UK precarious
working practices
Companies with resilient workforces are better placed to achieve
long-term business success. A rise in the use of zero-hours contracts,
modern slavery and debates around living wages are creating labour
risks and challenges for UK companies.
September 2015
What is changing in
employment practices?
Amanda Young
Head of
Responsible
Investment
The changing employment landscape is creating significant labour risks
in the UK. Over the past decade, working conditions within company
supply chains have received a lot of attention from governments, nongovernmental organisations, media, society and investors. Along supply
chains, we have seen examples of child, forced and bonded labour. In
addition, poor health and safety standards in some clothing suppliers have
resulted in accidents and fatalities.
Less scrutiny, however, has fallen on
direct domestic employment standards
and challenges. With our Focus on Change
approach, we highlight a number of changing
employment practices at a regional level and
the implications these have for the UK-listed
companies in which we invest.
While the UK has stronger labour laws than
many other countries around the world, a
number of precarious working conditions,
often associated with abuses and exploitation,
have emerged that affect UK companies and
their supply chains. These practices include
the abuse of zero-hours contracts; challenges
associated with wage levels, driven by the
living wage campaign; and exposure to modern
slavery. As far back as 2008, the Trade Union
Congress estimated that there were around
two million workers in the UK in vulnerable
employmenti. This represented around 5% of
the country’s working population. The number
of temporary workers has also increased, and
now accounts for 1.7 million workers.
The rise and use of these precarious working
practices have been associated with hidden
costs, reputational damage and a risk of
increased regulation and government scrutiny.
At Standard Life Investments, we place a high
regard on the employment and human capital
management practices of the companies in
which we invest. We engage regularly with
businesses to ascertain how they treat and
protect their employees. The ultimate goal is
to discuss and encourage specific management
practices that we believe companies should
adopt in order to achieve long-term
business success.
In this report, we examine the use of zero-hours
contracts, the focus on living wages and the rise
in modern slavery. We look at how each of these
labour risks affect certain sectors and discuss
the potential problems companies face from
these issues.
“Human capital should not be thought of as an asset a company owns, rather it’s the people SSE ‘borrows’ from society which allows our business to operate and to grow. This report shows in black and white how both a company and society benefit from proper investment in its workforce through increased earnings for individuals and resulting increased tax payments.”
John Stewart, SSE Director of Human Resource, on the publication of its human capital report, valuing its human capital at £3.4 billion (April 2015)
2
UK precarious working practices
Zero-hours contracts
There is no legal definition of a zero-hours
contract under UK law. Providing both
parties freely agree, it is a legitimate form of
employment contract drawn up between the
employer and its worker. This type of contract
does not guarantee any work by the employer
and only pays for the hours that are worked.
At the same time, the worker is not obliged
contractually to accept any offer of work. In many
cases, the workers are not treated as employees
and are not entitled to the same social benefits.
Drivers behind the increased use
The increased use of zero-hours contracts has
been driven by the 2008 financial crisis, which
resulted in company margins being squeezed
and forced the implementation of cost cutting.
Workforces were adversely affected, resulting
in businesses considering more flexible
employment arrangements and the rise of zerohours contracts. The number and use of these
contracts has grown considerably. In April 2014,
the ONS estimated that there were at least 1.4
million zero-hours contracts in use in the UK,
representing around 4% of the workforceii.
At the same time, 13% of all employers used
‘some’ zero-hour contract workers, a practice
more common among larger employers. Zerohours contracts tend to be concentrated on
lower paid workers and on those in the service
industries, such as hospitality, retail, travel
and wholesale sectors. This includes care
and social workers, education professionals,
administrative workers, call centre operators,
retail assistants, cleaning staff and waiting staff.
On average, those on zero-hours contracts work
around 25 hours a week and are most likely to
be women, in full-time education or working
part-time, aged under 25 or over 65.
Advantages of zero-hours contracts
If enforced correctly, zero-hours contracts
may benefit both employer and employee.
Employers use these contracts to maximise
the flexibility of workforces, particularly when
businesses experience peaks and troughs in
demand. Companies can achieve significant
cost efficiencies through ensuring they have a
workforce familiar with its business practices
and who can be called at short notice. These
contracts make it easier to hire staff and improve
employment among young people. The flexibility
may also help a business to expand and provide
a path to full-time employment if this expansion
is successful. Companies are able to retain
business skills and experienced staff who might
wish to partially retire, or who have retired.
