Ashima Krishna
Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
1
Agra: The city of monumental urban contradictions
Project Report on JNNURM initiatives and how they have fared in Agra
March, 2012
Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2 Agra: Contradictions in the City ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Proximity to New Delhi and the Golden Triangle ........................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 The focus on Taj Mahal ................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Taj Mahotsav (Taj Festival) ............................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 Disconnected administration and management ............................................................................................................................ 27
3 Agra’s recent urban development initiatives amidst its historic landscape.......................................................................................... 32
3.1 Agra’s City Development Plan: Summary and Critique .................................................................................................................. 33
3.2 The reality of JNNURM in historic Agra .......................................................................................................................................... 40
3.2.1 Municipal Services: Water Supply, Sewerage and Solid Waste Management ........................................................................ 44
3.2.2 Transportation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 49
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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3.3 Other initiatives in Agra .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
4 In Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
List of Figures
Figure 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 7 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 9 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 10 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 11 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 12 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 13 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 14 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 15 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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Figure 16 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 17 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 18 ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
List of Tables
Table 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Table 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Table 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Table 4 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Table 5 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 6 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Table 7 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Table 8 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 9 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Table 10 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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1 Introduction
The city of Agra, located around 200 kms1 from the National Capital of New Delhi, is internationally known for its World Heritage
Sites of Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and the semi-urban site of Fatehpur Sikri (often in that order2), as the latter is located several
kilometers from the city’s urban periphery. As one of the most iconic and memorable historic and cultural sites in the world, the Taj
Mahal has been a mascot for the country’s rich architectural and
cultural heritage for many years, especially beyond its national
boundaries. It is no wonder then, that the site, and therefore by
extension the city, attracts millions3 of domestic and international
tourists every year. The Taj Mahal has been an object of fascination for
a long time, and has therefore managed to overshadow other historic
sites in the city, especially those that do not enjoy UNESCO’s World
Heritage Site status. This imbalance in administrative as well as public
attention has created distinct problems for the city of Agra.
Domestically, the city has an added appeal of its well-known pethas4, Figure 1
especially of the Panchhi brand. The fame of Panchhi pethas is such
that the city is today dotted with shops that have borrowed the brand,
1
Agra Municipal Corporation website, http://www.nagarnigamagra.com/
Results of Tourist Survey conducted for Agra. (Refer Figure 12)
3
Tourism data; Department of Tourism, Uttar Pradesh
4
A kind of sweet roll made from pumpkin
2
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Decadal population growth pattern for district of Agra
Source: Census of India 2011 Report, Uttar Pradesh Series 10
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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often fooling buyers into thinking they are getting the original Pancchi petha. Despite the immense brand value of the World
Heritage Sites as well as the culinary delight of the pethas adding to the revenue, Agra has over the years struggled to keep up with
its developmental needs.
Within this unique mix of historic sites receiving extreme versus little attention was thrown the massive ‘urban renewal’ initiative of
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (henceforth JNNURM) by the Central Government in 2005. The flagship JNNURM
program for improving urban infrastructure has since its inception,
aimed at an integrated development of cities by providing basic
services including infrastructure projects related to water supply and
sanitation, sewerage, solid waste management, road networks, urban
transportation services, affordable housing and most importantly for
this research, the re-development of historic areas and precincts in the
pilot cities selected for funding. But did that really come to pass? As
the 7-year deadline for the Mission approaches in 2012, this report
looks at how JNNURM initiatives have worked (or not) in a historic city
like Agra that that struggled to catch up to its rapidly urbanizing
population while trying to grapple with the ever-increasing influx of Figure 2
Traffic congestion on Agra streets
tourists to its well-known historic sites.
Source: Author
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The three World Heritage Sites of Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri are together irrefutably major magnets for domestic and
international visitors to the city, contributing to a large part of the revenue that comes into Agra (Refer Table 1). As Table 1 shows,
the combined revenue for the 3 World Heritage Sites for 2012 up to January was well over Rs. 28 crore, with several months till the
financial year closed in March. Clearly, while the individual revenue contributions from each site vary, the cumulative contribution is
significant and has been for the past several years (Refer Table 1). Ideally, judging by the high tourist influx that brings in crores5 of
revenue
and
development
opportunities into the city, Agra
should have been a city setting
examples
for
counterparts
infrastructural
in
its
Comparative occupational structure 1971 - 2001
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
Indian
terms
2001
1971
88.68%
of
88.44%
development
spurred on by large-scale heritage
tourism. Surprisingly, however,
the city and its various spectrum
of residents struggle with basic
urban problems of water supply,
3.50%
2.87%
Primary
7.82%
8.69%
Secondary
Tertiary
sanitation and housing in their Figure 3
daily existence; divorced from the tourist havens mentioned above, the city is found to be languishing in a vast landscape of
infrastructural underdevelopment and mismanagement6. Looking at the district’s decadal population growth patterns (Refer Figure
1), it is therefore unsurprising to see how in the new millennium Agra’s population has experienced a sharp dip, as compared to the
5
6
10 crores = 1 million (1 crore has seven zeros)
Mr.Manish Kumar, Program Manager, Center for Urban and Regional Excellence (CURE), Agra Office
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previous decades. Apart from the 1930s-1950s when the country was recovering and rebuilding itself (immediately before, during
and after the Freedom Struggle7 and subsequent Partition8), the district’s population is seen to steadily grow (Refer Figure 1). This
report explores such issues that link problems related to Agra’s plethora of historic sites with its developmental deficit against the
backdrop of the JNNURM9 program.
Revenue collected from major ASI protected sites (ticketed)
Source: Archaeological Survey of India, Agra Circle Headquarters, Agra
Name of
monument
Taj Mahal
Source of revenue
Admission tkts
Videography fee
Filming Op.
TOTAL
Agra Fort
Admission tkts
Videography fee
Filming Operation
Publications
TOTAL
Fatehpur Sikri
Admission tkts
Videography fee
Filming Operation
Publications
TOTAL
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
2011-12
in Rs.
in Rs.
in Rs.
in Rs.
in Rs. (up to January)
173,860,290
143,649,810
171,764,850
198,130,470
170,029,360
1,101,600
844,125
716,925
645,450
403,450
250,000
295,000
175,000
330,000
65,000
175,211,890
144,788,935
172,656,775
199,105,920
170,497,810
107,703,315
90,539,840
110,228,510
105,768,160
69,286,990
818,475
706,625
613,925
513,750
272,403
85,000
150,000
55,000
110,000
25,000
108,823,649
91,396,465
110,897,435
106,391,910
69,584,393
53,780,190
43,840,730
47,854,660
57,540,130
47,943,410
451,750
706,625
613,925
513,750
239,675
75,000
85,000
40,000
75,000
15,000
-
30,775
192
2,060
16,913
54,306,940
44,663,130
48,508,777
58,130,940
48,214,998
216,859
7
India gained freedom from British Rule on August 15, 1947.
Pakistan was partitioned from India on August 14, 1947. It is also the day Pakistan celebrates its Independence Day, while India celebrates it a day after.
9
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission http://jnnurm.nic.in/
8
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
Sikandra Akbar's
Tomb
Admission tkts
5,762,369
5,441,275
5,543,490
14,334,540
6,806,970
163,775
138,925
84,575
93,275
67,425
Filming Operation
30,000
45,000
5,000
15,000
10,000
Publications
93,400
-
-
-
-
5,956,144
5,625,200
5,633,065
14,442,815
6,884,395
59,935
62,960
71,800
127,205
132,480
225
175
150
325
100
Filming Operation
-
-
-
-
-
Publications
-
-
-
-
-
60,160
63,135
71,950
127,530
132,580
4,269,285
3,890,735
4,702,380
6,397,835
5,599,070
Videography fee
55,050
47,700
39,700
41,550
30,850
Filming Operation
25,000
15,000
15,000
20,000
10,000
Publications
34,600
-
-
-
-
4,358,935
3,938,435
4,742,080
6,439,385
5,629,920
207,905
171,555
155,220
131,805
200,178
175
150
200
300
50
-
-
10,000
-
-
208,080
171,705
165,420
132,105
200,228
575,906
563,510
842,210
1,784,540
2,233,560
4,375
3,200
4,175
7,700
9,800
100,000
24,000
60,000
65,000
45,000
680,281
590,710
906,385
1,857,240
2,288,360
349,606,079
291,237,715
343,581,887
386,627,845
303,432,684
Videography fee
TOTAL
Myriam's Tomb
Admission tkts
Videography fee
TOTAL
Itmad ud Daula
tomb
TOTAL
Rambagh Garden
Admission tkts
Admission tkts
Videography fee
Filming Operation
TOTAL
Mehtab Bagh
Garden
Admission tkts
Videography fee
Filming Operation
TOTAL
GRAND TOTAL
PER YEAR
8
Table 1
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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The city of Agra’s regional economic significance and dire need for holistic development initiatives is often overshadowed by its
historical importance. Apart from being home to three World Heritage Sites and several other notable historic sites (Refer Table 4),
Agra is also the regional commercial and industrial hub for Western Uttar Pradesh, unlike the rest of the state where agriculture has
always played a big role in the economy. Agra, having infertile land and being prone to floods from the river Yamuna, has thus
received a strong industrial impetus over time. A majority of the city’s industrial commerce comprises small-scale and household
industries that are clustered primarily in the traditional localities of Lohamandi, Rakabganj, Kotwali and Tajganj, comprising of
marble in-lay work, leather, carpet, brassware, artistic rugs and jewelry production that are then sold at tourist shops across the city.
