 4 EF23
4.,52PDP8:0!Z
04$] Ec23*468.^;46@x
#.;=6
#t
/0A
04L,53@3
#.*
4R
/0Am"*)'N4f@.
09"4.!=.*",5"
0*J
)*2.4@$.Z
J*/"4@v,a}N=.*!
')@vn!:/ _ `)#.
%&(')*
=.*90@3a*#.i2.460z:2.o=.0/""(1q%46./004.!w
#6 #.A/0
l@3*"v*%K/"1l4i
#.*2.!#i*c4.P+A%K
5J44
J*#WVx,5*v*#64[S TTf,5A
*%*#.a*{+,t6"4.@
@3(46x'mN@3
04Y23
4.,526J/0+1 S _
`)#.5*P,5"4:04o4 (*",a*5%*#.0/03/-=+
n*"4
4@$*04:*
04$2.=O@.
@Y- ,/.-#H'N#.0/"L@3*"904.!6_k-:J"
04
td*JaJ
0,5
@[6J@[4 #.' ,v26#[*#.l'N#./0#68
26
4.@$]K'N#6/:3@3,5
*13^A_-XP*"4:**"4L0;J
0,a
@L26
"46!
2. MER F LIGHT S OFTWARE A RCHITECTURE
)` #. /0/f*#."
>*2.
%j
#6|M 60!#: %&(')*
')P6
@i4*#6L26
@%KH
#6*xk
#3d64@3H/046@3
]<ik65^>O46@Y*#.v,5,a46@j46@Y
/",5A
*1Y"43%KJ
*26A
2.*
04j=6
A2./F#6@j
"!4."d4F@.
"!4l46@l0,=6/",4:**"4
04.#.*"*4A_
$m*# k75q/046@3x4@iM *N26
v
#.5A,,5*0/
=+*"46!u
13(*8
, %F\ }3%K*8
, e046@qN0_ `)#.50
=6
Z ,=.
0F,v2./"
"Z }:04.!aXxGa26
@$%Km,5491*/nZ 0,5
19J
,a;4@LJ=6AA%&_ w,5=./"13O*#.M*,5F9E 4:
60!#:7,5=.23*7W2J@L91F*#.mik65R/046@3m]</n*#.2.!#L
#6
Mo/"3}P
2.4W STN+.-#%K2.?*",5?%<J
W
#64k65^>
4@l#6c& %He04:
%<x
f
/?+*@.m*#6HA4:*
/
,5*9@30:,5946@R
"46AH"4(*
2.,54_G9,5
%P
#.; %Hp:@.#68l
*0/m04:
J%<A*u
#6a@3AZ
90"4:*
%<A@x
P
#660!#:A,=623
91L')81P<% 5-kMgxEF
#m4.46>*@5+*#a
#.9 %PI.2646@5*#.F
*0/6.26*
_
`)#.
N*4 S ,Hj91:
-=% PcEP 46@5S Pj91:
-%
#
,5,5*1346@ j91:
m%7MkMNXH[_:`)#.Lj.0/""(1a*J}
]<@.*A*"+@f/"'F^MM!"34 ,>T :x91:
%7J*}+94@f4.,Z
046/0/"?
1 j!:1:*x%c@3@3*@o#.=[
=6l]<%N'N#.#
v,:(/ Y:1:*#L+4w26J@?-L%FXHA
vSTT ^A_
`)#.F6"!#:m
%&(')*NnJ/n%;*z:2.0*A @vj91*%W'N#.+
# _ U
j91:
)0N2J@f91$*#.tG92.
%<LDF89"!:*"4f,53@32./0_
W0}k65m+
#6My
%&(')*P@3090@.@ "4:
R#.0!#3Z /"/
B (>_M#$/">
*[email protected]!4./0/"15*=.*
4:*@
91v4 (A'N#."/0F@.@3"
046/.J%&('m
Z 4./"1L (A*=6
Z
[email protected]%KJ
*26>*2.*l
*90v
o*#.l
(a%P
#.j,53@32./0
]&%KA\.,=6/"*A*@."4.!P
/",5A
*1t,5
2.
,54:*-(*
Z
04.!a(
L04l4.49/
0/0P,5,5
1.^>_
#[J%&('m
f (>v#"*'N4u*#.
@w%FA4*
/ -
*J}O_#$B (>N#6mn)'N4R
AN% J*
x*0./0:46@
@39t4.5J#*a,,5*1 'N"
#[
#.t (A*;_ ' 46(*@u%
#6*"46!j,,5*17 (>*vA,,v2.4.
$'N"
#[#w
#.
90x
/"%&Z 4:*"46@,5
*!)]&*#6@3x4."46/"2@3N="4:*
u
}[,5,5*1.^>_ XP (>*$",5=./0,54:ad646n*(
j,aZ
#.04.c4@q
#. ,5*
!a%K
, #.$
}9f,a81 26
4J"
046)04j4Y (>{ NJ*
x,a#.04._
`)#.a=6*@3"!, !*
/01[J0,5=./""d6a*=.@b@3/"=.,54:a%
*.26JJ%&('m
H]<@3/"=*[email protected]@t
x=.**A-,5,vZ
*15*J'N"
#YJ,5=.#.
2JP4./0154.F*
}aAZ
2
Figure 2. Schematic drawing of Mobility and other related software modules, and examples of the types of messages or
information that pass between them. IMG does Image Acquisition, Cmd processes ground commands, ACM is the Activity
Constraint Manager, ARB arbitrates use of resources, MOBM is the Mobility Manager, NAV does the high level navigation
processing, Drive executes primitive drive commands, MOT controls all motors, SAPP manages onboard pose estimation,
IMU processes IMU data. Hexagons represent Hardware Objects.
A
t491i!"4u*0./"8^>-46@u46
2.
L*/"Z 0,$@.@3Z
/0"4.
N,5AH]K+26
N*J}[email protected]/"3}t4$J,a=.#.
;26J*
}F/03}3#."!#3Z =.
0*"(1N*J}3O%K A4:
*//0:=6W46@
@3:Ax@3*"m'N"/0/?=.*AZ ,5=3)/"'mm=.*"
"(1*
}3M
#6N@.
4.m#68F*/nZ 0,5F*z:2.0
,4:*
26#YM",a!P,5=.*JZ
"4^>_
`)#6x*@?O
#6*
=./AF04 #.60!#:LJ%&('m
v'N#.*
#6M+=J**4L'm?4.W%K/0/"'m@PZO",a!%KW046J*4A
A4:*04H
9c,v26#@.m
c+=*J@HW,5**!JN0,a!Z
04.!Y6"!#:tJ%&('m
v,5=./019LY.B2 +
J
04 46@ Z
/0
c*#.,5:46@=+04:
-*L
J
@v.2 O*N=6*
@
+A('m4a=.=./00
04c]<
26#a,5."/0"(13^46@v
#6c",a!04.!
60!#:cJ%&('m
1_ $M2.N
#.
L*H%K'|J26#l\3=3*"46_
XP4.H",5=+
*4N*t% #.H60!#:NJ%&('m
F
2.46@3*J*46@
*#. uplink "!#mJ%&('m
c'N#60#a=6*
MA,,a46@.
4:
l*#.f
=6*%&t46@u@3J=*#6L#uA,5,a4@i*j
#6
=6Jm%W*#.H
%&(')*N*#6)",5=./0,54)n_ h ,5,[email protected]
"
#6+m\3A2.
@v0,,5@30
/"126=4*0=3N]<N/"Z `)0,5
A,5,546@.^)P(**@jFA,5,a4@jJz2646N*$+tA\3Z
A2.
@5
*0/"/01_7Ec/0,5J/0/.A,5,[email protected]:7*L *
*$,t+@.@3@w04w
#.JR4:JZ @3*"4[
z:2.4AV5iA,Z
,a46@x04N
z:2.4A;@3J=*#6@H4./01P%&
W
#6=.*A@304.!
A,5,546@i,5=./0A*_t`)#.v%K2.46>*"46L/"/0@i91l
#.aA,Z
,a46@l
13(*, *#6c0,5=./",54:FA,,[email protected]*x
%K*
@a*
Z
#.J
4@b,5
*!v
u*#.i=.Z
=.*command
=.*
j
%&handlers
(')*R(A_|4:
26/"/01m#b(A$
Z
A"904.!,5,a46@u,5**!5,v26(v
J=+46@u}*j
#6
A,5,546@ 13(*, 'N#.4 *#.o,5,a46@ A,5=./0A*H
26AZ
A
J%K2./0/"1ot4.7
l
#.R4.A\9v,5,a46@o04u
#.YJz:2.46
'N0/"/W\3A2.
_
Ec4u*:0' %*#.ay60!#:J%&('m
v"4u!4./-4
+x%K2.46@Y0
4 @ _
)` #.uj6"/0n(1 i46!YJ%&('m
i(>o] X4$) Z5
#6
$ F0-
"/04:^ 0,5=./",54:*-/0/3A,,a46@#646@3/07%K2.46A
046
%Kl,56"/0n(1 ,5,a46@6_ `)#.0Y046A/026@3l
#|/"')Z /0/
@3*"v,5,[email protected]
R=J%K
, YJ=+nd+t@3*"904.!f=6
0,5n*"
26#c
2.*43Z "43Z =./N'm/0/ F#.0!#3Z /"/;@3*"904.!fA,Z
,a46@6
v@3
0c
t
=+A"d6@ h 45/"3
04a04$
,5/"/
J
=N8@304.!#6 #@.)/04.!
#6L'm81_
`)#.i23
4.,52654689"!:*"4 %&(')*NgxMG3`79E 3`xM0f
!4.*x/"0.*1f,5=./01@Y4
*/WQ7k u
7_ ' P@39
4.t@3=+46@[4w491=6J*02./#6*@.'m
%&(')*5"43Z
J%<Am%KF,5)4@R,5
_c*#..!04YaJ
=6"%W",a!"M2.=O@.
M4a04:
*46/6,a=a%?491t4.*:1
#6 #@.x
4u04o
#.a0,a!a=0_$E @3 O*4:L%K2.46A
04u0
=.*90@3@l h J4l!:/?/03*"4W46@l*A%K**"4.!5*a
#6
3. M OBILITY M ANAGER S OFTWARE
3
Fault Type
Description
Higher level errors - vehicle not necessarily in a dangerous state
ARB
resource rescinded, may be due to comm pass
ACM
ACM said not-OK-to-drive
POT
CAL STEERING using a bad potentiometer
TOD
time-of-day limit reached during command
STOPPED
STOP DRIVING or a shutdown command
WAYPT TIMEOUT GO TO WAYPOINT command timed out
NO PATH
NAV could not find a safe path
NO PROGRESS
insufficient progress, limit cycle or stuck
BUSY
sequencing error, mobility already running
VISODOM
too many Visodom steps failed to converge
Reactive hazard detection - something bad DID happen with the hardware
IMG
IMG reported an error grabbing images
SAPP
SAPP error, probably a problem with the IMU
MOT
MOT reported error other than contact switch
IDD
IDD unstowed during drive
DRIVE TIMEOUT single step during GO TO WAYPOINT timed out
CSW
motion was stopped due to contact switch
TILT
excessive or unknown tilt during drive
SUSPENSION
excessive or unknown susp during drive
BAD TABLES
drv tables enabled but corrupted
NORTH
insufficient northerly tilt angle
Table 1. Mobility Manager Fault Types. The topmost faults result in a Goal error, which indicates the vehicle is still safe but
failed to achieve its objective. The lower faults result a in Motion error, i.e., the vehicle has already entered into an unexpected
state and is precluding any further motion pending Earth-based analysis.