Employees too may benefit, with zero-hours
contracts giving them the flexibility to manage
their work-life circumstances, undertake further
studies or ease towards retirement. Zero-hours
contracts should also provide individuals
with a greater say over when, where and how
much they work. They offer work experience
for younger individuals, allowing them to gain
workplace skills and experience while they
are studying at college or university. However,
these contracts have been associated with
numerous abuses, resulting in the exploitation
of vulnerable workers. Abuses typically arise
as zero-hours contracts tend to tip the balance
of power within the employment relationship
towards the company.
Advantages associated with zero-hours contracts
Manage fluctuations in demand
Provide flexibility for the individual
Cost-efficiency
Uncertain business conditions
It is part of a broader strategy to keep wage costs down
To avoid agency fees
To retain workers rather than make them redundant
It is part of a broader strategy to keep non-wage costs down
(eg. maternity/paternity pay etc)
Avoid the costs associated with the Agency Workers Regulations
Legacy within the organisation
No particular reason
Other
0
Source: CIPD Myth and Reality, November 2013
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Base: All organisations that employ zero-hours workers (n=203)
UK precarious working practices
3
Poor use of zero-hours contracts
Exclusivity: One key area of abuse is exclusivity,
where clauses in the contract prevent the
worker from accepting other job contracts,
despite not being guaranteed any work. The
use and abuse of exclusivity clauses has been
widely discussed by the UK government and we
expect new regulatory requirements trying to
limit such clauses in the near future.
Even if there is no exclusivity clause, many
employers expect zero-hours workers to remain
available for work as and when required, even
when no guarantee of work is forthcoming.
This prevents workers from taking up additional
work and results in a lack of work-life flexibility
for the employee. This can put a financial
strain on workers, as well as on families and
their ability to arrange childcare or care of an
elderly relative.
While best practice would indicate that workers
should not be contractually obliged to accept
work, nearly a third of those using these
contracts report that staff are contractually
required to be available. This issue is also
under regulatory scrutiny. Further, there is
evidence that many companies do not provide
any notice as to when work is available –
thereby eliminating the flexible benefits of
zero-hours contracts.
Lack of clarity of terms and conditions:
Another area open to abuse relates to the
terms and conditions of employment. Evidence
suggests there is confusion over the rights
of the employees on zero-hours contracts.
This has resulted in companies evading basic
employment rights, laying-off workers at short
notice without having to pay redundancy
payments, using insecurity to bully workers into
conditions not in their favour and preventing
true flexibility to a worker’s employment needs.
Abusive use of zero-hours contracts results in a
two-class employment system. One example is
where a company may only award cash or share
bonuses to staff on full- or part-time contracts.
Employees on zero-hours contracts are not
eligible, which means bonus payments are only
realistically reaching a small proportion of the
workforce. Forward-thinking companies will
ensure that zero-hours contract workers are also
entitled to the same benefits given to full-time
and part-time contract workers.
Rights of full-time and part-time employees
% of zero-hours employees receiving rights
Entitled to pension auto-enrolment
38%
Statutory maternity, paternity & adoption leave
41%
No right to unfair dismissal claims
(after two years)
55%
Statutory sick pay
49%
Occupational sick pay
17%
Annual paid leave
59%
Statutory redundancy pay
(after two years service)
31%
Source: CIPD, Zero-hours contracts, Myth & Reality, March 2013, Standard Life Investments
4
UK precarious working practices
Risks for companies
The use of zero-hours contracts can bring
business benefits but there are risks that firms
should recognise. Companies need to consider
how the use of zero-hours contracts might affect
their reputation and employee engagement.
A workforce on insecure contracts without
guaranteed hours and associated benefits
may contribute to poor staff morale. This could
result in high employee turnover rates, elevated
recruitment and training costs, a loss of skills,
and heightened health and safety risks. These
are hidden costs that very few companies
actually assess, but that may have significant
operational and financial implications.
Given the increased focus on zero-hours
contracts, there is a possibility of greater
regulation around their use. Regulation
poses significant operational and cost risks
for companies with large proportions of their
workforce on zero-hours contracts.
