Euthanasia in the Major World Religions
1
Angeliki Ziaka
Abstracts
“Euthanasia” or voluntary termination of life is one the most complicated issues in the
moral, legal and religious debates nowadays. In the meantime, the role of religions in
directing the views of researchers is obvious. In this article, a brief look at the different
religions of the world to the issue of euthanasia (whether in the form of active or
passive) will be provided as much as possible and we will analyze these ideas. At first,
we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and
Jainism, then, will be examined and finally, Far Eastern religions such as Buddhism,
Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto school will say about euthanasia.
Keywords: euthanasia, religions, morality, law.
1. aristotle university of thessaloniki ([email protected]).
Euthanasia in the Major World Religions
It is a great honor and pleasure for me to spend a few days in the city of Qom, the
cradle of the Shiite world. I have studied for many years the fine theology of itna‘
‘ashariya and I have dedicated much of my research to Shi‘a Islam and Iran. I keep
abreast, primarily through the Internet, with important developments and fatwa in Iran
on bio-ethical issues, which are timely and often intractable issues for every nation,
every legal code, and every religion.
74
One of the most difficult issues is that of the early, voluntary termination of life, or
“euthanasia,” a Greek word that means “good death,” and which is inextricably tied to
the mystery of human existence. The question of where human life comes from and
where it is going is one of the great issues one encounters in any world religion. When
we look around us, especially at the burial customs of ancient civilizations, we realize
that even from primeval times and the simplest forms of religiosity; man has attributed
significance to the continuation of life and to the need to preserve the body. Death and
the manner of burial-seated, in the fetal position, facing east, etc.-indicate a ritual
transition to another dimension of existence. Yet, no religion provides for the
premature termination of life, either voluntarily (suicide) or by inducing a painless
death and/or hastening it, in order to curtail the sufferer’s agony from an incurable
disease (euthanasia). In the world’s major religions, the sacrifice of life is justified
only for a higher purpose-i.e., for freedom, to preserve one’s personal dignity in the
face of being disgraced during periods of violence and war, to fight for social justice
against totalitarian regimes, etc.-, but never to avoid an arduous bodily condition
brought about by illness or old age. These religions offer prayers for a good, painless,
and peaceful natural end to each person’s life, not for the hastening of death through
human intervention.
Rare Cases of "Euthanasia"
The cases, primarily among those of advanced age, in which death occurs through
fasting or by the deliberate abandonment of the elderly outside, are rare. When they do
occur, they are usually in rather “primitive” societies. But here also, this choice is
justified by reference to a higher purpose. Among the Jains of India, for example,
death by fasting (prayopavesa) is sometimes practiced by ascetics who believe that
they have reached the stage of perfection, and thus have passed to the ideal state of
another dimension of life, superior to the present. Additionally, among some relatively
closer to nature peoples, such as the Inuit Eskimos of the Arctic and some Native
Americans, the elderly man who can no longer keep up with nomadic life and
contribute to the community voluntarily exiles himself in the wilderness, offering
himself to the natural food chain with the belief that he would be reincarnated in
another form of life. This practice was necessary because of the harsh natural
environment, the nomadic way of life, and the survival needs of other members of the
community, who were unable to care for or minister to the needs of the aging members
of their tribe. But even in these cases, no special drugs were used either by the
community or voluntarily by the individual. Additionally, in many cases among some
Native Americans, newborns with serious disabilities were abandoned, out of
compassion, in rivers to drown. History bears witness to such cases of infanticide in
many cultures from the Far East to the Far West, as well as in Greece’s own city of
Sparta, with its well-known Kaiadas gorge. In some of these cultures, such as that of
the Native Americans, killing a suffering or stillborn infant had to be done with
compassion and painlessly. In other cultures, on the contrary, such as that of the
Spartans, the taking of the life of disabled newborns was rather violent, inasmuch as
they were thrown into a gorge, the Kaiadas, so as not to impede the Spartan
commonwealth, whose prototype was its robust and hardy citizens.
For the three monotheistic religions-Judaism, Christianity and Islam-, life is a gift
from God and euthanasia is impermissible as interference with his will. For Jews and
Christians, man is made in the image of God, while for Muslims man was appointed
caliph, vicar of God, on earth. Thus, for all three Abraham religions, God is the patron
of life and man is responsible for life and creation, which he must protect and preserve
as a good manager. The creation of the world and man belongs to God and not to man.