#6#@j,a=;?
2.*46Hf*,5,546@3@i@3*0t=6
0,5n*"t*
*%K/01i,a}5=.*!**P
')@j*#.$!:/ _fgxMG3`79E 3`p
%&JZ
')*tP=
H%
#65DPE % ,53@32./05'N#.0# =.*:@3F043%KJZ
*26A
2.*LJ
9Am*a 4X $)w_
' vL*#.$,56"/0n(1u,a4!J%&('m
5*#6v"4:
J%<AL
#6
M 19J
, wgxMG.` E 3`x46@I",5=./0,54:
#.l,a04
/0:=$%Kc23*4.,26M4689"!:
04;_7`)#.NA46
0J*m%-J/">
Z
04.!L,5*P=607%K
, 'N#.#v0,a!7%K#6 #*@v@3A*>*"4
'N0/"/.+Fz:2.0
@?*z:2.J
04.!x*#.
)",a!-%K*, #.c0,a!Z
04.!cJ
9AO60!#:;J%&('m
46@x=6*
"4.!m*#.0,5!@.*m*
gxMG.` E 3` %KP46/013J_ ' %gxMG.` E 3` Jc$
2 A04:*/"1
*%KH=6*#$
')@5*#.P!/ :
#6P,56"/0n(1a,a46!m'N"/0/O"43Z
J
0!**#.a@3
0v=.*",5"
0:1j
46@."4.!l$,5
*!
R
#6
/0')Z /0/;@3*0:04.!YJ%&('m
_ e#.4i
#.v,54.26P0HA,Z
=./0A*O
#6v,56"/0n(1l,a4!P@3
,504.H"%
#.')81:=+04:
*#6@? J=+46@."4.!i6}i
j*#.fA,5,546@w
19J
, "%
6_7XF*#.*'N0
4.*#.;J
N=60;%3",a!? z26J
@W
4@
#.F13A/0t]<; *(*= x045
#6P2.
48t/0:=^7*=+*@?_
`)#. !46/N%K,5'm*}[%Kf*#. %&(')*j,53@32./0f
#6
A,5=.
P*#.L,5.0/0n(1f
%&(')*H0)0/"/026J
*@Y"4j`7./0S3_
`)#.wM **Y@3 4.j#68o,5=.23*Y%<Jl4.26!#
R=.*9*c#6 #*@[email protected]",a!F'N#.0/"v
#.v#.0/"v0
@3*"904.!YZN
#.1i'm2./@ f4:
04926/0/01 @3*"904.!l=6Jx
#."
#.@3/0"!#:* v"%-
#.1$*
0@Y*6_MEPz:2.0
04.!a4@l=.
3*J04.!5
"4.!/"L0,a!=60c,a81$}L2.=9'm*@Y% ,504:2.
OJ04.!
#6 #@.N5,5A*F8')8131AN*#.*m'M2./@R#8L@3*"4
,5*H
#64l
"\f,5A
*[email protected].
04.!
#60N0,a!H=6
3A
04.!6_
G9F046(*@e
#6 **f
,5"4 (
04*1 'N#6"/0i}904.!
4@u=.
3*J04.!l",a!L
i@3
,504.$'N#.#[@30
>
04o*
,5_ `)#.7
, 491x
/"Z *",5*z:2.0*,54:*;%K*, #6
0,5!=.*9*J04.!R=.#6
W46@j*#.5,5.0/""(1j,a46!H46@
gxMG.` E 3`p
%&(')*0t
2.4u04[l/"')Z =.*"
"(1l*J}O7J
4.c
$
/"' @3'N4l#.0!#l=.*"
"(1a
}9F46@l26
x
#., *
,50*m
#60F@3@3/0"4._
N >*"L#6#@l@3A*>*"4l~R#646@3/0"46!a
#.:Jt#6#@.)43Z
A2.4:
@a@32.*"4.!v#.0/"P,5
04;:
26#f\3*J0N*
[email protected][
0/"$Z
z:2."**/nZ 0,5Y*
=+46
_ .F46j'Ml0,vZ
=./0,54:*@iRJ=6*+#.0!#3Z =.*"
"(1f
}Y%KH=J%K
,504.!
#6tA
26
04Y,
04l=.*",5"
0N"4l*#.( H ' %P %&(')*
,53@32./0_j
*!m046@3*"46!a'N#.0#j@3*0:04.!5=.*",5"
0x*
=+
%K*, ]K_ !_"
2.*4v045=./A^7
N
4:-
x
#60,53@32./0
'N#.#u
#.4IA,5=.23
tJ
*"4.! 4.!/"46@o*#.f\3=>
@
492.,t+)%;'N#./O
/023*"466J@$4fEF}*,54.4fJ
Z
04.!54YN!
2.46@?_
4. L OW- LEVEL D RIVING
4
#60M"46n*0/+(*",a
P4$+F0,5=.*@591a=6=./"1904.!(%P0
26/
XH@3,
*1f
%&(')*F"%-*
26*M=
,5" _
`)#.Md6(7=.#6
%.
#6*2.
4.Z 043Z =./0Am46@v@3*"904.!F=.*0,vZ
"
0F0F
R(*P
#6vA
46c'N#./N*$
#6vA,5=.23
@4.Z
!/0_ e#.4iJ
*"46!a0PA,5=./0A*6
#.'N#6/F
x*2.*4.@?_
#R'N#6/W
=+@Yc*/0@YA*@304.!v
5*#.EF}*,54.4
/02./
04Z'N#./0a4 #.j23*
[email protected]%L4qA04.!o
2.*4
#68$l/"4.!=6*#w/"4.!*#o
i 46@u*a
*
@u
#.0!#.cJ=+@R
#64f*#.L"4J@3L'N#./_
e#.0/"*#.5,
*H*v+04.!lA
26
@W?
#. H ' %P|
%&JZ
')*vL#.}904.!Y%KH
#6a4.,5046/-**,046
04uA4@3n*"4
]</"/.J
*"46!H7=.**A*0@t46!/0 %Kx(*
04.!Z 46/"1LA,Z
,a46@WO@.
"*@j#6@."4.!Y#.0@Y%KF*2.
4i"4 =./0A+P
/0Jv#/"%N
#.Y'N#./0v**
@u
#.R=.*A,5=.23
@I,2.4:
%K5,a4.2.*^>_j`)#.f@.
0$
%&(')*a0v/Jj/09}904.!
%KH +Z 4.,5046/ ,5046*"4iA46@3"
046046/"26@."4.!YA\.JZ
"[email protected]*"/"
A2./*"4%3*#.M*3}JZ !0J26
=+46
"4
19J
,l
9x/"4.!*#91L%+4>*26*"4W4@*#.
#.'N4t04
`7./03 4_ 57046/0/"1+
#.5J%&('m
LH
A*@304.!$
13(*, (*
04f4$
81%KM
2.6
z:2.4:**46
,*J04W"4A/026@304.!vJ
Z
04.!H46@L'N#./9,5*7=:J"
04W,5
-A26
*4:46@#.A/0
"
26@.),5J2.*@R91a
#6 '(+0_
' 460@34:*/0/01)
#6 H ' %P J%&('m
la
#6i46/"1qA3@34
+@Y
#P}94.'cN
#.!,5A*
1R%
#6t,5.0/0n(1lJ13J
,Y_
gxMG.` E 3`[#6-=6,5A*W*x"[email protected]
)'N#6-(1:=+%,aZ
4.2.*7*#.N#.0/"N=66/"N%+=+
%K*,5"4.!4@t=6*,Z
A**#6)@3>*
H'N#6)A46(*n*23
)#6 #@
t
#.H#."Z
A/0cZ7=6,5
-*#6m,5}F
4JP45%KM4:
0
/"15@3 +JZ
4:x,5.0/""(1j=./
%K*,5_vG9/n%&Z A/"/[email protected]
>*"4 @34.v91
#6j"46J
*2.,54:$*, %&(')*Y46@I'N#6/"Z ,/d6/"
*
04ogxMG.` E 3` A46J@3P
'M=3JZ 23H/"2.,5F%
#.,5.0/nZ
"(1q
13(*,l)%Kl
",5=./00n(1q4@ A46J
J,r]K"Yf*
#t491j=6JL%
#6$*, "4:
*
A*x4i
#.$
'm=3L2.
/"26,N@32.*"46!,5:(N=+*"46^>_
EFA
26/)"4:
J%<A04.!* ,5
5A4:
*/m/0>*
4.v0@346
91$*#.,5*cA4:
*/W@3:A@.
0cJ%&('m
. XH`x_6jZ
.0/""(1:046(*
26,4:*,Y#.0!#5!"4a4:*4.46N="4:*"4.!46@
,aJM,5x="4:
04.!/0/626
N
#60m@3*"%K*2.4.4.04.!t,5Z
*FZ)
#.1/0/ 2J.*26J#6@j,5*F'N"
#oz:26@3*2.*t*/"Z
*"F46A3@3*M=+*@[email protected]:
/O6k ' 4:
*/0/00,vZ
=./0,54:*@Y";4 5-kMgxEP_M`)#.L XH` %&(')*H0N!"4l5J
%H,5
*v*w
2.4;M4@ !:/)=+
n*"4b%K5# ,5*_
5-kMgxEPv
$=6
!,5,5@u=.=6
=.
*/01-46@I/0/,5*
04i*#.aJx
(
@ J0,t26/n4.26
/"1_t\90,t26, ,
/"3n*"m
H
/0@RJv
#6N4.,5046/0/"15*#.1R/0/O,5=./0A*
#60N,
046)
",v2./"*462J/01_G9#.2./@R4:1a,5
)\9=+*"Z
4At5%<2./"OJ26#cJ*/0/;F*#../0/;,5
N04j
#6
!*26=u
$23
,a
/"/01 #923v@3'N4;_Y`)#.RAk ' /09=u%K
4f"46@."9@326/O,5*M0M
264R4 :.9#F04$
#6 5-kMgxEt_3G3%&JZ
')*L,4."
c=6
!**L]K=+
n*"4,5
2.*@l91Y469@.
4@[=+
4:
0,5A*2.
*4:5@3*8' 91u
#6R,5**^t&,
.-#_
`)#.49:@I=+
n*"4q0f4.,5046/0/"1bJ
0,a
@ :1qA,Z
.04.04.! #.u'N#./x,5
04R,5
2.
@ 91e4A3@3Y'Nn*#
#.@304.!v#4.!,5J26
@5:1*#.P!19
:"4$
#.4 '(+0:.23
5. AUTONOMOUS D RIVING
PX 4.v%*#.v!
x@3
"!4i#6/"/04.!F%*#.i ,5
04
')$,5A
04.!I
#. !/c*#6R
#.uJ13J
, #.26/0@e+ ./0
l@3*"t"*
/"% safely #.*26!# TT$,5
P%6%P"}904.! 43Z
@39 ' Z /"0}$] % ?Z 'J^)***"
4 @ N]K,5J
/01RF'N"
#i9J046/
(A/0H*+
1 Rx,5*v,5A**^F04uY
"4.!/"[email protected]'Nn*#
4.j#./"=u%K*, J*#o46Aa"*t@3
0a#L+!2.4W_R`)#60t
Z
z:2.0
,4:@3>
@t91x*#.N
"4*nd+!/ %6*#.),50*J04;
,54
#6mt
0,=6/"N*/0=*
@5,53@3P%;@3*"904.!'m2./@
=.*90@3N046
2 A04:m=6.0/""(1v04f/"/.23*#.F,5:(m4."!4
046_M`)#.L=+*4:
/ =:J"
04l(*",a*"4j*
[email protected]*
/"0=W
#.H"4.0/""(1v
v
F14@a4.