Zero-hours contracts by sector
A significant proportion of zero-hours contracts
are used to fill so-called low-skilled roles,
meaning their use is concentrated in a handful
of sectors. This, though, is not always the case:
there has been a rise in the number of skilled
airline pilots employed on zero-hours contracts
through agencies.
In 2013, a CIPD survey found that 27%
of workers on zero-hours contracts were
dissatisfied and that staff turnover was higher.
Further, 25% of workers on such contracts
have only been with their current employer
for less than a year, compared with 13% of
full-time and part-time employees.
The hotel, catering, administration, retail and
leisure sectors are the main users of these
contracts among publicly listed entities. There
are also a large proportion of workers in the
care, social work and education sectors. It is
estimated that a third of the total workforce in
these sectors are on zero-hours contracts.
A number of unions and politicians have
called for action to curb the use of zero-hours
contracts. This is a direct result of the evident
abuse of these types of contracts, particularly
where exclusivity clauses are in force, there
is a lack of transparency around benefits and
responsibilities, and staff are punished with
offers of fewer hours if they do not agree to
work precisely when required. There have
been calls to allow staff the right to demand
a fixed-hours contract when they have worked
regular hours for more than six months with
the same employer.
Prominent UK companies known to make use
of zero-hours contracts include: Sports Direct,
Domino’s Pizza Group, Cineworld and JD
Wetherspoon. Other businesses that may use
zero-hours contracts include, but are not limited
to: Compass, Enterprise Inns, Greene King,
ICH Group, JD Sports Fashion, Millennium &
Copthorne Hotels, TUI Group and Whitbread.
Sector
Percentage of workforcets
Accommodation & food services
23%
Wholesale and retail sectors
11%
Transport, arts and other services
16%
Production including agriculture
5%
Source: TUC/Labour Force Survey Oct-Dec 2014
UK precarious working practices
5
Living wage
The debate around paying living wages versus
minimum wages has grown in recent years. The
living wage is the minimum hourly rate that
will meet basic needs, such as housing, food
and other requirements for an individual and
their family. For investors, discussions with
companies have largely been focused on supply
chains, including how businesses pay their
suppliers and how they consider minimum and
living wages. However, some countries have
such a low minimum wage that employees do
not earn enough to cover their basic needs. In
many instances, this results in these workers
being at the behest of the company to work
extra hours or take on multiple jobs.
In the UK, the Living Wage Foundation uses
the living (as opposed to a minimum) wage to
campaign for better pay for employees. The
living wage is calculated for the Foundation
by the Centre for Research in Social Policy at
Loughborough University, which takes into
account the real cost of essential goods and
services. According to its figures, the living
wage in London is £9.15, and £7.85 per hour for
the rest of the UK. The current minimum wage in
the UK is £6.50 per hour.
Drivers of the living wage
More recently, discussions around the living
wage have become localised. In 2014, KPMG
reported that an estimated 5.28 million people
in the UK earned less than the living wage,
making up around 22% of all employees.iii
Numerous organisations have campaigned for
companies to pay the living wage, including
ShareAction (a not-for-profit promoting
responsible investment) and its “JustPay!”
initiative. Since 2011, ShareAction has raised
the issue of the living wage with the UK’s largest
corporations. FTSE 100 companies have been
encouraged to adopt the living wage across
their UK operations. There are now over 1,500
living wage employers in the UK.
At the same time, there has been increased
interest from civil society about how people
are paid, both down the supply chains of
companies and with their direct workforces.
Campaigns and public opinion have highlighted
6
UK precarious working practices
the tensions at the bottom of the wage
pyramid, driving more companies to adopt
living wage policies.
Regulatory changes to create
a living wage
In July 2015, the UK government announced
in its Budget that all companies would be
expected to pay a ‘new living wage’ to all
employees aged 25 or over. The government’s
living wage is £7.20 per hour. While this is
not as high as the Living Wage Foundation’s
calculations, the government has pledged
that this will increase to £9.00 per hour by
2020. For forward-thinking companies that are
already addressing this within their business
operations, the impact will be minimal. By
contrast, businesses that have not considered
wages as part of their wider responsible
approach to human capital management will
see increased costs and squeezed margins.
Most exposed sectors
The occupations with the highest proportion of
workers earning less than a living wage include
bar staff, restaurant employees and kitchen &
catering assistants.