Of course, all three of these religions have a place for voluntary death via
martyrdom, which is understood in Christianity as an imitation of Christ’s crucifixion
and a faithful adherence to the Christian faith. This faith is confirmed by the power of
a voluntary sacrifice for the salvation, not only of the martyr or the community of faith
of which he is a member, but also of his persecutors. It is well known that the early
Church was founded on the blood of the martyrs, many of whom, although not yet
baptized, are nevertheless considered by the Church as baptized in the blood of their
martyrdoms.
In Islam, the concept of martyrdom is directly connected with jihad (holy struggle).
The shahîd, the quintessential martyr, is identified with Mujahid, the zealous fighter
who is ready to sacrifice his life in the struggle for Islam. Thus, the "martyr forth faith"
is the most honored person within the Muslim community and is set up as someone to
be emulated, being considered purified by the blood of his martyrdom and
immediately translated to paradise, where he enjoys its delights. The practice of
Fourth Year, Volume 9, Autumn & Winter 2015
The Three Monotheistic Religions’ Attitudes toward Euthanasia
75
euthanasia, however, falls outside these limits and is seen as interference in the
creative power of Allah, who, according to the Quran, is the sole creator and preserver
of life.
Euthanasia in the Major World Religions
In Judaism, one of the Faithfull's highest obligations is the kiddush Ha-shem, the
"consecration of God's name." Every Jew has the obligation to sanctify the name of the
God of Israel and not to dishonor it, not committing hillul Ha-shem, an insult against
the name of God. The ultimate manifestation of devotion to the name of God and to its
consecration (kiddush Ha-shem) occurs when a Jew offers himself as a sacrifice in the
name, and for the Law, of God. The concept of martyrdom can be clearly discerned
from as early as the time of the Babylonian captivity (586-538 BC) and is strongly
manifested in Hellenistic and Roman times by the Jewish Zealots, who vowed to enact
the will of God, even if it meant their death, and to oppose any foreign powers that
were detrimental to Judaism.
76
Of course, this commitment, even unto death, to the name of the God of Israel and
his law constitutes an act of sacrifice and martyrdom which bears no resemblance to
suicide and euthanasia. In the Jewish tradition, any form of euthanasia is explicitly
prohibited, and the act is condemned as a premeditated murder. Anyone who hastens
the death even of a condemned man is deemed worthy of the death penalty and is
treated as a murderer. The Babylonian Talmud notes that he who closes the eyes of a
dying man is a murderer, because he hastened his impending death. The practice,
however, of passive euthanasia is not universally condemned. In cases of the artificial
preservation of life, some consider it permissible to discontinue artificial life support.
The Attitudes of the Great Religions of the East toward
Euthanasia
Among the major religions of the East, the view of the world and life is completely
different from the three monotheistic religions. Man is seen as part of the world and its
harmony. For Hinduism and Buddhism, the concept of euthanasia operates in the
framework of man's position in the universal order and in the harmony of the universe
(dharma).
Hinduism
Hindus believe that man’s every action is registered in the law of the universal order
and has a reciprocal effect on the quality of that person’s return in another life, in a
reincarnation. Generally in Hindu thought, the present form of life is considered
painful. The ideal is to liberate man’s existential condition from perishable matter,
moksa, and to transition to another form of life, superior to the present, in which there
is no reincarnation of beings (samsara). Thus, each person’s actions (karma) will
determine his ability to transition to a higher form of spiritual life and freedom from
painful and perishable matter. According to this view, the violent arrest of a man's life,
either by suicide or euthanasia, is a disruption of the universal order (dharma), and this
action has a direct impact not only on the life of the deceased but also on the life of
those who helped him. It is said that the doctor will assume the unfinished karma of
the patient, i.e., the work that was left unfinished due to the abrupt termination of his
life. Generally, active euthanasia is contrary to the principle of ahimsa, nonviolence
toward all living beings and respect for life. Ahimsais understood as the highest ideal
of dharma, the universal order. Nevertheless, among Hindus, there are those who
accept passive euthanasia because they believe that the prolongation of life by artificial
means or providing medicines that suppress the patient’s consciousness in the face of
his impending death violate man's natural movement toward perfection and, as such,
are contrary to the law of the universe. Of course, the majority position in Hinduism
rejects euthanasia at both the religious and social levels. The diverse and seemingly
contrary views on the issue, however, reflect Hindus’ complex realities and their
stance toward metaphysical questions.
Similarly, Buddhism also does not accept euthanasia, because such an action would
lead man into the vicious cycle of reincarnations and would deprive him of the ability
to achieve the highest good, which is nirvana, the other-worldly and ineffable bliss.