These industries have flourished over centuries, especially given their initial Mughal patronage. Official records state that the city
has 5263 small-scale industrial units with an investment of about Rs. 263.15 crore. Additionally, about 750 small-scale units in the
city produce the aforementioned petha, tucked in the winding lanes of the Noori Darwaza Market. The larger industrial areas are
located in the localities of Chatta and Hariparvat, comprising textile, leather and leather goods, foundry, diesel engines, generator
sets, electrical goods, steel rolling, packaging materials and so on. While the industrial patterns in the city subtly underwent a
change during the Colonial era, rail and road networks ensured that Agra remained the handicraft and cottage-industry hub of the
region (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).
Census data shows that there has hardly been any change in occupational distributions in the city between 1971 and 2001 (Refer
Figure 3). The primary sector, comprising of agriculture has consistently been the least popular occupation, with secondary sector
comprising of household industries faring only slightly higher. The tertiary sector, comprising a variety of occupations such as
manufacturing, electricity, gas and water supply, construction, transport, storage, communication, banking & insurance, trade and
business and other services (including tourism and hotel services) has enjoyed an overwhelming majority with 88.44% of the city’s
population undertaking tertiary occupations in 1971 and 88.68% in 2001 (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).
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From the latest data available on the distribution of occupation types, the category of ‘other’ forms the biggest group, encompassing
most importantly the service sector that caters to tourists in terms of hospitality, tourism operations and commerce from smallscale and handicraft industries (Refer Figure 4). Apart from the dichotomy of occupations in Agra, its declining resident population is
also economically diverse. According to the 2001 census, 9.67% of the city’s population was living in officially recognized slums
within the urban periphery (CURE, 2007). Eleven years on, these figures are grimmer. In 2005, the Agra Nagar Nigam10 (henceforth
ANN) hired a consultant firm to prepare a City Development Plan11 (henceforth CDP) for Agra, a comprehensive development
document to rectify the urban stagnation
plaguing the city with a proposal for integrated
Occupational Distribution, 2001
development and management of the city and
2%
1%
all its historic sites. This CDP was prepared to be
submitted
Development
to
the
Ministry
(henceforth
of
MoUD)
8%
Urban
in
the
Cultivators
Agricultural labourers
Government of India (henceforth GOI). The
Household industries
MoUD is the implementing and monitoring
Others
agency for the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (henceforth JNNURM). The
89%
CDP for Agra, a visionary document at the
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
conception stage, promised to develop this Figure 4
Category B, million-plus city in a way as to benefit its vast cross-section of residents and visitors. Moving forward to 2012, only a
small fraction of the initiatives promised in the CDP have been delivered. This report takes a look at how the JNNURM initiatives that
10
11
Also known as Agra Municipal Corporation
Required for JNNURM
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were promised and proposed in the CDP have been actually implemented and impacted the historic sites in the city, now that the
seven-year deadline for the program (2005-2012) is fast approaching.
Cities in Uttar Pradesh with over 4 million population
Source: Census of India, Government of India website, http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_up.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Allahabad
Moradabad
Ghaziabad
Azamgarh
Lucknow
Kanpur
Jaunpur
5,959,798
4,773,138
4,661,452
4,616,509
4,588,455
4,572,951
4,476,072
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Sitapur
Bareilly
Gorakhpur
Agra
Muzaffarnagar
Hardoi
Kheri
Table 2
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4,474,446
4,464,344
4,436,275
4,380,793
4,138,605
4,091,380
4,013,634
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2 Agra: Contradictions in the City
The bulbous beacon of Taj Mahal’s white-marbled grandeur; the majestic, fiery-red, imposing fortifications of Agra Fort; the chaotic,
loud and cantankerous streets laden with impatient traffic of man, animal and machine; the odoriferous, windingly narrow lanes of
traditional inner-city settlements (colloquially called katras, basties); the vast, arid banks of the rapidly drying and heavily polluted
Yamuna River. These and more make up the intricately woven and complicated urban contradictions that comprise the
contemporary city of Agra.
Most importantly, however, the city of Agra’s
Mughal-era architectural heritage consists not only
of the UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites of
Taj Mahal and Agra Fort, but other remarkable sites
such as Chini ka Rauza, Rambagh Gardens,
Sikandra, Mariyam’s Tomb, Mehtab Bagh, Itmadud-daula’s Tomb, and Jama Masjid to name just a
few. Additionally, Mughal architecture is not the
only facet of Agra’s rich architectural and historical
past. Agra also boasts a wide variety of other
religious and secular structures such as medieval
Figure 5
View of the Taj from one of the many rooftop restaurants in Taj Ganj
Source: Author
and later Hindu temples (Mankameshwar Mandir, Rawali, Balkeshwar Mandir, Prithvinath Mandir, Rajeshwar Mandir , Kailash
Mandir, Renuka Dham, Sainath); a Buddhist monastery; Christian churches and cemeteries (Cathedral St. Peter's, St. Patricks,
Baptist Church, Sai Ka Takia, Catholic Church, Sadar Bazaar, St. Mary' s Pratapura, St. Paul's Khandari, Roman Catholic Cemetery);
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and Jain temples (Digambar Jain temple, Taj Ganj, Tirthadham, Mangalayatan, Sasni, Aligarh, Chintamani Parshwanath, Roshan
Mohalla, Dadabari, Shahganj)12 to name a few.
This vast and varied architectural13 legacy, so clearly stamped across the Agra’s skyline for centuries is today slowly being swallowed
up by a sprawling, bloated and polluted industrial city’s desire to compete in India’s rapidly urbanizing landscape. Agra’s
contradictions are many and they manifest themselves in the experiences of residents and visitors alike. The city’s resident
population of over 4.38 million, according to the 2011 census
(Refer Table 2) plays host to millions of domestic and
international tourists every year. Out of these, nearly 4 million
tourists (both domestic and international) on an average14
arrive yearly at the Taj Mahal alone (Refer Table 3). In fact,
studies have shown than on an average nearly 55% of all foreign
visitors to India visit the Taj every year (Agra Nagar Nigam,
2006). The staggering amount of visitors to a single historic site
such as the Taj Mahal is unprecedented across the country,
rivaled perhaps only by religious and pilgrimage visits
undertaken to the Tirupati Balaji Temple in Andhra Pradesh Figure 6
which gets an average of 60,000 devotees on a slow day and at Roman Catholic Cemetery
Source: Author
12
Uttar Pradesh State Department of Tourism official website, http://www.up-tourism.com/destination/agra/places_of_interest.htm
Agra also has a diverse and eclectic socio-cultural heritage that is beyond the scope of this report, but nevertheless forms an intrinsic part of the way in which the city functions: the communitybased traditional residential areas, the steep caste and religion divide that still exists in the city, and the unequal distribution of services amongst the newer residential areas versus the older, more
organic traditional settlements.
14
Average of the last 5 years
13
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least 1 lakh during festivals15. In most cases, a high number of tourist visits to a particular city has an impact on its infrastructural
development (Srivastava, 2011) in such as way as to spur on the growth rate. In Agra’s case, however, this has not proven true due a
variety of reasons. Three of the most important of these include (but are not limited to) its close proximity to the national capital of
New Delhi, spatial/developmental urban restrictions from Supreme Court due to threats to the Taj Mahal, and gaps in the
institutional/administrative setup. All these have combined to create a distinct developmental dichotomy in Agra, one that the
various administrators in the city constantly strive to grapple with.