91v
3}346@5
/"/004.!
04W6
#.v/"0,5n*@492.,vF%A,5,v2.4.*"4j=.=+
2.Z
4."
0)4@a/"0,5n*@f646@.'N0@9*#f'm2./@$/"/+
(*
>M
#.H#."Z
A/0{ N,a\30,t2., #6"8./0@30J*46AL#[email protected].
a
1904.!
,52.4:*@3=+46@."4.!o4I
04W_u`)#.*A%K
a*#.j@30
04
')P,5@3*R046*=*
L*#.=6.0/""(1l%MEF23
4.,52
P
09"4.!54:+*@W_
`)#.Y=.*./0, 'N"
#I=6
0,5n*"R@3*"904.! ,5,a46@6tv
#6
#61I4.4.$@.=3v*u2.4.A\3=+A
@q46@3"
04M_ !6_0M
/"0=
#32.*H04u/"9
aJ"/-L#.@3"46!l#4.!P
#63A26
4RJ/0=+_ e#64R@.
09"4.!v23*4.,26
/"1
#6F*,5}
"*'N4@30
"423-
#.N+J')81x
x
#vn"4:*46@3@
!:/P/"3
04W_pEmR# J
= nY
*J
$nR
n*26*"4
6J@u4u
#6f/
(v"43%K
,a
04o%K
, *#.f49:0*4.,54:V
*7=+
n*"4(*",a
@v91'N#./.46A3@3* '(+0e46<@ 8
%F
26/mXH@.,5A*
1 ;*3} !0vA43d6!2.*
04 ,
2.*@
91 =+*4:
0,5
46@u463@3 7*#.f/0/0
,54v%)
0,5
*,a04.04.!F%Kn@3*" 46@P=6
@30A
045+23*#.NJ#=+
%"*Y4:90
4.,54:R,5=.23*@q%K*, *A4:Y4@ A2.**4:
=6"-%?(**x0,5!_-`)#.
N=6.0/0n*"/0/"'I
#.N*
l@3*"v*%K/"1+4i04 *N%KP'N#.#*#.*0H4.R#."!#
*
/023
04Y",a!*1$80/0./0P+A%K
#646@W_
Primary Autonomous Capabilities
M #60/"=.*90@3$
#.*$J*#.!46/=66"/0n*"L%K
2.
46,526R@3*"904.!6Vu`;
04 EF*
*J,54:ck
# G3/0>Z
04;:46@/%FJ26/k-:J 0c=O@.
_EF/"/+A,v.046*"46-%O
#6
,53@3M*c88"/6/")*L
#.P#92.,a4a*@.
0*-=./464."46!
*>*"9"
0 ` ./"YSl46,5t/0/*#.R,t6"46
046%
#6
L,3@3N46@l
2.,5,a* #M
#."F26J_
' 4 Terrain Assessment ]K Predictive Hazard Detection^
,53@3O46P,
v(**$=6"c%",a!P*=.*3A*
@
04*R$
8*.0/""(1$ goodness ,a=W?46@j,5
!@j'N"
#
4j\30J
04.!$,a=;_PG9=.0
"P2JN
#[email protected] ,52.4:*@ STa@3AZ
!*; 5-X % .PE h EPa%Ka
04e*J
,54:m.23lXP=.Z
=+
2.4."(1$26
)=+04:*./"3,aJJZ ,2.4:
@$"U @3!** 57-X %
DFE % h EFiL26Jv
#6$j*[email protected]
04i#6x
1ld646
!04.@J"/ #x0P4.x*
/08./0t04
#6/ .PE h EP 0,vZ
!PS \6S *
/023
04;_ ' %=
# J/">
04i0x/
$43Z
6/"@?c46@3@.*,5
04 =6*#6f
=6
(>*@q04:
w*#.0
5
Driving Mode
Directed Driving
Visodom
Blind Goto Waypoint
Visodom Goto Waypoint
Guarded Motion
Guarded Visodom
Autonav
Autonav with Visodom
Terrain
Assessment
no
no
no
no
YES
YES
YES
YES
Path
Selection
no
no
YES
YES
no
no
YES
YES
Visual
Odometry
no
YES
no
YES
no
YES
no
YES
Spirit
451 m
9%
410 m
8%
2196 m
46%
379 m
7%
36 m
1%
0m
0%
1315 m
27%
3m
0%
4798 m 100%
Opportunity
1973 m
33%
561 m
9%
1911 m
32%
121 m
2%
117 m
1%
0m
0%
1262 m
21%
0m
0%
5947 m 100%
Table 2. MER driving mode usage as of 15 August 2005, counting 573 sols for Spirit and 555 sols for Opportunity. (Distances
are as measured onboard, and can be overestimates of actual distance traveled if wheels slip during non-Visodom drives. Only
rover translation distances are reflected here; turn in place and single-wheel trench digging motions are not reported.)
`)#.
M/J)('mc +Z 4.,5046/#689"*W8"/./0VO6}:Z
2.=646@/0",5"A13A/0)
2.*46_-gH:/7
#6/"0N046J@3)*#.)
0!#:JZ
J)
2.*4.04.!aA0*/"a] A**
=46@304.!*54Y*P'N"
# P,5
@3026^c4.4.F*#6@l26
"46!ROJ$04*#.
v
"
26Z
04M4f)
#M}38')81%K*,p
#6F!:/0mJ/">*@$
#6t=.*A%K
*@lx=6
#W-_ e#646}9"4.!a26="4l*#.F,53@3
#6 *R@39Y :HZ 2.*4 .c@.
09"4.!b"4 nR
0!#:
(j
8')81%K*,s
#.P!/6/03*"4W_-EFM% 5..*26*1STT .'N#.4
v6}92.=$+#8:0mM#.:J4a
#6H#6"!#.Jm=
#R/026
04
5#6/0@?'N#.#b04 =.*>*0Y26
5o="4:5
26
4b
u+
=.*A%K
*@ix4o*#6L6}3P26=W_`)#6*
2./"H%*#.0
=.*3A*
"4.!I0Yb
AY% Waypoint 8/"2
04c'N#60# ,5*!@I'N"
# #6 XP6(/"l=6
# /026*"46a4@I*
2./"
04 Hazard Avoidance =6.0/""(1O"%M`;
04iEP
*J,54H0
/
466/"@?_
`)#.xJA46@a +Z 4.,5046/+#689"M@3
>*m'N#.4$*#.P*
%<0/W*F,a}=.*!
W%&
,v2./n*"=6/"m(*=6_7`)#60 'N"/0/9#6=.Z
=+4on6% %P0
26/XH@.,5A*
1j@3
A*x
f,t2# /"0=*#6x/""J*/"
=.*!
L,a@3t"%c
#.R=6*#w
i
#.R!:/v./"3}@
91Y
9$/*!t46J*A/0t4@Y
#.
N}=c*
1904.!$2.43Z
26*(%K2./0/01f*f@3*"*2.46@l"_ ' 4jn*#.HJ.
#6 Limit
'N0/0/M@3
At*#.fA46@3"
04[46@u"
#.L
,5"Z
Cycle
46
Y
Check
#.,5,a46@I5%K*f*#.j
v
o
26
4 "4q=./
,5P,2.4:
v!m46'e#.@304.!6:%K*,p'N#.#f"M,5"!#:
d646@l+AJ*c=
#j
2.46@f
#.L6(/"_
' 4 Visual Pose Update ]K Visual Odometry^>:
#.L*M26=3Z
@.
fnf2.
*4:$=+
n*"4 46@ 8RJ*n*26@3 :1qA,5=6
Z
04.! %K*2.*R%K2.4@ 04|J
I0,a!o=6"R*}4 %K*
4@i%&*YJ,a/"/-,5*"4 J
=;>_ $m*# M #.A/0H26
DFE % h EFim%KM
#. %FJ2/;XH@3,5
*1l]< %F
9@.,$^=6
Z
A
04.!6
"4AR
#.l
/0R#64.!t046@32A@I91w4I
,5/"/
,5*"46"4I
#.Y'N0@. 5-X % .FE h EF ",a!v,a}l2.Z
4.,526N**}:04.!a%%K*2.*F@. A26/n_H`)#.P=.
3*J04.!
46/"1f49
!MJ26A
J%K2./0/"1$"%7
#.H
04Y#6)5J2 "4:
492.,t+L%%K
26
x:
"./05"4u# @ J4:L",a!5=60
v*#.#92.,a4l*)@.
0N,t26Jc46
2.*H
#6PDFE % h EF
*5="4:*@o
')@2J%K2./%K
26
L491:
0, %P0
3@3, 0
26
@?_
Figure 3. Illustration of Terrain Assessment and Path Selection. Red cells indicate unsafe areas around the large rock,
yellow cells indicate traversable but rougher areas around the
smaller rock, and green cells indicate safe and flat areas.
,a= ] J+5 0!26
^>N46@eu'm0!#:*@ /026
04q%x
#6
A46J
"
2.4A/0/L0v*J0!46@i
#u=6*#W_l`)#.0t
J26/n
04qw
A$% Obstacle =6*#q/026*"46c/"' /02.a046@3"Z
x/"
M
8**6/"c=
#;.#.0!#f/"2.)"4@30*H,5*
8**6/"P=6*#W_
' 4 Path Selection 6*#.v*cF!"4i23
4.,52FA4:
*/
P"*t@3
05@30
>*"4 ]<"4wA4:
JF
Directed Driving 04b'N#.#I"5%K/0/"'coJ04.!/0Y=.
Z ,5,a46@.@[*R=6*#^>_
` u
/0A$,54.!o,t26/n*"=./0j=6
#6*#.jA2.**4: t !/
]<46@ A2.*
4:v* ?^t05*=6
(>*@u%K*, 'm*/@w%K,5
04*j
P%K*,5 46@ *L
a*
"!4.@
/0/=+*J0./0
46@3@.*5=6*#6LA@304.!$*l#.'y +>
0/"1i# =6*#
'm2./@u@3
05*#.$*x
')@i"*t!/=+04_Y`)#6$=6*#
#l'M2./0@q/0@ @30
>*/"1q*'m*@b
#6 !/P0R!04e
#6
#.0!#.(8/"2
04;*#.=6
#6
)*
"!4.@t/"
-/02.
A*@304.!j*ougx2
04I@3(*
0.23*"4W_[`)#.Y*046AR%
#L@30J
*0.23
04L;43d!2../04.,5046/0/01 _ S)2.
2.*
2.4."*N%Kc @"v@3!*M%Kc="4:)
26
46_
6
Figure 5. Illustration of Goodness Map from Spirit’s Sol
107. Red areas indicate obstacles (typically a rock taller than
20cm at the center of the red blob), yellow/orange indicate
traversable areas. Only information within a 5-meter radius
is maintained in the onboard map.