Although Buddhism views the world as a source of pain and sadness, it nevertheless
does not recommend a violent escape from this painful world. Its ideal, of course, is to
help man achieve enlightenment and reach the ineffable state of nirvana, i.e., anotherworldly bliss, but only through struggling in this world of suffering. The violent
interruption of the natural course of life is considered bad karma, bad practice, and
results in the remuneration of the action and the return and rebirth of the person intothe
same painful situation of the present life, or an even worse situation. According,
therefore, to the texts of the great Buddhist Pâli canon, we can see that Buddhism is
opposed to the suicide of both those who have reached enlightenment and, even more
so, of those who have not reached this ultimate ideal. According to the texts of the
monastic rules (Vinaya), there are also indications that Buddhism is opposed not only
to suicide but also to passive euthanasia because of its adherence to the moral principle
of ahimsa (non-violence). These texts do not support the views of some intellectuals of
our time who assume that Buddhism is in favor of euthanasia because it is a religion of
mercy and compassion for people and all beings.
Of course, Buddhist monks’ self-immolation in protest against totalitarian regimes
and social injustices and to promote peace and the achievement of the higher social
Fourth Year, Volume 9, Autumn & Winter 2015
Buddhism
77
good is well known, but this is an expression of the lofty ideal of self-sacrifice, which
has no connection with suicide, much less with euthanasia.
Confucianism/Taoism
The two great philosophical systems of China, Confucianism and Taoism, have their
own conceptions of man, society, and the world within the universal order.
Confucianism, in extremely rare cases, permits euthanasia as a "dignified death" in
order to avoid political violence and disgrace. For Taoism, the goal is the immortality
of the body. To achieve this, popular or folk Taoism employs elixirs believed to
prolong life and to lead to immortality. Euthanasia is thus the inverse of this quest. The
Taoist persistently looks to cure people and to extend their lives as much as possible.
The issue, however, is muddied when outside medical-primarily artificial-life support
intervenes. Taoists accept only minor medical treatments and only if the patient's body
will be able to recover and return to its original natural state, which is consistent with
the natural flow of the Tao, the eternal principle of the universe that transcends reality.
But if medical intervention is futile and man is close to death, then Taoists consider it
meet to be left to the will of the Tao. It is thus a kind of passive euthanasia, inasmuch
as they do not accept artificial life support.
Euthanasia in the Major World Religions
Japan: Shinto and Buddhism
78
The case of Japan, in which there are two primary religions, Shinto and Buddhism,
is a unique case. Here, the debate about euthanasia, which has gone on for several
decades, is colored by the traditional Japanese values of honor and dignity. These
values, combined with modern demographic and psychological problems, have led a
portion of Japanese society to look on the issue of euthanasia with sympathy, while
others have reservations.
Professor Emeritus of the Medical School of the University of Hirosaki, Shinryo
Shinagawa, admirably captured the complexities inherent in the issues of euthanasia
and bioethics, as well as the diversity in the experience and life of the religions and
cultures of the world, in his talk to the Health Care Ethics Committee in January 1993:
Japan, he said, is a mountainous country with numerous tunnels; the longest is
the
Seikan Tunnel (53.9 km) running 240 meters below the water of the Tsugaru Strait;
linking the main Japanese island of Honshu with the island of Hokkaido. The
tunnel
resembles that of medical ethics in Japan: there are numerous long, dark tunnels in the
medico-ethical and medico-legal controversies, and, in most of them there appear no
light at the end. In some cases, I think it will be impossible
to reach the end of the
tunnel and regain the light. I would like to discuss seven “tunnels” in medical ethics.
[…]
The seven tunnels are the legalization of induced abortion because of serious genetic
disorders, the issue of contraception, the artificial insemination with donor sperm, the
definition of death, the gender selection, the selective killing of embryos in cases of
Fourth Year, Volume 9, Autumn & Winter 2015
pregnancy with multiples, and euthanasia.
79
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‫א)‪*H* '0 * " !h‬ـ‪ M‬ـ‪ MD‬א"ـא ـא; ـ?