2.1 Proximity to New Delhi and the Golden Triangle
The close proximity that Agra enjoys with New Delhi has both been a boon and a bane for the city. With a distance of just over
200kms between them, the cities have been over the years connected by a variety of road and rail networks, many catering
especially to tourists. Nearly fifty trains16 connect New Delhi and Agra on an almost daily basis, in addition to eleven UPSRTC17 buses
that connect Delhi to Agra from the Inter State Bus Terminal (ISBT) in Sarai Kale Khan, New Delhi to Idgah Bus Station, Agra. In
addition to the State Transport buses, there are several private tour operators that also ply buses between the two destinations. In
all, the rail and/or road journey takes about 3-4 hours each way. This connectivity has been a boon for the local residents of each of
the two cities to undertake leisure or business trips more quickly and efficiently; however, the connectivity has proven to be a bane
for the tourism service providers in Agra who only get a small percentage of tourists actually staying in Agra thus affecting the
revenue that comes into the city. This fact is also illustrated by a sample tourist survey conducted on-site in Agra (Refer Figure 7). The
chart shows how the largest percentage of visits made to Agra are day-visits from New Delhi, followed by only overnight stays in
Agra.
15
Times of India, “21-hour wait for fleeting darshan of the Lord at Tirumala”, March 26, 2012. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/21-hour-wait-for-fleeting-darshan-of-the-Lord-atTirumala/articleshow/12410243.cms
16
Indian Rail Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC) website, Govt of India, https://www.irctc.co.in/
17
Uttar Pradesh State Tourism Corporation, http://www.upsrtc.com/online/query/run_origin_query.asp?D1=40++++dlh&D2=2++++agr&scn=168&scn1=75
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The large percentage of day-trips to Agra has historical precedent, and has led to a distinct gap in infrastructural development in the
city. Prior to 1988 the city of Agra did not have any hotels of international standards to cater to its burgeoning international tourist
base. In recent years, however, several large hotel brands such as the Taj Group, Oberoi Group, Welcome Group and Trident have
constructed large, multi-star hotels in the city that cater to a variety of clientele. They also attempt to attract corporate clients by
positioning their world-class hotel and banquet services amidst the added attraction of the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri
(Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). Despite, however, the existence of these well-known hotel brands, the State Tourism Bungalows run by
UP Tourism, and a large number of private hotels, economy lodges, and homestay facilities, the city has not developed its hospitality
potential in proportion to the number of its visitors. Agra’s facilities amount to 175 rooms for every 1 lakh18 tourists. This figure,
when compared to the national average of 423 rooms/lakh tourist, and the state average of 404 rooms/lakh tourist is rather pitiful
(Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006).
Agra’s lack of developmental opportunities due to its proximity to
Types of Agra visits
New Delhi is further compounded by its equal proximity to the
4%
Rajasthani capital, Jaipur, thus creating a tourist zone known as
1 day with overnight
stay in Agra
The Golden Triangle19. Each city is roughly 200 – 250 kms away
30%
from each other (Refer Figure 9), thus making the triangle a
30%
profitable destination for tour operators. This tourist zone,
1 day with day trip
from New Delhi
2-5 days
encompassing the architectural and historical experience of
Mughal, Rajput and Colonial periods of India’s history respectively,
36%
is widely packaged as a quick way to view the variety of cultural
Figure 7
Source: On-site survey, March 2012
18
19
1 lakh is equivalent to 1 hundred thousand; 1,00,000 = 100,000
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India Annual Report 2010, http://tourism.gov.in/writereaddata/uploaded/tender/053120110313488.pdf
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6 days or more
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experiences that the country has to offer. New Delhi, however being the national capital, and often a port-of-entry for international
visitors as well as domestic visitors due to its rail and road connectivity, is often the primary place of stay for tourists, with day-trips
or overnight packages to Jaipur and Agra. In fact, the Triangle is popularly offered as an option by the Government of India’s
Incredible India! campaign20.
The proximity to New Delhi was also a factor in the Agra playing a role in the controversial Commonwealth Games held in October
2010. In addition to the various initiatives in New Delhi to
prepare the city for international athletes, Agra also benefited
in terms of day-tours organized for the athletes to visit the city’s
World Heritage Sites21. In preparation for visitors during the
Commonwealth Games, the ASI implemented several upgradation projects at Agra’ historic sites that included
construction of wooden ramps at all major ASI sites to facilitate
universal access, in addition to construction of public toilets and
drinking water at all major historic sites22. While visitors during
the Commonwealth Games may not have been as many as
originally envisaged, up-gradation initiatives at Agra’s historic Figure 8
sites during the Games nevertheless have benefited the millions Construction of a universal access ramp at the Itmad-ud-daula
Tomb occurred during the Commonwealth Games in 2010
of subsequent tourists and visitors to the sites, primarily Source: Author
because of Agra’s close proximity to New Delhi.
20
Incredible India! website, Govt of India, Ministry of Tourism. www.incredibleindia.org
Zee news, “Tourism industry asked to cash in on Commonwealth Games’, Aug 19, 2009, http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/tourism-industry-asked-to-cash-on-c-wealth-games_556500.html
22
Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle
21
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Figure 9
The Golden Triangle
Source: Google Maps
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2.2 The focus on Taj Mahal
As mentioned previously, the city of Agra is best known for hosting the World Heritage Site of Taj Mahal (Figure 10), a well-known
historic landmark within and outside the country. The historic site has for a long time captured the imagination and attention of
visitors, scholars, residents and especially the erstwhile Colonial rulers. This is attested by the scores of publications available in
relation to the Taj Mahal (Arnold, 2007; Begley, 1989; Cagh
̲ ̲tāʼī, 1955; Koch, 2006; Kumar, 1993; Lakshmi, 2006; Lancaster, 1956;
Lane-Smith, 1999; Nath, 1972; Sen Gupta, 2006; Sinha, 2009; Tillotson, 2008), to name just a few. While this is by no means an
exhaustive list, it gives a fairly clear picture of the attention that the Taj Mahal has received for several centuries.
Figure 10
Panoramic view of the Taj Mahal
Source: Author
This focus on a single (albeit eminently worthy) historic site in the city has over the years led to an imbalance of administrative
actions and programs; only recently have the Agra authorities begun to implement programs to draw attention to the other worthy
sites in Agra in an effort to attract tourists to stay in city hotels and spend a few days exploring the city and its treasure trove of
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Mughal and Colonial-era sites. An on-site survey done in Agra showed that 99% tourist/visitor to Agra visited the Taj Mahal, while
78% of them visited Agra Fort and 64% visited Fatehpur Sikri as well. Other sites within Agra’s urban limits such as Akbar’s Tomb in
Sikandra (40%), Itmad-ud-daula Tomb (21%), Jama Masjid (19%), Ram Bagh (14%), Mehtab Bagh (11%) and Myriam’s Tomb in
Sikandra (11%) clearly do not enjoy as much tourist focus as the other three World Heritage Sites (Refer Figure 12).
Figure 11
Approach road (left fork) to East Gate of the Taj, leading from the Shilp Gram complex
Source: Author
With such immaculate visitor attendance at the Taj, is no wonder that the site alone draws revenue of several crores per year. While
the site has in recent years been shrouded in an extra layer of security in the form of CISF23 forces monitoring all entry and exits
from the site and performing security checks24, the actual cleaning, maintenance and preservation of the Taj is done on a regular
basis by the ASI staff. There is, in fact evidence of the first conservation efforts being carried out at the Taj during the Mughal period
in a farman (order) stored at the Taj Museum, sent by Aurangzeb to Emperor Shah Jahan requesting for the repair of cracks that had
appeared in the dome. Since then, of course the Taj has undergone several administrative changes and over 320 major conservation
23
Central Industrial Security Force http://cisf.nic.in/
The Taj Mahal and the Red Fort, and by extension ASI ran into fiscal controvery in 2010 when they incurred heavy debts to non-payment of fees for the services of CISF. Economic Times, “Taj Mahal,
Red Fort owe CISF Rs.6.5crore for security”, Apr 27, 2010. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-04-27/news/27586618_1_red-fort-dues-psus
24
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initiatives have taken place at the site alone. More recently, in addition to conservation initiatives, a contract for laser scanning of
the entire structure has also been given to the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) at Kanpur, also in response to the Supreme Court
directives mentioned below25. Apart from this academic and scholarly attention, the Taj Mahal has in fact enjoyed immense
administrative attention over time; more than perhaps any other site in India. In the past few years, the Ministry of Tourism in New
Delhi has given the Department of Tourism, UP Government over Rs.50 crore for the development of the Taj area leading to the
development of the approach road to the East Gate (Refer Figure 11), improvements at Shah Jahan gardens and the creation of a
cultural complex called Shilp Gram as mentioned later. At present, the area around the Western Gate of the Taj is undergoing
improvement and up-gradation, including the creation of a better parking lot to serve the other end of the historic complex26.