Figure 4. Front HAZCAM showing a non-geometric hazard
encountered by Opportunity on Sol 446: 50 meters of commanded driving resulted in only 2 meters progress, which you
can see in the tracks leading up to Purgatory Ripple, in which
Opportunity was mired for over a month. Although this was
a “blind” or Directed drive, Opportunity might have gotten
stuck even if GESTALT had been turned on because there
were no geometric hazards to avoid, just loose terrain. Fortunately, Visual Odometry has been used ever since as a Slip
Check to ensure we never command more than 5 meters of
driving without a guarantee of motion; this new safety check
helped out on Sol 603, when Visodom measured 44% slip
while climbing a similar dune, and stopped the drive before
getting further bogged down. Opportunity was able to back
out easily during its next drive.
/02.*#6x*=.*
4:*F#.' *%K*#.
F'm26/0@j+n%"*
A4:
7'm*/"3
@L4
#67A/"/ _-`)#.0 *
2./n;04t configu'm*/0@f,a=W3+26
xnc@3
0N
%Kx#60/"
ration space
A43d6!2.*
0464.$=.*A
Y (Aa2.46@.
0_ 5.a\9Z
,5=./0l/04.YST, *3}i4.v*=.*
4:
@ t
04.!/0
J2646
%K !*@R/0/ A_ ' 4(*@W6/0/;A/"/)04v*JZ #@$@3*
A4:
*@oL*#.$*9} 'N"/0/+f,a
}@uL2646
%Ki]<04
57"!2.* 72Ja#68904.!l
#6$
3}o4919'N#.*52.46@3
#6
*m'm2./@f+L2.46*%K 9
#6c0./0/?#.A/0x43d!2.*"46
]K/03
046m04R*#.x'M
/@6^
#6c"4A/026@3H
#6N
3}
2.46@.*4.
#l
#6t*F,t26JF+v@3A/*@l2.46*%K9_ anywhere
57"4@3"46!
u
%Kj=6*#I*[@3*"Y5*#:25
@326A@b
od646@304.!w4./"1b
AZ A/"/"Z 'N0@3H=6
#Y
#.*26!#R
#.L!:3@346*),5=W_
Ec/"
#62.!# #6o
%&(')* 2.=.=+
*R*"4:**"43Z @[email protected]:
!93@34.
5
*J,54'N#.# ,0!#:a,a}Y"a=:
0./"Y*
46890!*!=6W46
*'mO
#4"* J/0;=64./
#6M=.*3A
JZ
04.!L
#.@v
z:2."*@t
vJ2.=6=J"P]<L
=
)!:3@346*
,a=o%KL#o*"4:**"4^F'M2./0@o#68
/0'M@ @3'N4 #6
2.
46,526@3*"904.!*o4I2.46
46./"f*
_ ' 46J
@?
04i
*J,54H0x=+
%K*,5"46!f91j,59@./0"4.!Y*#.v*
91lnF*2.*4."46!RA0A/0vHRS._ $,
[email protected],
H@3*_x`)#.0
@3J0!4j/
!")26F526J%K2./;049*04V the autonomy sys-
e#.4L=J%K
,504.!c`;
04LEF*J
,54:#Lu#.A/0
t6/"a*jd646@u!,
*05## *@6L"4u*#.$4.*91
04
nx@.
0F*#.*_$XP4./01!,5A*
## *@6H
before
%K2646@ H4.I*
*J,54:a%x*#.iJ*6"/0n(1 %x*#.j
04q0
=+
%K*,@f49:@i]<
75 0!2.*xUt%Kc4YA\.,5=./0x% 'N#91
#a'M2./@[+j26J%K2./&^>_ .5 5\3,5=./"MuG:
=q#6# @w0
@3d64.@q4b( A$/0
!f4.2.!#I*u=
4:*0/"/01I#.0!#.Z
A4:
P
#6#.A/0?n*#.H4i
#.&u
*, /0A
*4. M$ 8\
] 7N$ ^;7
#.)*9}8 +!"
26
=46
"4W_ MI'N#6/-*
S A, 04I@3,5A*46@I4wv!
2.46@u*#.R+/0/01o%c
#6
6$ PS@ A, #.0!#W_ h 46J@3
04.!5
#F*#.#.A/0,5"!#:
0/"7,t26# P @3!
846@t/"/0'N04.!c%K7,5
2.
,54:
Terrain Assessment Overview
**"4 #6(**[email protected]
#.l=6*,
5@.*A*".04.!o
#6
,a\30,t2., #."!#:v%HiJ
0/"/"Z **8
./0a6J*A/0f')J
$STA, %KN4.,046/;@3*"904.!6_
`)#.)[#60/"{8#6 #@L@3
A
04J%&('m
,53@3/0 #6
'm*/0@S !
@?_-`)#.cJ! #F%+
#.c!
@5A/"/#.:J4t*
,a#$
#6P,5#4./"/01:Z @3
,504.@a6J*/"HJ! #.ST,l_
#[A/"/m(**tiA4:*"492.26J/01:Z 1904.!j
/ goodness
tem will only drive the rover into areas where it can safely
turn in place.
XP2.46/013J;%*#.m
04v,57%K*, /03/3=./04.md.J*"46!
%M
#.$J
Z A,=623
@4.!@.*6_5`)#6*{ H*J
JZ
,54:;%*#.
04H0?
@H4x#.'o,t26#x#x
Z ! #@
=6*#i%!*2646@i@3 OF%K*, fH=./46_t` Y46/01 #
!04$*
Z J! #@v=*#f%?
04W9/0/ j="4:%</"/0"46!
'N"
#.04j
#P=*#
xd6F
Ya=./4._c`)#.=6*,5A
*c%
7
/"3
04Y% #.x%K
26
LN*#6c=6n\3/ _
#=./4.md.m*M26
@v**J
7#.' %KM*#.N*-'m2./@
+"%M"L'M
v
#6*?04o4:1j
04:
04;_tE A4:*"492.26J/01:Z
*19"4.! goodness L"4@[email protected]:
/01o,5=.23*@o04w#o%
*/d/n*V;
#.cG:*=W:`)"/":46@vN2.!#.4.
d6/"
*_7`)#6
d646//026
04i%mYA/"/ { [email protected].*H0H*#.5,:(46
Z
*"N4.N%K2.46@591v491t%O*#.
Nd6/"
*@3
0+@/"'L_
Dce` **"4|EF*J
,54:j4 [@.4.o2.4./0*l!,5A*
043%K*,a
04[23t*#.$***"4w#+4I,5J26
@?_ XP4
ML.(**a,5m=.*:@3P
#.JL,5
2.
,54:*_
Ec/"
#62.!#b*#.$/0!
"
#., #a+4 2J@ 26A*J%K2./"/01[04
*
# AJ*"46!P
*/c46#646,54:R'm*i,a@3*
0,=6
nF*626(*4.*N%KP*F=+*"46_9' 4=6
A2.Z
/9
/d6/"
m'M
H@.@.@f
v
#.L/0*@.1\30J
04.!5J
2% ;A%& N0!#:7 W04.c% G90!#:P] - 7XxG6^> $m/0W $m@346@
h 2.*
26
L`)#.*
#./@fd6/n*N@3*A*0@f0
4 , _
`;HJ*-4.#46*#.N@3A0/:%.
04
Gamma
#.@.@34i9Correction
1J#@3'|%K*, #.*H46@4.
91Y
3}3+'m
=6=./"1f!,5,a5A
*A
04$*
#.L8' 0,a!_
EF4:1RA2.*x'N#.:JH,5"4.0,t26, N4.N2.460z:2.$]< _ _
Flat
#6*Filter
F
#.a*,58/"26v'N"
# either nx4.0!#9+*^c'N"/0/
* (A
@?_
k2.
/"1 #.
! #4/F%K*2.*Y2J=6
3Z
Overhang
/0,al%K*Filter
4./0"4.Z @|(** =.
3*J04.!6_ 56j\3,Z
=./0W04u2.H*J
+@o499"*46,4:W@.
}j#.
! #4:*/7=+'M
J
*"=6 /04.!cc'N#.n*')/0/=.=*@H*N
#.M
?/0"}
=
=+04*"46!R@3'N4iF*#.,5_PG9046t26P4.,5"46/7@.
0:Z
04.!4990
4.,54:t#64.
#.04.!i#4.!"4.! @3'N4u%K
, Z
#.@?:'Mcd6/n*m23)491*4.!N/02.
#m=.=+
/09,
6}l
')@j
#6*_vEc491=."\3/'N#.:J54.!t/02.50
,5R=+A4:*!R/":Jv*#64b
#6
R+/0' "504b
#.l0,vZ
!vx/00,046
@W_`)#.vd6/"
L#6x=.*426
A%K2./04 6"!#:
9159J046/"/01/"0,5"46
04.!t46J1*[email protected]@5
#6
4.,046/ t,5
P`;
04REP
*J,54c@3J*4A_
`)#6
8STo@3!
fd/@I%H90' %F*#.
Fixed
.FE h Vehicle
EF =3Mask
*0m0mJ/*!N*#6NJ,5F=6J%W
#.H#."Z
A/05=.=+H04o# ",a!_v`)#.
v46@
l+/"0,5"4
@
+A%K*$***"4w=6
3A
04.!4[3A26 "v'm26/0@34;{ 5@3%K
#6f*x*i+R%K*0@u%)"*v'N4[*, t'N#6/ 7%Kv"43Z
J*4A_o`)#.
f#.A/0f=
*L*#6a/0')819t=.=+t04[
#6
*,5v=6/0A"4 #.50,a!Y]K_ !_"?*#.a(*'M;@ ' 4t;./004.!
,52.4:*@q4.$*#. ,5m
#.oJ/0a=646/x+l
#6
* .PE h EP*^*/"0,5"4
@ %K
, A46
0@3*
04 26(Z
04.!ad.\3@R=.n\3/nZ 6
@R,a
}O_
0c43%KJ*2.46*/01l*#. d6\9@ #.A/0
Moving
,a
}u0Vehicle
4.4.Mask
2.!#w
o/00,046
l/0/m=
*v%c*#.R*
%K*, #./ .FE h EF85-X %v<_ ' 4j=6J*02./.
#6t'N#./F4
,5j%K*/"1 *#.
2.!#623R
#. d6/@ %9"'LP
w
#.1 *
A
*/*@l/046!a'Nn*#l
#.t
*04l46@j*Ld6/"
@l23P%
#6 range 0,5!W*
#.H
#64 *#.a*0!046/-0,5!_Epd6/"Z
FA,5=.
"4.!$a
'm=3P19/"046@3*0/W/02.,5L
6A
04.!5
#6
4.!P% ,5*"4R% *#.x
3}JZ +!0P
13(*, 46@Y(**04.!
,5*7/"0,5n-07=.=6/"0@
x/0/:46!M@6* 491L=+04;/019"46!
04R*#6c/02.,5L*P/"0,5"46
@?_
Robust Stereo Image Processing
Me
-26
c=6*
"F(**0,a!c=.*9*J04.!x*t,5Z
2.