א‪H%‬א"ـ‪ M‬‬
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‫ א‪ *!6‬א‪ %‬כ אא‪ /‬א"א ‪J‬א ‪ A-‬א‪F Ht%‬אש ‪-‬א ) א א)א*ـ‬‫ !א' ! " * א!א‪- $‬א א‪ 8) Š6‬אـא‪ /‬א"ـ‪ M‬אـא‪ /‬ـ?‪ M‬ـ ـא;‬
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‫א‪ d" ! ?%‬א* *א ש‪H‬א; ‪F‬א*‪Q‬א !א' !‪ e‬א‪?S‬א ‪ !h‬א כـ ‬
‫א*ـ‬
‫‪ MD‬א‪/‬א !' א) ‪< ?0 y 4L0‬א א) כـש ـ‪ D‬‬
‫‪ J‬א !' א*‪b‬א' א‪?S‬א !א' "
‪Q‬א' ‪H0‬א א) "' ‪ -‬ש‪* H‬א ‪F‬א‪ d‬א*‪$‬ـא‬
‫כ ‪ 'G‬א‪ /‬א"‪ M‬כ א) "' ש‪$‬אש ‪0 W‬א* ש א"‪ M‬ש‪ H‬א"ـ‪ M‬כـ א‪%‬ـ‬
‫כא ! ‪ /-‬ש‪H‬א* כ א*שא‪ $0 /‬א ש א ש !‪ P‬כ כـא א‪/‬ـא‬
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‫ש>~ כ א"‪ M‬כ שא*
‪ Q‬א‪ / Q%‬א א א ‪ /-‬ש‪H‬א; ‪-‬ـ ‪HZ0‬ـ! שـ ‬
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‫כ ‪!1 Y?S‬א‪- /‬א‪ r Y%‬א‪) Š6‬ـ‪ 8‬א"ـ‪*H* M‬ـ‪* M‬כـ א) ـאא‪H0 *!0‬ـא;‬
‫! *‪ =m 'H‬ـ ‪J0‬ـ*‪ o‬א"ـ‪W‬‬
‫ ‪ o*J0‬א ‪-‬א‬
‫א‪ /‬כש א‬
‫* ‪ 0‬א"‪- W‬א‬
‫א' א"!א‪ Q 23‬כ!‪ /‬א‪0! /‬כ‪ 4‬ש‪ @ /‬א‬‫א"‪) M‬א ‪H‬א*‪ M‬א‪Hm‬א ‪ Q
?%‬א"‪- W‬א ‪ o*J0‬א ‪ u‬כ כ *ـכ *‪H‬ـ'‬
‫ א א ‪-‬א ‪1 D‬א‪ /‬א ‪!1‬ـא "ـא) א*ـ ‪HA‬ـ א) שـ‪H‬א; א ‪0‬ـא‪ /‬ـ‬‫‪0 +‬שـ>~ א א*ـ ‪HA‬ـ ـ "ـ‪M‬‬
‫‪ rC‬א) )א‪ /‬א"ـא; ـא‬
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‫אא‪- i‬א א ‪"! Hm dL‬א א‪8! !^ !8‬שא‪ /‬ש א ! ‪- ;1‬ـא‪F‬‬
‫כ )*א !א' *‪ M*H‬אש‪J M‬א כ‬
‫א‪ ?%‬א* "!"‪0 8!V‬א "! ‪F‬א‪ /‬א ‪-‬א' א"!א‪1 23‬אש א*‪$ d‬ـ‪ 2‬א*‪b‬ـא ‬
‫ש‪H‬א; א"‪ M‬כ ‪ v‬ש?א
‪-‬כש א‪0‬אא)' א "ـ‪H* M‬ـ' ـ! ـ‪ p‬א)‬
‫א‪0‬אא)' ‪D*!T‬א_ ‪ p$‬א"‪ M‬א* ‪ 2$‬א‪D '$ 1 /‬כ א"‪ M‬ـ! כـ‪ o‬כـ‬
‫!‪ e‬א ש אא) !‪ e‬אא ‪D‬כ א א ‪
6‬א' ‪* /l$‬כ ‪1‬א‪0‬ـ‪ 2‬שـ ‬
‫"‪B‬אא כ‪ W‬אא ‪-‬א ‪ $0‬א אשא כ כ ‪P‬ש‪$‬א‪ /‬אـא ‪G
D‬ـ!‬
‫א ‪1‬א‪ 20‬א"‪!P M‬א כ !‪*!1 e‬ـ‪4‬א‪1%‬ש א ـש אא‪
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‪Q‬א א' ‪HQ .Z1‬א' "א‪ Q
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‫‪1..kiddush Ha-shem‬‬
‫‪2. Zealots‬‬
‫‪3 .dharma‬‬
‫‪113‬‬
‫ﻫﻨﺪوﺋﻴﺴﻢ‬
‫א א א כ ! כש ש! ‪1‬א‪h /‬א ‪ M?f‬א"‪0 M‬א"‪ q‬א‪f‬ـ!'‬
‫‪ M‬א)‪8‬ש‪ M‬א‪ /‬ש>~ )‪' 8‬אש א ‪ S‬כـ א*שـ‪ d‬ـ‬
‫*>‪ M‬כ )‪ 8‬א ‪)MD‬א !ש‪ !$‬כ‪$‬א@ ‪ IZ‬א)א כ!‪ 'F 1 /‬ש! א)‬