Administrative and legislative programs and schemes thus far have also reflected the imbalance mentioned above. Agra has for
many years been a commercial and industrial hub of the western part of the state. The commercial and industrial pull of Agra,
attributing to its steadily increasing population growth post-Independence, has seen a decline in the last decade (Refer Figure 1). One
of the major reasons for this can be explained as a legislative shift in Agra in the mid-1990s. This shift in the way the Taj was
administered mandated the removal of industries within a certain perimeter of the Taj Mahal that has over the years suffered
several material and structural setbacks due to what experts have ascertained were repercussions brought on by atmospheric
pollutants in the immediate vicinity of the structure emitted by a variety of industries27.
25
Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle
Interview with Mr.DK Burman, Retired Managing Director, Uttar Pradesh Tourism Corporation
27
Outlook, “The Taj Mahal Man”, May 22, 1996. http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?201409; Youth ki Awaaz, “Grand symbol of Love faces Environmental Test”, January 20, 2011.
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/taj-mahal-environment-pollution/
26
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Number of Tourist arrivals at Taj Mahal, Agra
Source: Uttar Pradesh Tourism Office, Govt of Uttar Pradesh, Agra
Month
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Indian
Foreign
Total
Indian
Foreign
Total
Indian
Foreign
Total
Indian
Foreign
Total
Indian
Foreign
Total
JAN
144,774
60,944
205,718
163,825
66,970
230,795
190,841
41,585
232,426
240,757
67,435
308,192
306,636
72,614
379,250
FEB
131,429
66,740
198,169
148,641
73,713
222,354
161,438
47,493
208,931
306,604
80,380
386,984
325,006
83,830
408,836
MAR
151,686
64,141
215,827
233,379
78,739
312,118
181,239
48,465
229,704
370,818
79,592
450,410
386,340
81,218
467,558
APR
132,378
40,125
172,503
165,473
40,536
206,009
173,847
33,532
207,379
369,013
45,579
414,592
349,520
51,696
401,216
MAY
276,777
24,702
301,479
220,383
24,699
245,082
204,954
20,997
225,951
394,301
30,226
424,527
395,994
30,711
426,705
JUN
226,695
17,926
244,621
286,816
19,358
306,174
226,990
16,914
243,904
351,095
21,915
373,010
419,371
19,813
439,184
JUL
303,290
32,401
335,691
255,680
31,079
286,759
178,374
26,515
204,889
293,777
32,192
325,969
371,495
33,985
405,480
AUG
236,372
44,697
281,069
191,465
46,122
237,587
197,973
43,939
241,912
322,741
52,607
375,348
367,195
49,657
416,852
SEP
217,569
40,661
258,230
131,804
36,843
168,647
181,274
34,536
215,810
305,758
40,088
345,846
368,390
48,875
417,265
OCT
271,389
57,012
328,401
260,173
56,549
316,722
247,047
50,862
297,909
347,276
59,292
406,568
480,875
74,623
555,498
NOV
176,615
63,096
239,711
289,698
74,435
364,133
295,845
70,972
366,817
404,311
76,470
480,781
440,445
77,565
518,010
DEC
180,535
55,258
235,793
241,937
62,321
304,258
281,800
45,930
327,730
374,975
61,652
436,627
393,336
67,745
461,081
TOTAL
2,449,509
567,703 3,017,212 2,589,274
611,364 3,200,638 2,521,622
481,740 3,003,362 4,081,426
647,428 4,728,854 4,604,603
692,332 5,296,935
Table 3
Several documented litigations (Supreme Court of India, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2000, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c,
2007, 2010) attest to the sustained fight that environmentalists have undertaken over the past several decades, invoking the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 and Environment Protection
Act 1986 (henceforth EPA) to facilitate the relocation of industries to prevent emissions generated by coke or coal consumption that
were in turn damaging the white marble of the Taj. The inhabitants of the areas in the immediate vicinity of the Taj were directed to
change over to natural gas as industrial fuel. The main sources of pollution were found to be the foundries at Mathura, emitting
sulphur dioxide that combined with atmospheric oxygen to form sulphuric acid (acid rain). In addition, refineries, brick-kilns,
vehicular traffic and generator-sets were found to be the primary sources of polluting agents within the immediate vicinity of the Taj
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Mahal28. The Court, treating the Taj as an industry in itself (owing to the vast number of visitors to the site every year), deliberated
over several reports for over three years before passing judgment. Finally, in 1998, due to litigation efforts by Mr. Mahesh Chander
Mehta and other environmentalists lasting many decades as noted previously, the Supreme Court took steps to protect the Taj
Mahal29. A Gazette of India notification dated 1998 announced the creation of an authority known as the Taj Trapezium Zone
Pollution Authority (henceforth TTZPA) consisting of the Commissioner of Agra as its Chairman. Since its creation, the TTZPA has
been under the overall supervision of the Central Government and is authorized to exercise powers under Section 19 of the
Environment Protection Act of 1986. The geographical limits of the Taj Trapezium Zone (henceforth TTZ) have been defined in the
shape of a trapezoid between 26 45 N & 77 15'E to 27 45 N & 77 15 E in the West of the Taj Mahal and in the East of Taj Mahal
between 27 00' N & 78 30 E to 27 30' N & 78 30 E. This covers an area of approximately 10,400 sq.km30 surrounding the Taj Mahal.
Headquartered in Agra, the TTZPA has as part of its powers and duties to:
1. “monitor progress of the implementation of various schemes for protection of the Taj Mahal and programmes for protection
and improvement of the environment in the above said area;
2. exercise powers under section 5 of the EPA;
3. take all necessary steps to ensure Compliance of specified emission-standards by motor vehicles and ensuring compliance of
fuel quality standards;
4. deal with any environmental issue which may be referred to it by the Central Government or the State Government of Uttar
Pradesh relating to the above said area;
5. co-opt experts for facilitating the work assigned to it
28
Environmental Information System Center, Madras School of Economics Report, “Taj Pollution Matter” http://envis.mse.ac.in/problems%20pdf/TAJ%20POLLUTION%20MATTER.pdf
Outlook, “The Taj Mahal Man”, May 22, 1996. http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?201409; Youth ki Awaaz, “Grand symbol of Love faces Environmental Test”, January 20, 2011.
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/taj-mahal-environment-pollution/
30
Indian Express, “Taj Trapezium Zone set to get eight new projects”, March 21, 2011. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/taj-trapezium-zone-set-to-get-eight-new-projects/765068/0
29
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6. furnish a report about its activities at least once in two months to the Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and
Forests.”31
Most frequented historic sites in Agra
Source: On-site survey, March 2012
Figure 12
31
Gazette of India notification, Ministry of Environment and Forests, http://moef.gov.in/legis/ecozone/taj-aut.html
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The creation of TTZ thus dates back to the mid-90’s, when concerns about the discoloration of Taj Mahal’s façade began to be
discussed at the administrative and academic levels, spurred
on by a distinctly aggressive civil society. The Supreme Court,
taking cognizance of the massive environmental impact of
Agra’s industrial base to the Taj Mahal’s aging marble, thus put
into effect large-scale restrictions within the regulated TTZ
around the historic structure. The restrictions were not limited
to the vicinity of the Taj Mahal alone; while conventional
vehicles were banned within a 500 meter radius of the
structure, the Supreme Court also ordered 292 coal-based,
highly polluting factories to switch to natural gas or move
outside the impacting area of the Taj Mahal. Their limits were Figure 13
set to April 30, 199732. Although the State Pollution Control
Battery-operated Bus
Source: Author
Board had placed on record list of 510 industries which were responsible for air pollution, the Court confined its order only to 292
industries located and operating in Agra33. The primary objective of the entire litigation by Mr.Mehta and other members of civil
society was to stop the pollution in and around the site without discouraging industry – in fact to encourage a more sustained
development of the area.
In addition to efforts in the TTZ, the ASI also contributed to the Supreme Court directives by increasing plantations at the Mehtab
Bagh gardens located across the river from the Taj to improve its ambient air quality34. On the other side of the bank, a direct result
32
Mid-Day, “Taj is safe: experts”, October 08, 2011. http://www.mid-day.com/news/2011/oct/081011-Agra-Taj-is-safe-experts.htm
Environmental Information System Center, Madras School of Economics Report, “Taj Pollution Matter” http://envis.mse.ac.in/problems%20pdf/TAJ%20POLLUTION%20MATTER.pdf
34
Interview with Mr.ID Dwivedi, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle
33
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of these legislative efforts was also seen in the creation of a regulated zone around the Taj Mahal comprising of the construction and
creation of the previously-mentioned 12 acre complex called Shilp Gram (Handicrafts Village) beyond the East Gate of the Taj Mahal
by the Uttar Pradesh State Department of Tourism. This multi-use
complex hosts a variety of activities such as ticketing, shopping,
restaurants, tourist information and parking. The complex is also
the drop-off point for all motorized vehicles. All visitors traverse
the roughly one kilometer distance to the Taj Mahal in batteryoperated buses (Figure 13) or golf carts (Figure 14) from the
complex, paying a minimum fee35 for their use. These vehicles are
operated by the Agra Development Authority (henceforth ADA)
and revenue generated from ticket sales goes towards their
maintenance and upkeep. These vehicles (24 golf carts: 6 and 8
seaters; 12 buses: 15 seaters) were primarily implemented Figure 14
because of the aforementioned Supreme Court order to stop Battery-operated golf carts
Source: Author
vehicles from parking close to the monument to stop atmospheric pollution from damaging the white marble. As part of the tax and
ticket collections, ADA provides all foreign visitors with ‘foreigner’ tickets with bottles of water, shoe covers and a carry bag at Shilp
Gram prior to their departure for Taj Mahal36.