N!,
*0)043%K
,a*"4a+2346*91L
04W_G:
90
04q0f4 A
0Y
#.4./0!1w%Kf=./04.A*1I\9=6/"Z
04l+26
LnP#6F/"'|='mN*z:2.0*,54:*F46@l4.,Z
046/0/"1|*z:2.0
l4. ,59"4.!e=
*_ Q:6k { i(**e90
04
%&(')*#l/04.!j#60J
1 S =A/0/"1 "4w*/
*+
J13J
,ae] o
o
J# + SS ; BS Em
#646 * 0F4.,a4.46@ gH
2.46@ %#.A/0 U Hk"4.
B 0c*.0 .46@lk-A=3
4 S ,&^A_
`)#.G9 (2.*4.*5@3,46J
@w*#.Yd6*J526Jl%H2.Z
4.,526MJ
*
4.!2./
04f4Rt=./4.**15
4 _
$m23F*#.G3 (26
4.P
13(*, /"0@j4A
0=.* (>*"4j%
Y/
L(*
0=+ 4@ 4./01%K2646@u,5JvST I="4:*
%K*, #l=6"c%(**a0,5!7_ ' 4A4:**(6|26
=6
"YJ
9J04;*/01:04.!o4qJ264./"0!#:5
u0/"/02.,5046*
#6t***"4W_LEF46@i91l9"
26v%
#."H%<(*H=.
3*Jv] ST
+.9#H,5=6*@a
5T.!_ P+.9#P4YG9 (2.*4.>^46@a4.' %&JZ
')*MI#.A/0A,5=.2.
N,a491,5*)="4:,5J26
Z
,54:*VcXP=.=J*2.4."(1R#N,5J26
@Y48*!H%U ,6 TTT
f="4:*-045#v% @PDPE % h EP ",a!)=60*--%?J/
SS334@YG9=6"*nc#),5J2.*@Y4l8*!c% 3 TTT =+0404w#w% ,").FE h EF 0,a!a=60*t%cJ/
U9S3_
`)#.a!4.*//0!*"
#., 0@.*A*"+@o04 , .23t'm$J26,vZ
,a* #$*#.RM 0,5=./",54:*
04[#.
_ ' ,a!4[+
z:2."*@q2J04.!I4:1 %L*#. 8"/./0J
*I=60*m(19=.nZ
/"/01o
#.f%K
4:4@w
/ .FE h EFv4bG3=."*"46@u
#6
DFE % h EFib4 XP=.=+
264.n(1_ `)#. 8' @. @
TSU\6S e
J/"2.
04 46@ %&(')*AZ @3'N46*,5=./0@ *
S \6S l
J/"2.
04W_ ' ,a!t
f
#.4b*A
"d6@ ]K _ _"M
Z
*,5=./0@6^Y* /00,046
I4:1|/046 @30J
J*"4 26J04.!ed6\9@
h 9E .9%PXH ][email protected]/v@3(*
04^ h 9E .-%PXHF ]&d+J#.18^
,5b,53@3/0?
_ ' ,5!*o
#.4 A**/
@ 4 *46/"04.AZ 91:Z *4./"04.
0P26
"4.!Y 8\ $
z:26
v=."\9/7
2.3Z
'N046@3'q46@v
#6PG92.,p%WEcJ/"23*- F O*46t] G3E H^,5AJZ
*0_ G39E *A
*$!4.*@w/0/[email protected]@.
R"4:
!
@3J=*n*"Mm*#.H4.,5046/WS \6S x
J/"2.
04W_-E|8
0A(1
%A46
0J
46A1f#6}3)0F=.=./00@R
5*#.*
2./n*"46!5*
/0Z
04 A2.*+46@j46/"1Y
#6
vA26
N*#6HA\3#.0."xf2.4.z26
,5"46",v2., *tA=3
@P/00@?_x#/00@"4:
!P@3(Z
=6
"(1x
#.4u,5=.=+@ ="4:26
04.!Y
#.$,5
,53@3/ _7`)#6d64/9
J26/n-%J
F0,a!M=.*9*J04.!P0 #926
4R",a!H'N#.
P=6n\3/?/"2.)*Pn*#. 0c46}:46'N4W3m
#6
Terrain Assessment
`)#.)[#60/";26
*#.NgH
@9Z 6
@LM(*",a*"4%OG92.
Z
%<`;8**6"/0n(1cEF=.=./0"@x
-;3/`;
04] gxMG3`7E93`c^
19J
, %KH
04*J
,54:/ , *_ ' 46
=."*@:1 h 46!0
j/"/04W{ xj*=.#.04u/0!*"
#.8
, ST A SU O*#.0L
13(*, 26
8
!,5A*
m"43%K
,a
04
L(*",a*c#.' %K)
#.c*
'm2./@Yc#l=+04:c"4l*#.L'M
/@?_mXP*0!046/0/"1$@.,543Z
J
@e4 #.wEm*#.46 Nf=6
(19=+?
F"j0Y4.'
+04.!R/026*@4j
(*@i#.A/0F%KH=+
4:
/-26
v04
#6L2.=+,504.!$iGo,50*
"4Y)'M/"6/ S _
EeA4:
/3@3H045
#.0,=6/",4:**"4507*#6 new data al' 45=6
A26/04.x,a
#.'I*%K
ways
M2.46overrides
*%KHL!0old
4$Adata.
/0/+#6@5+4RA46
0@3
@?'N#
#6
/
()4.!P@.*J#.'cm
#.2./@$+P*}4YM
*2._`)#.m0
2J%K2./O'm81
5A,5=46
F%KM('Mv=.
./0,a1_ 570*J:
#6
[email protected],5=.23*@L%K (A*;%< %K
, #.m*;07/0*
A2.*
#4t46*91P46!M@6* 91H*/081904.!N4.'I@.
'm/"0,5"4
$491,50
/026
046H*#632.*
@+26
%046A2.")"4
#.46!@.*._cG9A46@?6*/081904.!%
4.'|@.*5,a}m*#.*{ M."/0"(1$
a48:0!
x,5*x
Z
.26J5
w491w=+
n*"4I(*",a*"4b
*-
046Al"a/"')813
=.*A%K*H*#.54.'mJ 043%K*,a*"4 L491j=+
4:
/0/"1
,50
*!J
*@f
/0"N@.._
`)#.H>*26/+*J
,54:M,5=.23*@5%K*,s
#6HJ
t@.
*
90
@ 'N"
#s# Z #@ =6# "4@[email protected]:
/01_
`)#.v=6,5A*c%
#.(
Z d6P=./4.*%K2.46@l%KP#
*
Z J! #@F=6*#W46@
2J@L
HA,=623
#.M%K/0/"'N04.!V
`)#.MJ2.
%<4.
,a/%.#x=./046;=6#L07A,vZ
Tilt
=6
Filter
@t!:046J;
#6m,a\90,t26, /0/"'m@L#.A/0M
0/n_-k*#.
'N"
#*"/"L('M4oTf4@i
,5t,504.",v2., 0/"L
v!04
=+
%K>L!:3@346*P/"2.j] S ^ ;
0/nL+v
#.5,a\30,t2.,
/0/0'M@f*H6J*A/0x]K!:3@346*M/"2.x%7T^ 9
#.:Jx04R+AZ
('m4l*x'M"!#:
@R/0"4.*/"1_
`)#6*
@326/ %K*, #6=6/046Hd.L04i*#.
Roughness Filter
@30
>*"4R%;
#6x
2.
%<P4.
,a/+=6
9@3)4Y*/"/+,5Z
2.
x%7#.' 2.!#YN2.464f*#.L*!04R0_
XP46
#6v=./4F=,5A*N%Kx$*JZ #@
Step
@3
iFilter
*l%K2.46@W)
#. local elevation ] @3(46j%K
, #
A46J
"
2.4LA/"/ { P,54/"8
04i
R
#6H=./46^F0xA,Z
=.23*@?_[E d6/"
2J04.! J,a/"/0/ 6 $MZ J! #@[@3
R0v*2.4
$*#. *$=6*#WHA,5=.2.
04.![*#.w@3 O*4Ai%
#6
,5"4q4@w,a\[/09/)/0
046v'Nn*#.04b#I
,a/0/"@3*
19"/0@65
#.i/0
!J5J
=q%K2.46@ 'N"
#.04q
#R
,a/0/"$@30*_
57"4/0/"1O
#.5/*!JH
26#iJ
=i%K2.46@i"4 #./*!H*
Z
#t@3
LF,5=6
@Y!"46JN
#6,a\3",v2., /0/"'[email protected]
J*/"HJ! #_k*#6'N"
#YJ,a/"/+,a\$(*=f
! #P
P!04$
=+
%K>N!:3@346*M/"2.a] S ^ 3J
=N+P
#.x,a\30,t2.,
*N(A/0P]K!:3@346*/02.c%;T:^ #.:JF"4$+A('m4$*
'm0!#:
@f/0"46*/01_
G9/}[email protected]#68f!46
Robust
04*5,5Terrain
}9"4.!$gxAssessment—
mG3` E 3` ,5
x*.26J_
46 A,5=./"
Z #@I%K9
=6
04:_ .F46o/"/H`;
04
EF*
*J,54:=+
%K*,[email protected]
#.F@3!%*#.Nd6/0@5%+90'
not @4axA,=6/"
c@3
.2.*
#.x=6
/[email protected]*_
`)#6f,54a
#R'N#64 4e6J*/"j/085*#.d/@q%
9"'L:/"/%K23*2.
P
04$4/019
'm2./@%<0/6*}Pnm"4:*
A2.4:_-`)#.0)26
#.xA43d6!2.*
04$
=6P46/013J*
.*}x@.'N4 =./"46!c
#6)4:
-%6*#.)
4. *#.)@3!
%;
#.P:
"./0Pd6/@$%W:0' ,0!#:)J, =+
%K>*/"1a*%K:+AZ
26
F*#.x=6
/ @6*@39)46N"4A/026@3H
#.x6(/"_
EFmL*
2./"04$*/"1v",5=./0,54:
04%+*#.P
%&(')*)
#6
*M'M2./@fJ*
N@3
09"46!
2.46@$4f(A/0:*#.4l(*
6}f@30
>
/01$04:
5n_
` H@.@3**?
#6046*4W8'Mm"4:*
3@326@vc,t26/n*nZ /0M*=.Z
*
4:*
04i%M*#.a'm*/0@?V 81*@[email protected].*L=_ ' 43Z
J
@f% =.*3A
"46!
#6(**Z @3
0@5!93@34.*)@30
>
/01
'mfd6J
*J#.*04.} j6J*A/0v./0654@[,5*!R
#., "4:*
#u/081
=6*
/01 #64 J!
-' R(A/0L%K
, #
/816}v
t
#."m*"!"4/
! #94@5d646/"/01526JF
#.P,5J
A46
*8
0*J
,54:H%M!:3@346*F%K2.46@ "4w4:1j/81
)2.)J
0,a
x% *#.H
*04R*%K/01_`)#[email protected].*m,5=
A,5=.23
@%K*, #.)/
(J
H@.*H7d6/n**@v"4:*P,v2./nZ
0=./0N/081726J04.!@3*-*19"4.!H%K*,p> c/0/3*@3026c]K/81
^ 2.=*#.
2.!#v
Z ! #@t@30*7'N"
#a( PA/0/3@3026N]K/81
T^A_L`)#.v46Ax O>xc*Y
#.*"4.}j4:1l6(/"v./"6P:1w] ZF/81H492.,v*^xA/"/3_ W's"46@."9@326/M!93@34.