For the retail sector, wages are the biggest
operating expenditure, after the cost of goods
sold. Typically, wages account for between 10%
and 20% of sales. Morgan Stanley recently
reported that a 10% increase in the wage bill
would reduce EBIT by 1-2% of sales. However,
the hit to retailers will vary significantly,
depending on their operating margins and the
number of people employed on the minimum
wage. The impact on the wage structure of
companies will be far reaching and likely to
affect wage scales further up an organisation.
The news surrounding the UK government’s
plan to introduce a ‘new living wage’ suggests
that companies have been benefiting from
state subsidies. State welfare payments have
been used to allow employers to pay their
employees an artificially low wage. Many of
these welfare payments are being reduced, with
several commentators advocating the transfer
of welfare costs from the government
to individual companies.
Wages typically equate to 10-20% of sales for a retailer
ASOS
Tesco
Sainsbury
Morrisons
B&M
Sports Direct
Home Retail
Dixons Carphone
Marks & Spencer
Kingfisher
Dunelm
Halfords
Poundland
Debenhams
Pets at Home
Next
Card Factory
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
FY14/15 Wages as a % of Group net sales
Source: Company data, Morgan Stanley Research
Some retailers are much more profit-exposed than others
Next
Dunelm
Card Factory
Pets at Home
B&M
Halfords
Marks & Spencer
Kingfisher
Debenhams
Sainsbury
Dixons Carphone
Poundland
Tesco
Home Retail
Morrisons
-30%
-25%
-20%
-15%
Impact on Pre Tax Profit of 5% increase in UK wage costs, ceterus paribus
-10%
-5%
0%
Source: Company data, Morgan Stanley Research
Benefits of paying a living wage
There are benefits to both companies and
workers in paying a living wage. For one thing,
it affords people the opportunity to provide for
themselves and their families. An independent
studyiv examining the business benefits of
implementing a living wage policy in London
found that more than 80% of employers believe
that the living wage had enhanced the quality of
their staff’s work, while absenteeism had fallen
by approximately 25%v. Two-thirds of employers
reported a significant impact on recruitment
and retention within their organisation.
Meanwhile, 70% of employers felt that the
living wage had increased consumer awareness
of their organisation’s commitment to be an
ethical employer. ShareAction also highlighted
this studyvi.
While there are clear benefits of paying a living
wage, wages rises may also have unexpected
negative consequences for some companies in
relation to job losses, increased costs and the
risk of other types of discrimination emerging.
The way in which UK regulation is implemented
will create challenges for some companies,
and these challenges and risks will need to
be explored through our engagement with our
investee companies.
UK precarious working practices
7
Modern slavery
There is a widely held belief that slavery was
abolished in the UK centuries ago. However,
in reality, modern day slavery still exists and
can affect UK-listed companies. The Home
Office Chief Scientific Adviser estimated that
in 2013, there were between 10,000 and
13,000 potential victims of modern slavery
in the UK. Globally, the International Labour
Organization estimates this figure to be over
20 million. According to the National Referral
Mechanism, a national support system for
victims of trafficking, the UK ranks in the top
five source countries for victims of modern
slavery, alongside Vietnam, Albania, Nigeria
and Romaniavii.
Companies exposed to modern-day slavery in
their direct businesses, or through their suppliers,
face significant reputational risks that could
harm shareholder value. Association with slavery
may result in reduced sales, affect a company’s
license to operate, increase risk of fines and
prosecution, and divert management efforts from
adding value to the business. The core sectors
exposed to this issue include electronic goods,
construction, mining, hospitality, food retail,
food producers and clothing retail. Modern
slavery can occur at different stages of the supply
chain, from production of raw materials to the
manufacturing of goods.
Drivers of modern slavery
within business
The risk of being involved in forced labour and
modern slavery for companies has increased
due to the extension and complexity of their
supply chains, as well as the extensive use of
vulnerable people such as migrant workers in
certain geographies like Asia and the Middle
East. Poverty and a desire for a better life
are key drivers in the growth of the migrant
populations. However, this also increases the
vulnerability of migrants, which often results in
them being subjected to modern slavery.
Types of modern slavery
Modern slavery includes forced labour, bonded
labour, human trafficking and child slavery.