Taj Mahotsav (Taj Festival)
The Taj Mahotsav, first organized in 1992 by the State Department of Tourism, is held at the Shilp Gram every year for a ten-day
period37 from February 18th to 27th. Contrary to the name, apart from its proximity to the Taj Mahal, the festival has little to do with
35
36
Fee for the battery operated vehicles is Rs.5 for buses and Rs.10 for golf carts for Indians. All Taj Mahal entry ‘foreign’ ticket holders travel for free.
Interview with Mr. Sanjay Singh, ADA Electrical Engineer
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the actual site, apart from drawing thousands of visitors to its vicinity and thus encouraging them to visit the historic site. The large
Shilp Gram complex hosts a variety of stalls that house craftsman, food vendors and commercial vendors for local, domestic and
international visitors. The complex also handles and manages all the parking for the event with nearly Rs.2 crore being collected in
revenue from parking alone every year. Nearly 200 stalls are reserved every year for handicraft artisans for free to encourage the
industry. About 150 stalls are used for commercial purposes by various vendors for a fee. Every evening, the Mahotsav hosts cultural
events at various sites across Agra in order to draw a variety of crowds. Special buses connect the venue from various parts of the
city as well be outlined in the next section. Sur Sadan (Music Hall) hosts the Kavi sammelan (Poets conclave) every year with special
cultural performances spread throughout the ten-day period. Often the cultural events are attempted to be held at historic sites to
draw attention to them. These however, often prove difficult not only because ASI does not give permission easily, but also because
crowd control becomes a problem and the cultural events at sensitive historic sites end up becoming exclusive, pass-only events that
host only a select few. To counter this problem, this year a new component was added to the festival with a car rally being organized
at the Chambal forest; contracted to Indian Motor Racing Federation, the race finished in front of Agra Fort and passed through the
historic town of Bateshwar in an effort to spread awareness and draw crowds to seldom visited areas in and around Agra38.
The Taj Mahotsav was always envisioned to be an equal opportunity event to bring culture to the masses. Apart from the Rs.20
entry fee to enter the Shilp Gram complex there is no other fee for any other event apart from the charges for the merchandise
offered at the stalls. The Taj Mahotsav, a popular regional event is widely publicized and draws an average of 40,000 visitors per day.
Special staff canteens are run for the hundreds of staff and stall owners at the expense of UP Tourism. The entire festival is
organized by the Taj Mahotsav Committee every year, headed by the District Commissioner as its Chairman39.
37
This year, due to the state elections, the festival was postponed to mid-March (16th -26th)
Interview with Mr.Satish Srivastava, Director, UP Tourism in Agra
39
Interview with Mr.Satish Srivastava, Director, UP Tourism in Agra
38
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2.3 Disconnected administration and management
While administrative agencies have put in tremendous effort and money in developing the World Heritage sites of Taj Mahal, Agra
Fort and the outlying site of Fatehpur Sikri as tourist attractions, the other, less well-known albeit important historic sites have been
left as islands in a sea of urban chaos, congestion and filth. Within their own boundary walls, each of the historic sites, irrespective of
their stature, have been maintained, preserved and administered by central and/or state agencies such as Archaeological Survey of
India (henceforth ASI) and State Department of Archaeology
(henceforth State Archaeology). Beyond the boundaries of each
site, however, is a city that is almost completely disconnected
from what lies within the walls (Refer Figure 15). In each case,
administration, implementation and management of the sites,
their environs and the city beyond occur in distinct silos,
independent of each other. This disconnect has led to a
haphazard development in the city, with selected pockets of
developmental activity. This is also one of the major reasons
why most JNNURM proposals mentioned in the Agra CDP never
came to fruition.
Figure 15
In terms of heritage management, Agra has historically and Open park area immediately abutting the Agra Fort entrance with
the entrance gate in the background
contemporarily enjoyed a rather important status within the Source: Author
national-level management agency of Archaeological Survey of India, which has its own circle at Agra. Up until a few decades ago,
the Agra circle was the only jurisdictional authority in the entire state, until its bifurcation into Lucknow and Agra Circles to
administer West and East UP respectively. Current perusal of ASI’s records show heightened archaeological and conservation
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activities in Agra from the 1870s, around the same time that the ASI was formed. The Agra Circle administers 264 monuments, out
of which 32 are within the urban limits of the city of Agra. While signage maintenance and landscaping are regularly taken care of,
major conservation projects are only taken on priority.
There are several state and central government departments that co-exist and function in the city; however most do not collaborate
while implementing projects. This has very important bearing on the way in which the historic sites and zones in the city function,
and how projects are implemented there. Within each historic site designated by the ASI, the maintenance, ticketing, security and
administration falls within the purview of ASI. In the case of the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra and
Itmad-ud-daula’s Tomb, the ASI has sub-circles administered by Conservation Assistants (henceforth CA) who manage each site’s
day-to-day affairs. The rest of the centrally protected sites are administered through the Superintendent Archaeologist’s office at
the Agra Circle headquarters in Agra on Mall Road. Interviews with the Conservation Assistants (often holding only diplomas and not
professional degrees) at each of the sub-circles in Agra elicited some surprising facts. Three out of the five CAs were not aware of the
UP Tourism/UPSRTC guided tour buses that bring tourists to their sites. All five were unaware of any JNNURM initiatives, and
categorically stated that they had never been consulted nor spoken to with regard to the creation or implementation of the various
JNNURM schemes outlined in the Agra CDP. All the CAs were in agreement that almost all the visitors to their respective sites made
use of private vehicles, taxis, autos and tangas because none of the public transportation buses (funded by JNNURM since 2010)
dropped off passengers at a walking distance to their historic sites. Only local residents used the public transportation buses for their
daily commute. At the Agra Fort, the CA was aware and appreciative of the Light and Sound Show organized by UP Tourism. While
UP Tourism sells tickets and collects revenue from the event, the ASI Sub-circle gets a percentage of that revenue as part of a MoU
signed by the heads of UP Tourism and ASI.
Another area where some inter-departmental cooperation is seen is in ticket sales at the various ASI sites. Most of the ticketed
historic sites in Agra have an additional Toll tax imposed by the Agra Development Authority; the percentage of the toll varies from
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one site to another. Table 4 gives a detailed account of the way in which the ticket and toll prices are distributed at various historic
sites across Agra. Several Engineers at the Agra Development Authority were interviewed in an effort to understand the way in
which this taxation is levied; however, not a single interviewee could explain the logic behind the toll levied. A curious aspect of the
toll imposed is that if a ‘foreigner’ buys a ticket for Rs.750 for the Taj Mahal, he/she is then exempted from paying toll tax at other
monuments for the rest of that particular day – however only that day. If he/she wishes to visit other historic sites on other days,
he/she would need to pay the toll on other sites again. I have yet to ascertain the methodology in the toll tax process implemented
at the historic sites by ADA.
List of historic sites administered by ASI within Agra’s urban limits
# - World Heritage Site
Source: Personal visits
Name of Site
Taj Mahal #
Agra Fort #
Fatehpur Sikri #
Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandra
Mariam’s Tomb, Sikandra
Itmad-ud-daula’s Tomb
Mehtab Bagh
Ram Bagh
Taj Museum
Chini ka Rauza
Roman Catholic Cemetery
Itibari Khan’s Mosque
Jaswant Singh ki Chhatri
Statue of Akbar’s Horse
Barah Khamba
Chattries on Yamuna bank
Ticket Prices (in INR)
ASI fee
10
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
Indian
ADA fee
10
10
10
5
5
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
TOTAL
20
20
20
10
5
10
5
5
5
ASI fee
250
250
250
100
100
100
100
100
5
Non-Indian
ADA fee TOTAL
500
750
50
300
10
260
10
110
100
10
110
100
100
5
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
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Chauburji
Kans Gate
Jhun jhun Katora
Gateway at Pul Changa Modi
Khan-i-Alam Bagh
Well and steps in Charbagh
Humayun Masjid of Kachhpura
Sikandra mosque
Table 4
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
30
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
The Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.), headquartered in the state capital of Lucknow, has its Regional Office in Agra, administered
by a Regional Archaeological Officer. The sites designated by the Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.) in Agra are administered through
this office. The Department has been involved with some management of World Heritage Sites in the State, however the 3 sites in
Agra are administered by ASI. The department works according to the 11th and 12th Finance Commission, involved in Archaeological
surveys, Conservation and Publication. The executing agency for the Directorate at all its Regional offices is CNDS.