H/02.
04j/081cT5%&*4l*=.*
4: J=+04: (A/0c/"0}L046@3090@9Z
26/M/*!R
3}3 /"' /02.%K2.46@[4./01o04I#6"!#./081
*=.*
4:( @.0
=*
@ P6J*/"/0"}F TA,s
33} N,5
8')815%K
, T, @3"*#W_
Partial Range Data - Clipping
`)#.
/819"4.!a%4.'[email protected] 26
v/0/0P4j*#.5@3!
%M
#.d6/0@ %m9"' l+,5J/026*@?_>' %m4./"1Y
,5/"/
=.0%4l(A/0Lc90
0./"3
#6*4.!@6*5*=6
J4
Z
04.!i"a'N"/0/)4.lA/*J"d6@[i##*@W_o`)#.Y=+A4:
Z
!L%(A/[email protected]"4l*#.v/0/ c
#.t@3!%-
#6
57-X % @.
=6346@a*#.H/0/O0M,50J*}46/"1a8/"2
@$m*%K_
oH@.@3**
#60m915"4.!,5*P46
*
0N04f*=6/0A04.!
!93@34.
m/02.mM*#.x@3!x%W*#.Hd6/@f% 90'L_ ' 46J
@
%N
",5=./01
/819"46!f4.'s4.!@6*Y*19'N#.*"4o
#6
,a=W *2.46@
#.a@3!H%*#.d6/@o%m:0's'Mv*}
#6
,5JcA4J
*"P% *#.A26
*4:c46@R=.*9026m/02._
Pitchers Mounds
Ec4Y
/01a0,=6/",4:**"4R%;*#.G:
= 570/n*c
",5=./01fA,Z
=6
@t,545/0*"46@J4:A/0/_ 57"/0@v
(*"46!L
Z
/0@Y*#6P
#.P=.=.*#R')F4.xA4J
*"L4.2.!#;
+26
*#.)=.
(1:=+m
;#6"!#3Z 4:
@L4F=919,50@3Z
#6=+@(A/0_-`)#.N4.\9",5=./0,54:
045\:*46@.@
#6
#5%K)J
=Y@3 +
46A*v4919'N#.
P'Nn*#."4f
#.H*
Z
#@i] S3_ t,5
N@3,5
>^=6#W1_ $M2.M*#.0)')%K2646@a*
*
2./nN04f*9Z A4J
*"F*
*J,54:M%W 8#6"/0/O
46
"Z
04W4 4 /0' J=6n#.{ x,52.46B@ Y#.0/"/_N(*
>*"46!
4*"4u
j*#.R
,a/0/" 7 $Z #@u@3
$J
0/0/M=.*
*
Layered Goodness Maps
`)#.xd6/0@R%-9"' 46@Y*4.!H
J/"2.
04f%S\.S(.PEZ
h EFr0,a!5* (26J$6
/"1w/*!Y4.2.!#I
u!4.*
9
')xY4.@*Y}=i*#.&' 46(*
26,4:P=6/"19,54:(F90
] ' 4v6N*m
,$^M'm*}a/02.,5H%K
L%76J*A/0_
#.A/0)*%K(1491:
#6"4.!H*#646J
"
23*H#6#@t%K-
#6
/=64./'N0/"/6J
0/0/6+c@3A*>*@?1_ $m2346'I*#.N
4
A/00,tl=."*#.{ ),52.46@6N!"4;_
R ESULTS
$m*# 6.#.DAEPLOYMENT
/0i#68w/J
@|%< 14@ #."o@3AZ
E */"/ *#.046J*/")'N0/"/64.32.=914.2.!#%?H!*0@A/"/ #"!4[4;/""%KAT*",5@68Y19c% 4Y@T
#[email protected]
%<
jx%<%#[N0#64Y!v*2./"4w!%K/0/0,51$@3*n Z
j,a}al,546"4.!%K2./#64.!*R*#.$,54u/0*"4o *
*_Nk=*c@.*A*".04.!RG3=."*"{ P@3*0L*'m*@R
#6
#A/"/ _ $m23"(*"/0/3,t2(+c8@3@?_ .F8904.!P%K2.46@v*#.0 h /02.,v.0 c. 0/"/ T PXP=.=J*2.4."(1O{ RA\3=./0*"4e%t4.Z
=.*./0, @32.*04.!Ld6/0@5*J
04.!6
#6HG:*=ad6/"
')2.=+@6
@
F4.<(26( #.M,54L/"
04L'N"
#6"4tFA/0/ 623;*#.,54 @3 U2. :!4A4. *h /3
[email protected]? @ m"A*t4,tJ@32./"
*"Z @5}:00/04R,5#6A*::LJ0*4.
!L}o+A
('m23*#94$'m
#6*@ =./026c
,5x492.,t+N%-J*46@.@[email protected]
046_
*"265@3*"904.! ,53@3 M46@ 13(*,a(Z /0/):0' %
#6c49+@523*4.,t1 8 S @3
0+)
#.HJ13J
,l{ =+
%K
Z
Tall Thin Obstacles
,a46x"4j@3*0/ _
XP4.)%
#.NMb
%&(')*M@.
"!4t=.*"4A0=./"-'m x",5=./0AZ
,54:)4./01a'N#6)')M4.*
1v%KM
#.H,50*
"4 9
#.H,5*
=6*,
*Y46@|A46@3"
046/0P
#.u,5*wA3@3o.*46#.
'm2./@l4.@l
Rt
(*@?4_ .c'm62.46AJ04:(1R04'N#6
04I'm26/[email protected]:
*@I4.*J"*
@I}=6"4.! #6
49+*@ `;
04 EP
*J,54
%&(')*6\3"./0V %Kj"43Z
J*4AM
#6 56.*26
1bST"T j*
04I%x
%&(')*Y#6aS @:S
2.J%<Al46890!*"43Z J=+ndf=6,5
_ `)#.56\3".0/0n(1
=.*@$A*26A/O%KNJ26A
J%K2./?=+*"4f4Y*_ 5.N\9Z
,5=./0)04 #.
0!046/)@.
"!4qJ
.FE h EF 0,5!
'm*j=.
3*J@ +
S ,=\ S ,i=."\3/P
J/"23*"4W_ `)#60f'm
2 A04:R%Kl!93@e
J26/nR04 2.l"4@39R
J
+@ 499"Z
*4.,54:A_ .c'm.M
#3Z 6J@$2.*@39)d/@f*J*c
2.!Z
!(*@$
#6cS \.S x*
/023
04R
J26/n*@$04YJ
N
J26/n
*#.c23
*4.!)%?J
*L=6
3A
04.!6U~ P,5A
*_-`)#.0
*,5$+#6890')t6
*@i04w
#6f04.n*0/M0,a!x%K*,
G9=.0*nH46@ R *
2./"jG9=6"*nj')R
A43d6!26
@q
26
#.0!#.N
J/"2.
04RJ
6_
Autonomous Goal Selection
M #.A/0H*t4.,046/"/01A,,a46@3@
')@jf=6
Z
A
3,5A*
/"/01$J=+nd@R!/O"4Y
%K*,a]<_ !6_0,5AZ
*%K*'m*@6^7 t |A9*@3046
-04$'m*/0@v%K,5]K_ !_"
SY,5A*4.J*#u46@ !_ a,5A*L(t%M*#.R2.*
4vG3n*
5.,5Y*"!"4+^>_w`)#.*Y05
,5R,2.4:%P2.
46,t1u04
@3A@3"46!'N#64Y
aJ
=w]<_ [email protected]/O
/04AH"4Y,5A
*
*2646@i# t !:/ W26
%M*#.a49+*
@ '(+0 @32.*04.!
26
46$"4e=./l
[@3
,504.'N#.4b*#.i@3J0*@ #.@304.!
#6P+4 *#.@^>?.23,5:(LA,,[email protected]*z:2.0
v#:26,54
@3*"7
@3A@3N04$@34A)'N#.*)
#6c
[email protected]*L!_
M #.0/" /0
=.*[email protected] /0",5"
@ ,546 %b2.Z
4.,526)!:/W
/0>*"4l26J04.!5*#.t` 0FFD `FX E cX h :
A,5,546@?_ 0F4./"0}u*#.[Ec2.
48 @3*"904.!q,3@3j'N#.#
%KAP
#6H**5@.
0x*2.4@$(A/0
#.NA,,a46@
26
t
#.Y#.0/"f
2.*4 toward #.Y4.
(6J*A/0_
`)#.W=.*90@.?N,546?%3
*"46!*'m*@P
cN**!W4
"%6
#6N
/0"=6/"4.!P
#.)')81_ .F'M
#6*m-4.H'm81
j46
2.
*#6*#.A,,a46@o'N"/0//09} "4:*491=6J*0AZ
2./P
3}O/n*#.2.!#$'m@3!L%1:8'|/"2.c,a81Yv26J@
a46J
04$*#.L*%;***"4f
#6)'N0/0/?
*#.@?_ ' 'N0/"/)J0,5=./01 d46@u
#6R4.$4.*J
#.R
nv
2.*46t
Z
')@ a *3}+M4. the *3}+_ XP(A/0a
Y%K2.46@ 26
"4.!
[email protected],=623
@w@32.*"4.!l*#.$4:+*@ **8
."/"Z
"(1o46/013JV
#[email protected].*L,a=w4@w4 J/"
04o,a\
A2.4: x,a=;_7`)#./
,a=$J
*
#.c492.,v%O*",5
P!04vA/0/9'mW%K2.46@
H#68
#.)#.0!#.(-,54/0*"4
04l/"/?*JZ #@a=6*#.m
#6FA404R"_
XP*"!"46/"/014:9
!@tx,46-%WA,5=+46**"46!P%K
/"0=
'N#.4 =.=.*#.04.!eA
*"4|*!Ax*#.iA,5,546@ #6
4q/0n
/0j26
j4q *#.5*#64e@326
04.!u4.!"46*04.!
(_R`)#.$p=+
n*"4uJ
0,5
04w
19J
, ]<"46/"2@3"46!
%F
26/;XH@3,
*1.^#6m=J%K
,5@RJ'm/0/[email protected].
04.!v
#.x=.*"Z
,a*1I4@qA\9
46@3@ ,5
"465*#6$"f')(19=./0/01I4.
4.A***1x
L*/01t4v
#60M=.0/""(1L%K
Z =+04:
04.!6_74
'N#.4t"7,50!#:7#8+4t26
A%K26/ #.746
@3*"46;@3>Z
*
@f*#6c=6
AJx=.*AZ =./4.4.@$,5*"46N+L26
@R"46J
@?
_ !6_03'N#.4lv%K
26
{ m*=+/0!1f'mM46c*=.*
4:*./0H
4i6J*A/0L
f
#.49+@j
%&(')*.*#.t2646AJ04(1l04
#.'e,v26#a
0,5H46@$=+'m'm26/0@a+H4.@3@$
v,5=./0A*
#6@3*0,[email protected]=./4.46"4.!R,5*v@3 A2./"WRA
*"4j
04.Z
*
04')F4.@3@j
f=3
0,5 #v,5,t2.460
04;c
#6*
Spirit Rover: Gusev Crater
G9=.0*n/4@3@4 Q:4926
1vSTTUH23mSH}9"/0,5
-'mJ
%
#. h /02.,v.0 .c0/0/0H046J@3agH26
h *_*0F4./0"}$XP=.Z
=+
2.4."(18'N#.#L2./"
0,a
/"1P%K2646@x9@346%K 'm
(26(
@Y,5A
*L%K
, nL/46@304.!j
n*G9=.0
"#6@i
@.