Types of modern slavery
8
Forced labour
All work or service that is not voluntarily offered, which is
extracted from a person using violence, intimidation as well
as subtler means, such as retention of papers, accumulation
of debt and threat of deportation. Migrant workers are the
most vulnerable to forced labour.
Bonded labour
Bonded labour is the most common method of enslaving
people around the world. A person is demanded to work,
with their labour being the means to repay some type of
loan or commitment. The person is then trapped into
working for little or no pay, without ever paying off the debts.
The debts related to bonded labour are often linked to
human trafficking.
Human Trafficking
Trafficking involves moving people away from the
communities and countries in which they live, to work
against their will elsewhere. This can be done through
violence, deception or coercion. People may be trafficked
within or across borders of countries. The International
Labour Organisation estimates 2.5 million people are
trafficked at any time.
Child slavery
This is work that deprives a child of their childhood, their
potential and their dignity. It is work that is harmful to
their physical and mental wellbeing, depriving children of
an education.
UK precarious working practices
Prevalence of slavery around the world
Victims of forced labour by region – International Labour Organisation
1,600,000
1,500,000
600,000
11,700,000
3,700,000
1,800,000
The Modern Slavery Act 2015
Many governments are looking to strengthen
laws and regulations to combat modern slavery.
These include the California Transparency in
Supply Chain Act; United States Government
Procurement rules; US Trafficking Victims
Protection Act; Conflict Mineral Disclosure
under Dodd-Frank Act; EU Directive on
Disclosure of Non-Financial Information; and
The Commonwealth Criminal Act Code 1995.
In the UK, The Modern Slavery Act 2015 makes
human trafficking, exploitation, slavery,
servitude and forced or compulsory labour an
offence under UK law. Those found guilty of
an offence face a range of penalties, including
fines and imprisonment (with a top sentence
of life behind bars). The Act will require over
12,000 UK companies to report on the steps
they are taking to eradicate slavery and human
trafficking in their business and supply chains.
The Modern Slavery Act 2015 is the first of
its kind in Europe and one of the first in the
world that specifically addresses slavery and
trafficking in the 21st century. As such, in
our view it has greater implications for
UK companies. Given the increased legal
scrutiny around modern slavery, corporations
will need to be extremely diligent to ensure they
are not exposed along their supply chains or
through their contractors and partners.
Case study: Morecambe Bay cockle picker disaster, 2004
Over a decade ago, 23 workers died when collecting cockles in Morecambe Bay in North West
England. Cockles are best collected at low tide on the sand flats. These cockle pickers were
caught out by tidal changes and were cut-off as the tide came into the bay around 9.30pm.
Only one worker was rescued by emergency services.
These deaths exposed unlawful bonded labour practices. A group of hired Chinese workers
were being paid a below market rate to pick cockles. The pickers had been imported unlawfully
via containers into Liverpool and were hired out through local criminal agents of international
Chinese criminal organisations, or ‘Triads’. The cocklers lived in cramped conditions in houses
shared with up to 30 others in Liverpool and Morecambe. The cocklers had paid thousands of
pounds for their passage to the UK. These fees financially crippled the workers, who were then
forced to work for those who arranged their illegal importation. Their passports had reportedly
been destroyed and they were subjected to violence, threats and coercion, resulting in a life of
bonded labour.
Ten years on from this disaster, the UK is still witnessing the arrival of illegal migrants with no
rights. Numerous accounts of abuse by gangmasters have been reported over the past decade,
from within the hospitality industry, food processing and agriculture. This creates significant
sourcing challenges for companies operating in these industries.
UK precarious working practices
9
Investor engagement
on employee practices
At Standard Life Investments, we place a
high regard on how companies manage
their workforces. We have outlined how
we address and approach labour issues
in our Labour Relations White Paper www.
standardlifeinvestments.com/RI_Labour_
Relations/getLatest.pdf. We believe investors
should take the steps to ensure the money
they manage on behalf of their clients is
not exposed to significant human capital
management risks and that the companies in
which they invest treat their employees fairly,
with dignity and respect.
We engage with our investee companies
regularly, identifying the key issues facing each
business, to learn from them and encourage
them to adopt best practice in their human
capital management issues.
We aim to understand how companies approach
each of the three issues outlined in this report.