Interestingly, while there is no interference between the sites administered by ASI and the Directorate of Archaeology, the State
Department of Tourism and the State Department of Culture (parent department for the Directorate of Archaeology) are often
involved in coordination of tourism and cultural activities. One example of this coordination is the Light and Sound Show at Agra
Fort, started by State Department of Culture in April 2011. Staffing, ticketing, funding, designing and organization for the event are
all done by the Department of Culture, while ASI acts as the host, and its staff take care of security at the site.
Beyond the walls of the historic sites protected by ASI and/or Directorate of Archaeology (U.P.) the administrations falls to Agra
Development Authority40 or Agra Nagar Nigam41, as the case may be. The Agra Development Authority was constituted by the state
government to provide housing and manage the way in which land was developed in the city. The agency administers several
40
41
Official website, Agra Development Authority, http://www.ada-agra.com/
Official website, Agra Nagar Nigam, http://www.nagarnigamagra.com/
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residential and commercial schemes, and comprises primarily of engineers (with one town planner and one architect in its employ).
As part of its many duties, the ADA not only earns revenue from toll collection, but runs the battery-operated buses at Shilp Gram to
take tourists to the Taj Mahal East Gate. The agency also manages and runs several parks and parking lots across the city, especially
in and around historic sites such as the Agra Fort and Taj Mahal. They however, have no say in what happens within the boundary
walls of the historic sites. The Agra Nagar Nigam, one of the largest municipal bodies in the state, provides civic amenities to the
city’s population. While its municipal jurisdiction covers the historic
sites mentioned in this report, the ANN does not actually have any role
or say in the working of historic sites. Interviews with several ANN
engineers showed that over the years, the primary role of ANN has
been in providing sanitation services across the city, including garbage
collection, sewerage, solid waste management and to some extent,
water supply (Refer Table 8). ANN also shares responsibility for street
lighting, roads and parks with other agencies such as ADA but beyond
these functions, ANN has neither the expertise nor the manpower to
implement or be involved in any other kind of projects. This has been
brought out very clearly in the execution of the JNNURM programs in
the city where ANN was made the nodal agency by the MoUD.
Figure 16
Garbage and refuse collection trucks within the ANN office
complex
Source: Author
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3
Agra’s recent urban development initiatives amidst its
historic landscape
Agra has had a rather sketchy urban development history (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). The various problems of implementation and
management of urban development programs and schemes that occurred up until the CDP was prepared for Agra in 2006 were a
positive step in identifying and subsequently rectifying problems of local governance. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission (henceforth JNNURM), one of the most prominent initiatives in recent times had sought to bring forth wide-spread urban
sector reforms through better local governance programs, monitored by the central government. The program was introduced by
GOI (administered through the MoUD) in 2005 to promote planned and sustainable development in various urban sectors across the
country in partnership with Urban Local Bodies (henceforth ULBs). The inclusion of development of historic urban cores and their
decongestion has been one of the eligible sectors for funding from the Directorate of Urban Infrastructure and Governance42, an
unprecedented feat. Of the sixty-three ‘mission’ cities eligible for funding assistance from JNNURM, seven were megacities43,
twenty-eight were ordinary cities with between four and one million population44, and twenty-eight had less than a million
population45. The city of Agra fell in Category B with a population of 1.1 million as of 200446; a city with rapidly urbanizing population
and a growing industrial and commercial presence at the local and regional level.
The City of Agra (represented by the Agra Municipal Corporation or Agra Nagar Nigam), through private consultants prepared a
detailed CDP (City Development Plan)47 dated August 2006 to be considered for approval by JNNURM in New Delhi; a report that
detailed the strengths and weaknesses of the city, and outlined a systematic approach that could lead to sustained development in a
42
JNNURM Overview, JNNURM website http://jnnurm.nic.in/
Category A with a population of over 4 million
44
Category B with a population of between 1 and 4 million
45
Category C with a population of less than 1 million; JNNURM Overview, JNNURM website http://jnnurm.nic.in/
46
Official website of the City of Agra, http://agra.nic.in/popurb.htm
47
JNNURM Website, http://jnnurm.nic.in/cdp-of-agra.html
43
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historic city like Agra. The architectural and historic significance of the city and its continued tourist potential formed an integral part
of this report (Agra Nagar Nigam, 2006). While going into the details of the CDP are beyond the scope of this report, an attempt is
made to summarize the key points brought out in the CDP.
3.1 Agra’s City Development Plan: Summary and Critique
The vision prepared for the Agra CDP involved “Utilization of Agra’s potential for improving the economy of the City by providing
equal access to best quality physical and social infrastructure to all residents.” Unfortunately, as this report will continue to show,
the vision did not come to fruition. This vision was based on an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses in the city identified as:
Opportunities
• Abundance of historic sites to encourage tourism
• Long stretch of the Yamuna river front
• Advantageous location with respect to New Delhi and Jaipur to enhance the existing tourism sector around the
Golden Triangle
• Well entrenched local economy in terms of : (a) Petha (b) Leather (c) Handicrafts
• Willingness of local and state administrations to reform
• Presence of several developmental stakeholders including NGOs
Constraints
• Fragile and environmentally sensitive heritage and ecology
• Haphazard spatial development and mushrooming of unauthorized settlements across the city
• Weak Infrastructure – lack of basic services such as water supply, sewage and solid waste disposal and drainage
• Congested roads due to disorganized and mixed nature of traffic
• Lack of a modern public transportation system
• Lax implementation of urban programs
• Substantial urban poverty and rapidly increasing slum areas
• Existing reformatory programs yet to be implemented
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Based on these identified strengths and weaknesses, a development strategy was devised for the city, formulated on the basis of
periodic city assessments and stakeholder consultations. Aimed at achieving the CDP’s vision the development goals targeted for
Agra to emerge as an aesthetic, safe, tolerant, creative, connected, clean and sustainable city that provides the highest quality of life
to its citizens including access and opportunities to work, education, health, development and recreation. The entire CDP, divided
into urban sectors, thus formulated separate strategies for each.
The tourism sector proposed the creation of world-class tourism infrastructure including an international airport, a golf course, Light
& Sound programs at Agra Fort; restoration and preservation of the historic structures in the city, and not just the three World
Heritage Sites; positioning and maintaining tourism development in Agra as a state/national priority; enhancing and maintaining the
competitiveness of Agra as a tourism destination; and improving existing tourism products and expanding these to meet new market
requirements. The infrastructure sector called for the enhancement and up-gradation of city infrastructure in terms of provision and
delivery of municipal services (water supply, sewerage, surface water drainage, solid waste management, roads, bridges,
streetlights, community facilities and other civic urban infrastructure and services); improving and achieving the maximum benefits
of tourism economy by creating additional infrastructure and additional facilities for increasing number of tourists; adopting GIS
mapping for utility planning and management for various sectors in the city. The sector aimed at assisting the urban poor proposed
for the provision of basic services in slum areas in a more systematic and methodical way; improving slums and implementing
rehabilitation programs to cover the whole cross-section of the urban poor living in slums; empowering communities to establish
linkages between community and bankers so as to facilitate assistance to beneficiaries; identifying institutions for imparting
specialized training to the community for improving their skills and talents and improving housing conditions across the city. The
sector dealing with inner city issues proposed the augmentation of existing water and sewer lines, maintenance and laying of new
drains, efficient disposal of solid waste to maintain the hygiene of the area, shifting of non-conforming household/small industrial
units to planned new areas, strengthening the road surface and traffic management plan for smooth flow of traffic and identifying
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and revitalizing the historic structures within the urban limits. During the process of formulating the CDP, several stakeholder
meetings were conducted and projects were accordingly prioritized keeping in mind the views, aspirations and needs of local
officials, residents, experts, NGOs, elected representatives and others. Decisions about designating priorities for each sector were
done on the basis of various consultations and discussions held with the government departments that were to be involved in the
implementation of CDP. As per the scope of the mission outlined by MoUD, the project costs proposed under Sub- Mission I in Agra’s
City Development Plan were approximately Rs. 7373.79 crores and under Sub Mission II were Rs. 480.85 crores (Refer Table 5).