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$‬א) א) )‪ 8‬כـ כـ ‬
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‫א) א* ‪ ! NQ‬כש ‪0 !6‬ـא‪ /‬א א ‬
‫א‪ '!?- /‬א) ‪0‬א"‪F q‬א; "‪!$‬‬
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‫א‪F!6‬א ‪$‬א א ש ‪_ b !8‬א א‪ /‬כא' כ "?‪ e! 4‬א‪Q‬א א ‪$‬א א‪$0‬א‬
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‫א ש ‪ S‬כ‬
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!א א‪0‬א"‪ M‬א‪ $‬א אא‪ *!0‬כ‪$‬א@ ‪h IZ‬ـ‪!6 W‬א‪8‬ـ!‬
‫א‬
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‫א א"
‪!$‬א>ש ‪* 8) L‬א ‪!6‬א‪ W‬א‪ /‬אא* כـ שـא' ‪$‬ـא א ‬
‫!א! !‪4*!1 e‬א‪1%‬ש ‪! !8‬כ‪ ?S M‬אא‪ /‬א "' כ‪$‬א@ >ש ‬
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‫‪114‬‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫‪1.moksa‬‬
‫‪2. samsara‬‬
‫‪3. karma‬‬
‫‪4. dharma‬‬
‫‪5 active euthanasia‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪6 . ahimsa‬‬
‫א‪Q ?%‬א &א‪ ?N yZ" W3 4%‬א‪$
F‬א ‪!*N‬א' א‪0‬אא)' ـ‪M‬‬
‫ ! א@ א* ‪!h‬א' ‪$‬א*‪m B‬א!א_ ‪G‬א א* ‪ R‬א)‪0‬א‪I‬ـ‪J i‬ـא*‪l Y‬ـ‪i‬‬
‫א ‪C‬שא‪"! M? /‬שא' אא‪ ?Z%‬א"‪M‬‬
‫‪،‬‬
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‫ﺑﻮدﻳﺴﻢ‬
‫ ‪ B W* D $‬א‪0‬אא)' א ‪$‬ـ‪*) !*N‬ـ!א ‪P‬ـ ‪$‬ـ אـא‪ /‬א ـ ‪-!P‬ـ‪d‬‬
‫א"‪0 M‬א"‪ ' +" q‬א א) ‪0‬אـא* ‪LD0‬ـ‪- 2‬ـ! אـ כـ !אـא "ـא;‬
‫אש ‪HF W* P! !D‬א‪ /‬א ‪ /l$‬שـא ـ‪ E‬‬
‫‪HF!8‬א א‪/‬‬
‫א א* ‪H1 B*!8 F‬ـ!' א א) א*ـ ‪HF‬ـא‪ /‬ـ‪E‬א ‪T0‬ـ ‪Z1 $‬ـ _א כ‪$‬ـא@‬
‫‪ IZ‬א‪ /‬כ‪$‬כ אא‪! /‬א' "
!" ـ שـ‪ '!Q‬ـ‪ 2‬ـ !אـא *ـ "ـא‪0‬‬
‫*‪HF!Q‬א א"‪ M‬אא ‪H0‬א א) א כשאכש א* א‪ W%‬א
אء *‪A1 W‬ـ‪H1 d‬ـ!' ‪-!P‬ـ‪d‬‬
‫א כـ אـ‪F k‬ـ‪B‬א' ‪$‬ـ‪ 2‬א)‪8‬שـ‪ M‬‬‫‪ ?S‬א; א כאא' ‬
‫‪ *^0‬א; ‪E .C !6‬א' ש? )‪ 8‬כ *א ‪ !0 C‬א) א* ש‬
‫א!א* ‪ /
Y?S‬כא‪ /‬א‪0 %‬א‪ W? W‬כ *‪> W‬ـא‪- =%‬כשـ כـא‬
‫א"‪ M‬כ ש‪" '!Q‬א ש
! א) א‪/‬א כא כ ) א* כ‪$‬ـא@ &ـא*‬
‫‬
‫א* ? ـ! א*ـ ‪F‬ـ‬
‫!"א ‪ ! l$‬א"א\ ‪ /‬אכא ?א *א*א‬
‫א כ *‪ .?0 W‬א‪ 2T‬א‪-‬א‪ 1‬א‪- $‬ש‪H0 M‬א >א‪- =%‬כשـ‬
‫>א‪ =%‬א‪0‬אא)' ‪ M B 2A‬א* ‪ /‬א) *‪8‬א ‪ G‬ש‪A‬כ!א‪) /‬ـא‪ /‬ـא ‪$‬א*ـ‪M‬‬