05
}9"/0,5
)+A%K*xd646@."4.!$499"[email protected](
04.!
x*#.56
v%
#6 h /"26,t.) .F"/0/&_ .F8904.!f=.*,5J@j*
@3/"0N4./031 TTt,5
)%7
8*
#6L#."/0/cJ,[email protected]
*#./0M7d*J_ $m23-
#.NA,t.046
04t%#92.,a4v
04
*
*J,54:M46@549+*@546890!
046/623*4.,t1v46./"@
G9=.0*nN**#f*#.L6Jx% #.L#6"/0/0c:1RQ2.46tSTTU6_
G9=.0*n{ a@3*0:04.! !4qo
264[%K*#.l#."/0/j]<
#.'N4I04
#6)@60/"1t@.
0)@3(46 %K
/ @T8~ Tc"&4 57"!2.
:^>.23
') %K/0/"'m@t91tF17%\9=6/"*
044t*#.NJ/0=+-%6
#6
h /02.,v.0> .c0/"/L]<
4 57"!2.
( ^A1_ F*"904.!t4$*#.H
/0=+m/"@
f4.' J(19/"N%@3*0:04.!6'N"
#i4j,5=.#6Jc4j26J04.! %PnZ
26/6XH@3,
*1LJ%&('m
x@3A*>46<@ 87,5=+46**%K
#.0!#uJ/00=W;A,5,546@3@26
5%M\3=./"A"
/01:Z z:2.46A@}=.Z
2./ #4.*o8@w}94.'N4[(A/046@w4./m26J%
#6/"')Z /0/;@3*"904.!$A3@3
f,5=46*
%KN*,5=*
1
10
Figure 6. Plot of Spirit’s complete drive history per sol through Sol 588; the most driving in one sol was 124 meters on Sol
125, the longest contiguous autonomous drive was 78 meters on sol 133. Note that the vertical scale here is stretched compared
to Figure 9. Red indicates blind driving, green indicates autonav (rows 5–8 in Table 2), blue indicates Visodom (rows 2, 4 in
Table 2).
Figure 7. Plot of Spirit complete tilt history through Sol 588.
/^>94),t."*)=+)=."\9/'m*F046
2 A04:)
J/"N
#6
0/"4 STR@3!*&57X-% .FE h EF ",a!_v`)#60x,54:
#F*#.v23
4.,v1R
13(*,l6*J
@/0,5Jc4:
0
/"1Y26
"46!
*"!0@3/01:Z ,52.4:
@ .PE h EP#@o
f
A4.d6!2.*@ *
26
j="4:./0j,aJJZ ,2.4:
@ DPE % h EP_ 5.J*2.46
/01
'ma'M
a6/"a+*#u
j*A43d6!2.
v
#6$,5.0/""(1 %&(')*
#6
[email protected]*"46546@b/J 2.=./0"4.}I4.'L,5
R6A\30./0
%&(')*_-` ./" #.'cmJ,5F%;
#.x@3 +
46AM+A('m4
#6a#60/"F*#6=+
0JA**P
#.a,5
04W;46@ #6
#F#[email protected]/01f'N#.4f*#.x
04R*z:2.0*_
Ec/"
#62.!#u
#.$**{W@3J0!4u*z:2.0
,4:*L#6@o4w%K
8*
PN
0/nN/0*m
#6
4 @3!
x]<
x*#.L/0
!H@60/"1
@3*" @3J*4AR04 57"!2.
@^AxXP=.=+
2.46n(1e
=4l,5*
#4i
n\j,54:*#6c04 [email protected]*c'N"
#i
0/n above @3!*cRJ#6'N4 "4 5 0!26
T._ G:
*!0$
#6R'm*
@.=3*@f%KN#.0!#Y
0/"F@3
09"46!54Yx%K2.46@Y04 U 2 _
=.*./0,a]<_ !6_0cu
3} (*26}I04 w'N#./ c@3*!!"4.!o46
'N#./.*A\9*46@$@.
0c,5
/""%KA*",5^A_`)#.F
26*%O"*
,50*
"4j'MN,t26#l*a
#6
.26J
4.
P46@YA\3"6"/0n(1Y4.
46/"1w%N
#.l49+*@u,56"/0n(1[
%&(')*-.2.a/0
i%c
#6
#92.,a4u!*2646@=*
046H*, 'N#.j}=3A**"46!Y46'
4@f+A
F'm813m
a@3*0L)\9=6/0"4.@f0
4 T _
Opportunity Rover: Meridiani Planum
PX =.=+
2.46n(1 /4@3@ 4 SUqQ4:2*1eSTTUI046J@3[M!/0
h j
@34.tk/0492.,l_ G.A04:
(j'm* *#.*"/0/"@
'N#.4R*#.xd6(c0,a!)*/0@f@3
3}$23*
=6N5,5*
@5,5A*m%K
, #6
623F46!04.*)'m*x#.*
"d6@$*
l
1w/0n
/0 043%K*,a*"4b**@w%K
, #.Yd6J
J
*50,a!_
57/"\3".0/0n(1l%
%&(')*t@3J0!4j')F4,5*t
"
/;%K
XP=.=+
2.46n(1_ `)#.d4.AZ !04.@H=6J*0/"WA*"46!M*#.,aZ
(*"(1f%!/0LA
N'M
x2.46
J/"6/"L91RJ
5",a!
=.*3A*
"4.!l%M*#.; AZ ."JZ =JZ =."\9/A,=6
?
@ T:SU=\ TSU
"U @3!* 57-X % DPE % h EP 0,a!_ 5.J*2.46*/0150,vZ
!m'N"
#Y,
H."*)=+N=."\3/?'m*Hz:2.0
@fz:2.}9/"1$46@
=.*@wJ1u*o=6
3A
?
_ $m23$*#.l4.,5046/c
! #Y26J@
91b49:@e23*4.,t1b
%&(')*[] S \.S u*z2*@ =."\:Z
Software Versions
`)#.
#8+4
#6
*
"46?%3
#.m,5.0/""(1H60!#: %&JZ
')*P26
@Y4Y*N)%XH>
FSTT3_
`)#.NJ04v26J@5@32.*"4.!H*#.)d6(6 @[email protected]%+=*
04t4
#L
]K
#.mk*",a*1P0*J04+^O#6@L23
4.,v1H
%&(')*
11
Figure 8. Image of Spirit’s tracks following an obstacle avoidance maneuver on Sol 107.
Parameter
Autonav camera pair
Stereo processing resolution
Useful (unmasked) stereo image size
Stereo search range
Grid cell resolution
Grid size
Spirit
HAZCAM (front or rear)
256 256
184 256 (front) 108 216 (rear)
0.3 - 5.0 0.2 0.2 10 10 As needed for daily operations
Max distance between image acquisitions 0.5 – 1.5 Engineering diagnostic verbosity
0–4
Max allowed Visodom failures
0 – 15
Number of Point Turns to enable
0 – 46
Opportunity
NAVCAM
256 256
256 256
1.2 - 10.0 0.2 0.2 12 12 0.5 – 2 0–4
0 – 20
0 – 46
Table 3. Some parameter differences between Spirit and Opportunity
#t')L*/"1oA46J
0_)' v*z:2.0
@ #6t",a!04.!
4@w
04[=.*3A
"46!3A265%&
#I23
4.,526J/01:Z
A,5,546@3@f,5*"4W646@R/0
a#.}@$%KcJ
=l6(/"
*19'N#.*'N"
#.04t#*JZ J! #@x@30*H] S3_ , @3,5
>^>_
' 4q=.>*0l
#.a,54:a
#6$
#.j**'m*l2.466/"l*
2.
46,526
/01IA/0",vq$
,a/0/ J=6n#.{ 5,52.46B@ Z /0"}
#.0/"/ 3
#.N32.*
@f
*/+
0,N4jG9=.0*n_
' 4fEF=.
0/WSTTU6:4.'e*
"4a%;
%&(')*c')26=./"04.}@5*
+
# 6"4."
*"46!$
#6\:*46@.@j*J04W_H`)#.F
Z
"4L"46*=*
@H
/*626(*4.*?4.#64A,54W,a@.
b
#6u23
4.,v1eJ%&('m
[email protected].
04.! =.*AZ /046@304.!I23*@39
d6/0@
J*H4@J,5t/0*J46c/0
4.@@32.*04.!$*#.t=.*0,5
1
,50*
"4W_L`)#.v,5:(x@3*,a
t#4.!c046/"26@.@j*#.a.0/"Z
"(1u
}9"=b`;
04IEF*
*J,54:'N#.4w*#.YA\30J
04.!u@.
/0*@.1w46
2.*R*#6$/"/N=6
#6f*Y*%KM4@I*#.j.0/0n(1
j23
4.,52J/01l
8*
v
,a/0/#.0/"/_a`)#.x4./0@ #6
,t2#R/04.!c@3*0)
[email protected].
04.!a
/ @T8~ Tt";4 570!2.* ._
`)#.46A\9 %&(')*2.=.!@.'m?,a@30(4 5..*26*1HSTT *
#./"=$J
*,/004.FA,5,546@304.!4@[email protected]/"13
00,5=.
=+
n*"4jJ
0,5
04l04#.0!#./01R
/"=@Y
04W46@Y46./0
` **"4wEF*
*J,54:26
04.!j,5*5
#64w4./01('mDF8:,
0,5!_ `)#[email protected]/Jb"4A/026@3@ #6id6JY#64.!
,a@3t
f
#.v/"')Z /"/W,5.0/""(1jJ%&('m
vJ046ASTT:S3Vm26
%)/0:}:Z 2.= *./0H
j!4.*/"! #v
#6$(**04.!j4.!/"x26J@
91I=.*0,"
0,5,a46@6m26
%x/"9}Z 2.=b*./"5
w(*nZ
,a*tJ/00=Y
@Y4j*)J*n*26@3O4@f*#.t."/0"(1$
R/"Z
4
('M4'N#./9@3!!"[email protected] @3*!!"4.!),53@3
04u
#.$4v%cj@3
./"@w@3*"a,
_ $mA%K*5
#60t
Z
/0
:*M@3
0*#6@$
vA\3=./00n*/"1$,5,a46@a#fJ
=
%. %P0
3@3,Z 46./0@x@3*"-
c46J26
-*#6W*#.*'m2./@x+
2 A04:N*/=$+A('m4f0,5!H]<4.,5046/0/031 T v^A1_ $M2.
4.'y
#.fgH
; u81:=+04:A,5,a4@ 2./@o$43d6!2.*@
5*J
*0Am23
4.,52J/01:Z ,5,a46@3@a,5*"46M
546
2.*
2 A04:
/=;*J2.,504.!x
#6FA
26/.#.@304.!#646!)0
4.5/*!m*#64l'N#6)')N,5,a46@.@?_
E %K26J*#b2.=6!@3=./4.46@I%Ka,50@3Z STT 6,5"!#:5046
Z
=+
vJ/O*#.46/0!0c4.' "4.!f/026*@?_c`)#6
046A/026@3)23*4.,526;"4J"
2046J
*2.,54:-=./0A,4:;%K/0/0')Z
04.!jR
26*(%K26/@3
0l]<}YgHj4@i` 26#^AW!/0/-=6*#
=./4.46"4.!x*L46./0m04:
/"/0"!4:6}**}9"4.!90
26/.