Company disclosure around the management
of wider human capital management is often
poor. We have encouraged companies to report
on key performance indicators relating to how
they manage their workforces. As a minimum
standard, we expect businesses to report on
staff turnover rates, training costs and sickness
and absenteeism figures. We also encourage
greater disclosure on their approach to wages
and employee benefits. This includes whether
the business has considered paying a living
wage to its employees globally and what kind of
wage practices it encourages in its supply chain.
With zero-hours contracts, companies’
disclosures on their use and implementation,
as well as information regarding the inclusion
of exclusivity clauses or any associated benefits
for workers, is very limited.
10 UK precarious working practices
We therefore encourage companies to improve
transparency around the use of zero-hours
contracts, including identified risks and hidden
costs. A few of the questions we have asked are
detailed below.
¬ Does your company use zero-hours contracts and, if so, for what purpose?
¬ Does the contract contain exclusivity clauses and, if so, for what purpose?
¬ What employment rights are employees entitled to when working on zero-hours contracts?
¬ Do you offer staff on zero-hours contracts training or opportunities to develop
their skills?
We also engage with companies to understand
how well their supply chains are managed.
Specifically, in relation to modern slavery, the
types of standards expected of suppliers, the
transparency around the supplier’s operations,
auditing and independent verification of
suppliers, and training and capacity building
initiatives. This is increasingly relevant in light
of heightened government focus on modern
slavery and the introduction of strengthened
laws to address the phenomenon. Companies
will be expected to report on how they ensure
bonded and slave labour is not being used
in their businesses. We expect companies
to have good policies and practices in place
to ensure that they are not exposed to
reputational issues associated with modern
slavery in both domestic and overseas supply
chains. In addition, we question companies
on how auditing and monitoring practices are
implemented, measured and reported.
In summary
Standard Life Investments supports a labour market that is flexible, effective and fair.
We have recognised a number of changes in the UK labour market. These changes could result
in additional costs for companies employing workers under precarious conditions. However,
there are also opportunities for those advanced companies that understand that protecting
their employees requires strategic thinking and investment.
In this paper, we focused on domestic labour changes but we recognise that these labour
changes are not exclusive to the UK. The rise in part-time and contract working is a growing
phenomenon across the world. For instance, one in three US employees is now a freelance
worker or independent contractorviii. This trend is reflected in labour markets everywhere.
Investors are also witnessing increasing regulation and society trends around wages,
particularly living wages, in other regions of the world.
In addition, modern slavery is affecting many markets and industries. Policymakers in the US, for
instance, are discussing the introduction of regulation, similar to the UK, to mandate companies
to disclose any measures to prevent modern slavery as part of their annual reports. Investors
need to understand the inherent risks associated with modern slavery. Companies operating or
having supply chains in countries where the use of migrant workers is widespread are at particular
risk. The businesses in which we invest need to have robust processes and mechanisms in place
to ensure they are not exposed to this issue, both in the UK and across the world.
Responsible investment team
Amanda Young
Alix Chosson
Head of
Responsible
Responsible Investment Investment Analyst
Rebecca Maclean
Responsible
Investment Analyst
Andrew Mason
Responsible
Investment Analyst
2015 UK Leading Asset Management Firm for SRI/ESG
TUC Commission on Vulnerable Employment (2008) Hidden Work, Hidden Lives: The Short Report of the Commission on Vulnerable Employment.
www.vulnerableworkers.org.uk/files/CoVE_short_report.pdf
ii
ONS, Analysis of Employee Contracts that do not Guarantee a Minimum Number of Hours, 30 April 2014.
www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_361578.pdf
iii
KPMG Structural Analysis of Hourly Wages and Current Trends in Household Finances, 2014
iv
GLA Economics survey of the Living Wage Employers
v
Queen Mary University of London, “The costs and benefits of the London Living Wage“, October 2012
vi
ShareAction The Case for the Living Wage, Why a Living Wage Pays Dividends, November 2015 www.action.shareaction.org/page/investor%20
Briefings/TheCaseoftheLivingWage.pdf
vii
Modern Slavery Strategy, HM Government, November 2014 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/383764/Modern_Slavery_Strategy_FINAL_DEC2015.pdf
viii
http://blog.hubstaff.com/freelancer-world-contract-work-becoming-new-norm/
i
UK precarious working practices
11
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