‫כ כ ‪1‬א‪ W* 3‬א) א^א כ * ‪ M$‬ש‪! MJA‬א' אא‪/‬א ‪$0‬א ‪F‬ـא;‬
‫א"‪6!S M‬א א‪0‬אא)' א"‪M‬‬
‫א ‬‫א‪
?%‬ــ כــ ‪"-‬ــ)' א?ــא‪ /‬ــא* א
ــ!א‡ ــ כ‪M‬ــא'‬
‫`‬
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F‬ـא ‪
H‬ـ! ـ!‪a‬‬
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%‬א' א‪$
F‬א !א' ‪
" yT E*!0‬א ‪-‬ـא;‬
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‫כ‪.03‬‬
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‫‪1..Pâli canon‬‬
‫‪2. Vinaya‬‬
‫آ‬
‫ﺗ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬
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‫ی‬
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‫ﺎ‬
‫ن‬
‫‪115‬‬
‫א"‪ M‬אא א* א א) כ‪$‬א@ ‪F .6‬א‪/‬א)' א"‪ M‬כ כ‪- Z *!
$‬כש כ‪ !
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‫ﺗﺎﺋﻮﺋﻴﺴﻢ و ﻣﻜﺘﺐ ﻛﻨﻔﺴﻴﻮس‬
‫‬
‫ ‪h‬א ‪0 P eB A6‬א‪ W33‬כ
‪ 4‬כ‪Q \A‬ـא >‪TL‬ـ ـ אـא‪/‬‬
‫ ‪HF‬א‪h /‬א ‪!6‬א‪ 8 !8‬א כ
‪ 4‬כ‪ \A‬א א א' א‪0‬אא)'‬
‫א‬
‫א ‪ MD0‬א‪ e! /‬א‪! ;B‬א' א‪
F‬א‪ I‬א) שא‪" 3‬א" כ !ـ‪M‬‬
‫א ‪0 a‬א‪ W33‬א!א* ‪ /‬א"‪! M‬א' "
א א* ‪0 a‬א‪0 ` W33‬ـ *ـא‬
‫אא אכ!א* א ‪ !8 M-‬כ א )‪ 8‬א ‪S‬א כ ^! ـ‬
‫א!א* ש א) א* א‪0‬אא)' ‪J‬א‪ 2‬א* ‪-‬א"‪ M‬א"ـ‪0 M‬א‪33‬ـ‪L M‬ـ!א ـ ?ـא@‬
‫‪ ! '?H‬א"
‪!$‬א )‪ 8‬א‪/‬א ‪$‬כ א"‪! M‬ـא@ ‪
1‬ـ ـא'‬
‫א‬
‫‪B‬שכ ـ א
א_ ‪ L‬ـ א) )‪ 8‬א‪ /‬א* א* ‪ WH? R‬ש‬
‫‪ {J6‬א‪ 1‬א) א‪/‬א' ‪B‬שכ א א א ‪ {J6‬א‪ !8‬ـ‪$ /‬ـאא‪0 /‬ـא‪?H /‬ـ' ‬
‫א)‪8‬ש‪?S .C M‬ש א אש
אש ‪?S .C‬א' כ "א)‪8‬א א ‪*!F‬א‪0 ?S /‬א‪3‬‬
‫א‪ 2T‬א‪ W%‬כ !‪ !0‬א) א‪ M1‬א"‪ M‬אש אא א‪- !8‬א‪B M%‬שכ ?‪ k‬אשـ אـא‪/‬‬
‫א א‪ /‬א אא‪0 i‬א‪ 3‬א‪N8‬א א ـ!א* א) א^ـא כـ א*שـא‪/‬‬
‫‪*B‬כ !‪e‬‬
‫א* א) א‪0‬אא)' ‪ 2A‬א"‪M‬‬
‫‪HQ‬א' ‪ 8) L‬א ‪$‬‬
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‫و‬
‫ل‬
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‫ﭘﻴ‬
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‫ﭘ‬
‫ﻲ‬
‫‪9‬‬
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‫ﭘ‬
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‫ز‬
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‫‪4‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
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‫‪1‬‬