Sector-wise Investment
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
S.No
Sector
Sub-Mission I
1
Water Supply
2
Sewerage
3
Storm Water Drainage
4
Solid Waste Management
5
Roads & Transportation
6
Heritage & Tourism
7
Industry
8
Environment
9
Urban Renewal Projects: Inner city
10
Capacity Building
Sub Total
Sub-Mission II
11
Urban Poverty and Slum
Sub Total
Grand Total
Table 5
Cost (in crores)
900.04
763.13
168.44
87.51
4950.35
52.5
4.83
254.78
180.61
11.6
7373.79
480.85
480.85
7854.64
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Schedule of Expenditure (Rs. in crores)
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
Name of the Sector
Heritage & Tourism
Industry
Environment
Water Supply
Sewerage
Storm Water Drainage
Solid Waste Management
Roads & Transportation
Urban Renewal Projects
Capacity Building
Sub-Total
Urban Poverty & Slum
Sub-Total
Grand Total
Table 6
2007
12.34
0
12.34
17.06
122.43
34.55
30.98
334.15
12.08
2.1
578.03
63
63
641.03
2008
12.95
0.66
52.64
174.47
99.72
40.02
38.59
368.5
29.04
2.21
818.8
66.15
66.15
884.95
2009
27.2
0.93
61.93
164.38
140.33
50.47
17.94
949.08
35.57
2.32
1450.15
69.46
69.46
1519.61
2010
0
1.46
43.75
172.6
179.56
17.5
0
990.7
56.31
2.43
1464.31
72.93
72.93
1537.24
2011
0
1.79
45.94
181.23
107.85
12.64
0
1130.06
23.23
2.55
1505.29
102.1
102.1
1607.39
2012
0
0
38.18
190.29
113.24
13.27
0
1177.85
24.39
0
1557.22
107.21
107.21
1664.43
Analysis of the Agra CDP brings up several critiques. The proposed, phased sectors for expenditure under JNNURM funding as
indicated in Table 6 included provisions for development of heritage and tourism related projects; however, these were proposed for
comparatively low funding, second only to ‘capacity building’. This aspect can be said to be one of the most problematic issues for
the entire CDP and brings us to the first critique of the CDP. Proposals in the CDP instead of promoting holistic development,
illustrate a disconnect between the various departments in the city. Looked at holistically, ‘heritage and tourism’ involve and are
affected by every other sector listed in Table 6; the CDP should have therefore accordingly created a proposal catering to the
immense historic nature of the city, its burgeoning industrial capacity, its delicate environmental character and its current milieu of
residents by cementing the relationships between each. However, as we will continue to see below, each sector in JNNURM was
proposed to be funded by, dealt with and executed by different agencies (Refer Table 8).
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Cost Structuring (Rs. in crores)
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
Name of sector
Total project
cost (Rs. In
crores)
GoI
(50%)
GoUP
(20%)
Other agencies (Total 30%)
ANN
ADA
NHAI
UP Bridge Corp
FI
Pvt
Sector
UP Jal
Nigam
Irrigation
Dept
RTO
Sub-Mission I
Heritage & Tourism
52.5
26.25
10.5
Industry
0.97
8.94
6.81
4.83
2.42
Environment
254.78
127.39
50.96
54.5
Water Supply
900.04
450.02
180.01
270.01
Sewerage
763.13
381.56
152.63
228.94
Storm Water Drainage
168.44
84.22
33.69
50.53
Solid Waste Management
87.51
43.75
17.5
Roads and Transportation
4950.35
2475.17
990.07
180.61
90.3
36.12
11.6
5.8
2.32
3.48
7373.79
3686.88
1474.77
4.93
734.1
422.88
124.54
8.94
523.17
333.65
21.93
37.99
Urban Poverty and Slum
480.85
240.42
240.42
Sub Total
480.85
240.42
240.42
7854.64
3927.3
1715.19
4.93
734.1
422.88
124.54
8.94
523.17
333.65
21.93
37.99
Urban Renewal Projects
Capacity Building
Sub Total
1.45
21.93
26.25
734.1
422.88
124.54
165.6
37.99
54.18
Sub-Mission II
Grand Total
Table 7
One of the most essential goals of JNNURM has also been to facilitate good (and improved) governance among urban local bodies.
Good Governance is defined differently in terms of the context. ‘Good urban governance’ is characterized by its efficiency,
transparency, accountability, and civic engagement. The CDP claims that good urban governance, based on the principle of urban
citizenship, affirms that no man, woman or child can be denied access to the necessities of urban life, including adequate shelter,
security of tenure, safe water, sanitation, a clean environment, health, education and nutrition, employment and public safety and
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mobility. However, good governance is very difficult to achieve without a greater degree of inter-departmental dialogue. Ways to
facilitate this interaction have unfortunately been missing from the Agra CDP, also highlighting the previous critique regarding
departmental disconnections. While individual departments may perform their tasks (often quite successfully) problems related to
heritage and its management will always crop up because heritage-related agencies and professionals are never brought into the
city governance dialogue except on a project-to-project basis, even in a historic city like Agra.
The second critique of the AGRA CDP is the uneven distribution of the way in which different agencies and the private sector have
been proposed to be involved in different urban sectors, with the ill-equipped ANN acting as the nodal agency. Prior to JNNURM
implementation, the role of the private sector in municipal service delivery was negligible. A small stretch of street light
maintenance on MG Road was contracted out, albeit running unsuccessfully. A small area around the Taj Mahal was also given out
for private sweepers for cleaning, also running unsuccessfully. Table 7 above shows how the percentage of funding contributions
would be spread across different agencies, delineating their involvement. Total private sector contribution for various projects (like
water supply, solid waste management, roads and transportation, heritage & tourism and environment) is proposed to be Rs. 523.17
crores, which is only approximately 7.6 percent of the total cost of the projects. The private sector participation for selected
JNNURM sectors (Refer Table 7) in Agra was envisaged for maintenance of compost plants, improvement and beautification of
existing parks, maintenance of new parks, restoration and beautification of water bodies, multi storied parking lots, maintenance of
foot over bridges /pedestrian underpasses and infrastructure improvement in various historic sites. However, with such a small
percentage and limited involvement, JNNURM projects do not have a hope of being implemented properly because the public sector
problems that have existed over time still persist and have the upper hand.
Table 8 below illustrates the distribution of functions across various state departments as they existed prior to the implementation of
JNNURM. It is important to note that these functions and their distribution among agencies has not changed till date. Taking the
first sector as an example, it is seen that there is a fragmentation of functional activity between the Jal Nigam and the Jal Sansthan in
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just dealing with water supply. Furthermore, when it comes to the provision of this very basic service to the slum dwellers, another
state agency called the State Urban Development Authority (SUDA) comes into the picture when according to the Municipal Act,
ANN is responsible for this function. Fragmentation and functional overlap therefore have occurred at the same time. In a similar
vein, city roads are divided amongst PWD, ADA and ANN and so goes the story with various urban sectors in the city (Agra Nagar
Nigam, 2006). This fragmentation of service provision in the city can be said to be one of the primary reasons why urban service
provision in Agra has had such a dismal record. There is no coherence and cooperation.
Existing Institutional Role and Responsibilities
Source: City Development Plan, Agra. 2006
Infrastructure component
Planning and design
Construction
Operation and Maintenance
Water supply
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Sansthan
Sewerage
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Sansthan
Storm Water Drainage
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Nigam
UP Jal Sansthan
Solid Waste Management
ANN
ANN
ANN
Roads
PWD, ADA, ANN
PWD, ADA, ANN
PWD, ADA, ANN
Street lighting
ADA, ANN
ADA, ANN
ADA, ANN
Parks
ANN
ANN
ANN
Table 8
The municipal reforms proposed in the Agra CDP were the first of their kind in the city in several decades. Until 2005, no municipal
reforms had been undertaken by the Agra Municipal Corporation. There was also no system of e-governance in the Agra Municipal
Corporation especially with respect to property tax collection. Recommendations from the Agra CDP strongly suggested that the
Government of Uttar Pradesh needed to play the role of a facilitator of urban development activities in the city of Agra. For this,
Agra CDP recommended that the Govt. of UP had to fully implement the 74th Constitution Amendment Act (CAA) by completely
devolving all functions and powers, state level reforms, repealing ULC, Rent Act, rationalizing stamp duty and bringing it down to 5
percent and facilitating municipal-parastatal coordination. The Agra Nagar Nigam as the principal organization carrying out various
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civic functions in the city had to ensure rationalization of property tax and implementation of IT and GIS based system, full
implementation of double entry accounting system and introduction of e-governance, coordination between all concerned
parastatal agencies for smooth functioning of all civic activities / works / projects ( such as those under JNNURM ) in the city,
coordination with all concerned parastatal agencies as well as surrounding municipalities / cantonment so that inter - jurisdictional
issues as well as functional overlap can be sorted out once and for all, implementation of Ward Committee byelaws so that the ward
committees can start functioning properly, facilitation of capacity building exercises for its staff so that they can be made aware of
the latest developments in the urban / municipal sector in India, development of a data base for all properties owned by the
Corporation so that property portfolio management can be done, creation of a data base and MIS so that all data is readily available
for not only the concerned Govt agencies but the citizens as well.