*Z
04.!6946@a23
4.,526@3
A
04$%W@326Jm@3:0/4@$A/026@6
04 49:@[0,5!
1_eXF*#.a=./464.@ 46#646,54:5"43Z
A/026@3L\3=./"A"N}=+23 #4..
=@Y=3*",5! #
046m*/ %PnZ
9@., 46@eEF23
468O)46@e4.' A,5,a4@.$04:
4@3@ *
*@326H
#.,5=./0A\3n(1f%A,5,a4@3@YJz:2.46_
12
R EFERENCES
7. C ONCLUSION
)` #.ii j.0/""(1qG3%&(')*j#6f46./"@e4e2.46=.
AZ
@34*@o,5264L%m@3*"904.!lA**F
#.a
2.J%<A%)4.
#.
'm*/0@?_-`)#.F6A\30."/0"(1v%WnM@3J0!4a466/"@anM
t%K2.46>*"4
OA
0/"1$04Y('Ma@3,a
/0/01$@3 O*4:N***"46_
[1] Khaled S. Ali, C Anthony Vanelli, Jeffery J. Biesiadecki, Mark W. Maimone, Yang Cheng, Miguel San
Martin, and James W. Alexander. Attitude and position esimation on the Mars Exploration Rovers. In IEEE
Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, The Big
Island, Hawaii, USA, October 2005.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
)` #.*
*#j@3
0+@l04l
#.F==+F')F**"@R23P
#6oQAjk*=.26/0
"4 ;*
*1 h /""%K*4.' 46J
"
23*u%
` #.4./"!12.46@3$uA4:**>a'Nn*# #.jDF
046/cEc
Z
4623
46@bG9=6REP@3,5"4.J
04;_ `)#.26
[email protected]%c=+Z
=./0x'M
P"49/"@a04R
#.x,50*
"4RcQ:6k 46@f
#.*26!#.23
#6'm*/@??"4u!*4.,54:O@3,5.W4@i046@326J
*1/_ o
!*A%K2./0/01 }94.'N/0@3!i*#.0i23*J*46@304.!q'M
}Ox'N#.#
4./0@o26
jA\3=./0*ax*#.
2.!#wG9=.0*nv46@[XP=.=+
Z
264.n(1&_ 5'm2./@i/00}v
Y
#64.}j*#.a4:
0**x\9=6/"Z
04YN*,Y46@f"4l=6J*02./0m
#.x,5.0/0n(1$'m*}:Z
04.!F!
2.=t4@L
(7
,l046A/026@304.!xk/0- $m/0/"2.J*6 F4
H*26OQ 5689
J*6 P89+@ .c4.
z:2. #+c+
4 W0+JZ
6#W P89@ W}9
#.04W h */0"46t/@34@3:N#Rk-
EF
4iG90,+M@.@30v` 2.46J
/ = .c264.3! %+N} /0#;+46@
N/! e0/0/0
4W_
[2] P. Bellutta, R. Manduchi, L. Matthies, K. Owens, and
A. Rankin. Terrain perception for demo iii. In Proc.
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Dearborn, MI, October
2000.
[3] Jeffrey Biesiadecki, Mark Maimone, and Jack Morrison.
The Athena SDM rover: A testbed for
Mars rover mobility. In International Symposium
on Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Automation for Space (i-SAIRAS), Montreal, Canada, June
2001. http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/mwm/sdmmobility/.
[4] Jeffrey J. Biesiadecki, Eric T. Baumgartner, Robert G.
Bonitz, Brian K. Cooper, Frank R. Hartman, P. Christopher Leger, Mark W. Maimone, Scott A. Maxwell,
Ashitey Trebi-Ollenu, Edward W. Tunstel, and John R.
Wright. Mars Exploration Rover surface operations:
Driving opportunity at meridiani planum. In IEEE Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, The Big Island, Hawaii, USA, October 2005.
Jeffrey Biesiadecki has been a software engineer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion
Laboratory since 1993, after completing
his Master’s degree in Computer Science
at the University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign. He designed and implemented the core motor control and nonautonomous mobility flight software for
the Mars Exploration Rovers, and is also one of the rover
drivers for the Mars Exploration Rover ”Opportunity”, responsible for command sequences that tell the rover where to
drive and how to operate its robotic arm on the surface of
Mars.
[5] Jeffrey J. Biesiadecki, Chris Leger, and Mark W. Maimone. Tradeoffs between directed and autonomous
driving on the mars exploration rovers. In International
Symposium of Robotics Research, San Francisco, CA,
USA, October 2005.
[6] Yang Cheng, Mark Maimone, and Larry Matthies. Visual odometry on the Mars Exploration Rovers. In IEEE
Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, The Big
Island, Hawaii, USA, October 2005.
[7] Donald B. Gennery. Calibration and Orientation of
Cameras in Computer Vision, chapter Least-Squares
Camera Calibration Including Lens Distortion and Automatic Editing of Calibration Points, pages 123–136.
Springer Verlag (A. Gruen and T. Huang, ed.), 2001.
Dr. Mark Maimone is a Navigation
and Machine Vision researcher at the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He earned
his Ph.D. in Computer Science from
the Computer Science Department of
Carnegie Mellon University in 1996,
and was then a Post-doctoral Research
Associate at Carnegie Mellon’s Robotics
Institute. Since starting at JPL in 1997, he has worked on
the several Mars Rover research projects and a vision system
for inspection of the Chornobyl reactor. As a member of the
2003 Mars Exploration Rover flight software team, Mark developed the vision and navigation subsystems for the MER vehicles. Mark is now part of the MER ground operations team
and is developing the autonomous navigation software for the
Mars Science Laboratory rover, NASA’s next Mars rover mission.
[8] Steven B. Goldberg, Mark W. Maimone, and
Larry Matthies.
Stereo vision and rover navigation software for planetary exploration.
In
IEEE Aerospace Conference, volume 5, pages
2025–2036, Big Sky, Montana, USA, March 2002.
http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/mwm/visnavsw/.
[9] M. Golombek and D. Rapp. Size-frequency distributions of rocks on Mars and Earth analog sites: Implications for future landed missions. Journal of Geophysical Research - Planets, 102(E2):4117–4129, February
1997.
[10] Chris Leger, Ashitey Trebi-Ollenu, John Wright, Scott
Maxwell, Bob Bonitz, Jeff Biesiadecki, Frank Hartman,
13
Figure 9. Plot of Opportunity’s complete drive history per sol through Sol 567; the most driving in one sol was 219 meters on
Sol 410, the longest contiguous autonomous drive was 280 meters during sols 383–385. Note that the vertical scale here is more
compressed than that in Figure 6. Red indicates blind driving, green indicates autonav (rows 5–8 in Table 2), blue indicates
Visodom (rows 2, 4 in Table 2).
Figure 10. Plot of Opportunity’s complete tilt history through Sol 567.
Report. Springer-Verlag, 1996.
Brian Cooper, Eric Baumgartner, and Mark Maimone.
Mars Exploration Rover surface operations: Driving
spirit at gusev crater. In IEEE Conference on Systems,
Man and Cybernetics, The Big Island, Hawaii, USA,
October 2005.
[11] M. Maimone, L. Matthies, J. Osborn, E. Rollins, J. Teza,
and S. Thayer. A photo-realistic 3-D mapping system
for extreme nuclear environments: Chornobyl. In
International Robotics and Systems Conference (IROS),
pages 1521–1527, Victora B.C., Canada, October 1998.
http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/mwm/pioneer/iros98/.
[12] Mark Maimone, Jeffrey Biesiadecki, Edward Tunstel,
Yang Cheng, and Chris Leger. Surface navigation and
mobility intelligence on the Mars Exploration Rovers,
chapter 3, pages 45–69. TSI Press, Albuquerque, NM,
USA, 2006. http://www.intelligentspacerobotics.com/.
[15] L. Matthies, Y. Xiong, R. Hogg, D. Zhu, A. Rankin,
B. Kennedy, M. Hebert, R. Maclachlan, C. Won,
T. Frost, G. Sukhatme, M. McHenry, and S. Goldberg.
A portable, autonomous urban reconnaissance robot.
In Intelligent Autonomous Systems,
Venice, Italy, July 2000. http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/
tasks/tmr/papers/UrbanRobotPaper0700.pdf.
[16] L. H. Matthies. Stereo vision for planetary rovers:
stochastic modeling to near real-time implementation.
International Journal of Computer Vision, 8(1):71–91,
July 1992.
[17] A. Mishkin, J. Morrison, T. Nguyen, H. Stone,
B. Cooper, and B. Wilcox. Experiences with operations
and autonomy of the mars pathfinder microrover.
In Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Snowmass at Aspen, Colorado, March 1998.
http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/mishkin/papers/IEEE
aerospace98.pdf.
[13] L. Matthies, E. Gat, R. Harrison, B. Wilcox, R. Volpe,
and T. Litwin. Mars microrover navigation: Performance evaluation and enhancement. Autonomous
Robots Journal, Special Issue on Autonomous Vehicle
for Planetary Exploration, 2(4), 1995.
[18] A. Rankin, C. Bergh, S. Goldberg, and L. Matthies. Passive perception system for day/night autonomous offroad navigation. In SPIE UGV Symposium, Orlando,
FL, April 2005.
[14] L. Matthies, A. Kelly, T. Litwin, and G. Tharp. Obstacle
Detection for Unmanned Ground Vehicles: A Progress
14
[19] Glenn E. Reeves and Joseph F. Snyder. An overview of
the Mars Exploration Rovers flight software. In IEEE
Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, The Big
Island, Hawaii, USA, October 2005.
[20] Reid Simmons, Lars Henriksen, Lonnie Chrisman, and
Greg Whelan. Obstacle avoidance and safeguarding for
a lunar rover. In AIAA Forum on Advanced Developments in Space robotics, Madison, WI, August 1996.
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/˜reids/papers/AIAAobsAvoid.pdf.
[21] Sanjiv Singh, Kurt Schwehr, Reid Simmons, Trey
Smith, Anthony Stentz, Vandi Verma, and Alex
Yahja.
Recent progress in local and global
traversability for planetary rovers.
In International Conference on Robotics and Automation,
2000. http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/projects/mars/ publications/global local icra2000.ps.gz.
[22] Richard Volpe. Navigation results from desert field
tests of the Rocky 7 Mars rover prototype. International Journal of Robotics Research, 18(7):669–683,
Special Issue on Field and Service Robots, July 1999.
http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/volpe/papers/JnavMay.pdf.
[23] Richard Volpe. Rover functional autonomy development for the Mars mobile science laboratory. In IEEE
Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, Montana, March 2003.
[24] David Wettergreen, Deepak Bapna, Mark Maimone,
and Geb Thomas. Developing nomad for robotic
exploration of the atacama desert. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 26(2–3):127–148, February 1999.
http://robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/people/mwm/papers/98ras.nomad.pdf.
[25] Yalin Xiong and Larry Matthies.
Error analysis
of a real-time stereo system. In Computer Vision
and Pattern Recognition, pages 1087–1093, 1997.
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/˜yx/ papers/StereoError97.pdf.
15