‫‪116‬‬
‫‪+ .‬א‪+/l‬ـ‬
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‫ژاﭘﻦ‪ :‬ﺷﻴﻨﺘﻮ و ﺑﻮدﻳﺴﻢ‬
‫‪j‬א כ א‪ * /‬א
א* ש
*‪F W‬ـ א ـ' ‪LD‬ـ! ـ ‪6‬ـ!‬
‫ـ‪ /‬ـ א)שـא'‬
‫א"‪ M‬א*^א ‪ kD‬א‪ i‬א‪0‬אא)' כ ‪ S‬א אא אש
א"ـ‪t M‬‬
‫ــ‪! ;B‬ــ‪ M‬א"ــ‪ M‬א*ــ א)שــא א>
ــ ــא ــא‪ 23‬ــ‪/‬‬
‫"ــ
‪j‬אــ‬
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‫‪1. Confucianism/Taoism‬‬
‫‪2 . Shinto‬‬
‫‪3 . honor and dignity‬‬
‫א‪/‬שא‪ -‬‬
‫א) א‪$
F‬א‪j p‬א א א* "ـ‪" M$‬ـ‪ +‬א ‪0‬ـא ـ‬
‫א' *‪ !Q‬א‪h‬א‪ 0‬א‬
‫‪ dR‬א‪0‬אא)' א ‪Q %$‬א כ !‪ P‬כ‬
‫א"
א א)ש
‪ d‬אשכ‪B i‬שכ אש‪Q‬א !"אכ ש!* שא‪8‬אא ‪L‬ـא?אש‬
‫!א‪l 'BQ‬ـ‪8‬א'‬
‫א ‪ MR‬א‪-‬א‪H +‬אש‪ M‬א‪j /‬א*‪d‬‬
‫‪g‬א‪ dR 0‬א‪0‬אא)' א‪-‬א‪ *) +‬א ‪ !^0 p0 l$‬א; א*ـא‪n!6 /‬ـא'‬
‫א ‪ {?C‬כ! א"‪M‬‬
‫‪*!0‬שـא‪/‬‬
‫' ‪j MA8‬א כש' כ
א א ‪20‬א* ‪-‬ـא‪ !S‬א‪Q‬ـ‪ B‬א"ـ‪M‬‬
‫‬
‫א"‪ M‬כ ‪ '!
Y$‬א‪ I‬א) ‪80 Q0‬א ‪ N8‬‬
‫‪ i!*BF‬א‪j T‬א ש א ‪ i!*BF‬כא*ـ ‪T‬ـ‪ 2‬א*ـ ‪0‬ـ‪ 2‬שـ? א‪-‬ـא‪+‬‬
‫שכ ‪j‬א א"‪ M‬א' ‪S‬א ‪0‬א*כ )*א' ‪kD‬ـא' א‪-‬א‪1‬ـ ‪B‬שـכ ‬
‫‪B‬שכ ‪ F‬א ש
! א‪/‬א ‪ d) v‬א *א א*ـא ـ ‪P‬שـ‪-$ W‬ـ‬
‫כ‪ -! W‬א &!‪$‬כ א"‪ M‬כ ـ א*ـא‪0 /‬ـ‪"! 2‬ـ‪ W‬ـ א א)*ـא‪W‬‬
‫"‪ M‬א א‪ 20 MA i‬א‪-‬א‪B +‬שכ ‪ kD‬כ‪W‬‬
‫א* ‪1 20 MA‬א כ!‪ 2% F {J" /‬א^א'א' ‪F‬ـ' ‪
j‬כـ‬
‫`‬
‫א‪?S‬א‪ /‬א‪Z‬אכ ‪ e! =*!0‬א
>ـא‪I‬‬
‫ש‪ '!Q‬א) אא' ‪ L yJ0‬א א"‪!V‬‬
‫
א‪0‬אא)' ‬
‫כש
‪*B8‬ש ‪ F‬א אא' א‬
‫‬
‫‪0‬ـא‪ /‬א‪/‬א *כـ א) ـא*‪E‬‬
‫"ـאא‪3‬‬
‫אא ‪ !h dR‬א ש‬
‫ א;‬
‫‪$‬ש *‪ W‬ש
‪j‬א א‪ /l$ M‬כ
‪ 4‬כ‪ \A‬א*א‪/‬‬
‫‪G‬ש‪3‬א‪F ،E‬ש‬
‫]‪F‬ש‬
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‫‪ ،1993‬שכ‪
+ X‬‬
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‫‪. X/+‬כ
‬
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‫)‪ 53.9‬כ‪(/:‬‬
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‫‪240‬‬
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‫‪ ،‬ـ‪P:L‬‬
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3‬‬
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‫)כـ ‬
‫‪F‬ש‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫آ‬
‫ﺗ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ز‬
‫ی‬
‫د‬
‫ر‬
‫ا‬
‫د‬
‫ﻳ‬
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‫ن‬
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‫ﺰ‬
‫ر‬
‫گ‬
‫ﺟ‬
‫ﻬ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ن‬
‫‪117‬‬
‫‪1 . Hirosaki‬‬
‫‪2 . Shinryo Shinagawa‬‬
‫‪3 Seikan‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪4 Tsugaru Strait‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪5 Honshu‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪6 Hokkaido‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪7 . Bushido‬‬
‫א א' ‪F‬א*‪ B‬ש‪$‬א א)ש כ א; ש!א‪ $
6‬ـא‪ ;B‬ـ!א' *ـכ "ـאא*‬
‫א א א ^א‪ I‬כ כ ‪$‬ـא ‪^-‬ـ!' ـ!א' ‪-‬כשـ שـ!א‪$
6‬א ـאא‪'!8‬‬
‫ ‪!$‬א אש
אש א"א"א_ ‪0‬ـא‪ /‬שـ!א‪ M6‬א א) *ـ "ـאא* ‪F‬ـ!‪) i‬ـ‪8‬‬
‫א‪ M‬אא‪ L d‬א; א ‪> M%g‬א‪! 8) !F =%‬ש‪!$‬‬
‫אא‪ @T‬א‪0‬אא)' ‪" MJ*!S 2A‬ـאא* ـ אـ!' ـ* כـ ‪H0‬ـא א‬
‫‪! !G
D‬א' אא‪ d‬א; א"‪ M‬א‪0 P!8‬א א ‪ d"0‬א* אכ א‪0‬אא)' ‪6‬ـא@ א ـ‪ B‬‬
‫א' א!' * ‪$1‬א כ!‬
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‫ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪﮔﻴﺮی‬
‫! א‪M1‬א' ‪0‬א*> ש א"‪ M‬כ כ א‪* @T‬א' א
א* ‪A‬ـŠ ـא;‬
‫‪ /‬א ‪ '!C‬ש‪ !$‬א א‪ P!8‬כ א' א ‪F‬א‪ .‬א
א* ‪ 0‬א) ـ!‪/‬‬
‫‪$‬אא‪" /‬א‪8>%‬א‪ /‬‬
‫" * א!א‪! F v $‬אא' !א' א*ـא‪> /‬שـ ـ )ـ‪ 8‬אـא‪^ /‬ـ‬
‫א א*א‪> /‬ש‪ /‬א‪ 0‬כ א) "' !‪8‬א א‪Z‬א ש א"ـ‪- M‬א‪%‬ـ‪ M‬אא‪ i‬א ‬
‫‪ p$‬א"‪M‬‬
‫ א‪ /‬א*א‪ /‬ש!‪ W* 1‬א‪$0‬א ‪ 8) L‬א ‪ W‬שכ‪h i‬ـא ـ
‬
‫א‪ a‬א‪ 2T‬א‪* $‬א ‪-‬ש‪F M‬א; )ـ אـ א‪P!8‬ـ ‪0‬ـא‪ /‬אאـ‪d‬‬‫‪ 8) L‬א ‪- B‬א‪h a‬א א‪ M‬א א‪ /‬ـ‪ B‬א) ‪Q‬ـא *ـ‪> W‬א‪A%‬ـ‪M‬‬
‫)* *‪- B W‬כש ! ‪ 'D‬א‪ 2 .‬כ‪$‬א@ &א* אא‪* /‬א !אـ א"ـ‪M‬‬
‫שـא‪ /‬אـא‬
‫כ‪6 \*A‬א כ!‪ /‬א; א ‪ ! {J6‬אא‪ a‬ـא‪ %‬ـ!א'‬
‫א !א' א
!א) א) ‪ E‬אש א) כ‪* M%H‬א ‪$‬א' ‪0‬א‪ B W*3‬אכـ!'‬
‫!א' ‪0‬א )‪ / 8‬א"‪$ .*!0 M‬א; אـא ‪0‬ـא‪ /‬א‪-‬ـ‪L d‬ـ ـ!א' אאـ‪d‬‬
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‫ل‬
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‫ر‬
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‫‪1. Seppuku/ Harakiri‬‬
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