Despite the critique mentioned earlier, the Agra CDP perhaps more than any other document did portray the potential to bring
about private sector participation in the provision of civic services in order to bring about better and more efficient delivery of
services. The document needed ANN to involve NGOs and CBOs at various levels including at the planning stage, budget preparation
stage, selection of contractors / private service providers, monitoring various projects, provision and maintenance of various civic
services and mobilizing all the stakeholders together so that the city could be taken forward to its destination. In summary, the Agra
CDP did optimistically entrust ANN to bring about a remarkable improvement in the state of governance and urban infrastructure in
the city of Agra. But did it really work? To some degree it did, as the next section will show.
3.2 The reality of JNNURM in historic Agra
Contrary to the promising proposals outlined in the Agra CDP as mentioned in the previous section, the actual implementation of
JNNURM initiatives in Agra, (as with other cities across the country) has rather been a disappointment where holistic development
of historic sites and areas is concerned. With a flawed premise of making ANN the nodal agency especially in relation to historic
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precincts in the CDP, it is not surprising that not a single project in and around historic sites was implemented with JNNURM money,
apart from the few infrastructural ones detailed below. There are two basic areas in which projects have been implemented in both
historic and non-historic precincts in Agra with JNNURM funding: municipal services and transportation. Interviews conducted at
Agra’s various government agencies corroborated the project information available through JNNURM’s website detailing out all the
projects accepted and completed as well as those under consideration by the MoUD.
Apart from carrying out the drainage, solid waste management and water supply projects via JNNURM funding, ANN also carried out
institutional reforms in the form of better e-governance for the corporation to incorporate better and more efficient tax collection,
certification and accounting48. However, several other initiatives are currently in process:
Formulation and adoption of comprehensive policy and services to poor: Over the past few years, programs have been launched
by Govt. of U.P. for providing basic services to urban poor which include security of tenure and improved housing at affordable
prices. The programs are currently being implemented. Schemes include Sarv Jan Hitay Gareeb Avas (Slum Area) Malikana Haq
Yojna, Manywar Shri Kanshi Ram Ji Shahri Avas Yojna. Interview with Mr.PK Jain, Executive Engineer with the Uttar Pradesh Rajkiya
Nirman Nigam (henceforth UPRNN) indicated that their office has been undertaking projects under the Integrated Housing & Slum
Development Programme (IHSDP)49 of JNNURM by breaking down the informal housing (kutcha makaans) and constructing lowincome housing. Their office also has the responsibility for the selection of beneficiaries of JNNURM’s funding schemes for the low
cost housing based on quotas for general and SC/ST50 categories. However, because of several administrative reasons, he was
unable to provide project details.
48
These are beyond the scope of this report.
JNNURM, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, https://jnnurmmis.nic.in/jnnurm_hupa/index.html
50
SC/ST are Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes of India that have special quotas reserved under various government schemes
49
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Conducting household level surveys covering all poor settlements in the city: Surveys are being conducted by District Urban
Development Authority of Agra; they are currently in process under the responsibility of DUDA. This project also has USAID funding
to complete household surveys and create slum profiles for about 370 slums in 2007.
Household level surveys to cover infrastructure deficiency indicators: Surveys are being done by DUDA Agra for identification of
those falling within the poverty bracket for allotment of houses constructed under Manyavar Sh. Kanshiram Avas Yojna.
Creation of database for the identification of households for priority targeting: This project is currently in process therefore details
were not available.
Revision of Building Byelaws to streamline the approval process: Building Byelaws were revised in 2009 to simplify the process of
construction; the time period for approval was reduced from 90 to 30 days. This function is performed by all Urban Local Bodies
except for 106 (74 in regulated areas, 27 under development authority and 5 under special area development). The Development
authorities modified the existing building byelaws in order to streamline the process approval. The dissemination of the revised
building byelaws was made available through the websites of various concerned Authorities and Awas Bandhu.
Revision of building byelaws to make rainwater harvesting (RWH) mandatory in all sectors: This target was achieved by revising
the byelaws to make it mandatory for RWH to be a part of the plans at the time of approvals. However, this project needs better
implementation; for a start it has been implemented in government buildings under JNNURM funding.
Timeline to improve the percentage of reservation for EWS/LIG51 in housing projects: Reforms were implemented in the Housing
Policy Statement for integrated townships and high tech townships allowing for 10% plots to be reserved for EWS and 10% for LIG
housing.
Byelaws on Reuse of Recycled Water: Agra has been chosen as a pilot city to initiate and implement the reuse of recycled water and
directions were issued to Agra Nagar Nigam to carry out the necessary changes
51
Economically Weaker Sections/Low Income Group
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Encouraging PPPs: This target has been slowly achieved through the construction of public toilets, bus shelters, traffic signals and
public parks (Gandhi Park, Shivaji Park, Ashok Nagar Park, Vaibhav Nagar Park, Shalimar Park, Green Park) under Public Private
Partnerships52.
Fund allocation for the state of Uttar Pradesh
Source: JNNURM Website, https://jnnurm.nic.in
Sr no. Component
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
Projects
Approved
Total
Approved
Cost
Water Supply
Sewerage
Strom Water
Drains
preservation of
Water body
Solid Waste
Management
Urban Renewal/
Heritage
Prevention of
Soil Erosion
Parking
Road
524
161
1
1
122
Total
979
No. of /Projects for which Approved Cost of
ACA released
PC to total approved
ACA Released
projects for which
cost of projects for
ACA Released
which ACA released
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
Total
installment installment
installment installment Release
1047833.07
418
189
786711.36 319759.65 133044.57 452804.22
60.89
614856.35
96
18
286228.62 111935.67 20375.29 132310.96
22.15
79
144075.94
65
17
76150.99
32723.01
9
3003.16
9
3
3003.16
1237.80
70
40897.81
56
1
34202.04
10
3
4246.35
1808.68
90.82
188.52
37.00
136099.48
1
1
107
1
75.41
14.80
42317.50
75.41
58
188.52
37.00
101282.06
1993654.23
763
290
12
6662.90
5.89
1516.19
0.23
143.30 14408.61
2.65
278.39
1899.50
0.33
150.82
14.80
10031.80 52349.30
0.01
0.00
7.84
1292050.10 524137.83 173325.31 697463.14
100.00
Table 9
52
14265.31
9285.73 42008.74
Interviews with several ANN engineers on condition of anonymity
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3.2.1 Municipal Services: Water Supply, Sewerage and Solid Waste Management
The city of Agra has an area of over 141 sq.km that falls under the jurisdiction of the Agra Nagar Nigam, divided into 90 election
wards; these are further subdivided into 19 sanitary wards for solid waste management. In 2009, ANN in partnership with RCUES53
prepared a Detailed Project Report (DPR) for tackling the problem of solid waste management in the city of Agra (Regional Centre
for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009). The wards that come under the jurisdiction of ANN have a wide spectrum of population
living in them. Out of these, nearly 17,760 households were identified as living below the poverty line in 2009. While the percentage
of the slum population in the city (9.75%) is lower than the state percentage (12.7%), it is still a sizeable population for the city to
grapple with. The District Urban Development Authority (DUDA) has estimated slum pockets of upwards of 252, with a population of
at least 5.5 lakh people (44% of the total population as per 2001 census). Out of the 90 wards in the city, 44 have at least 1 slum
within their boundary with their percentages varying from one ward to another (about 2.66% to 91.85%) (Regional Centre for Urban
& Environmental Studies, 2009).
Storm Drains: One of the biggest urban challenges faced by the city over time has been the problem of filthy drains that traverse
the entire spread of the city leading to unhygienic, unsanitary conditions. Over time, the drains have been encroached, leading to
problems of cleaning and maintenance causing floods during monsoons. The city is divided into two major zones: CIS Yamuna and
Trans Yamuna (river). These are further divided into 11 drainage zones covering an area of about 96.85 sq.km serviced by about 62
drains. Out of these, twenty-five are major drains that flow directly into the Yamuna river, and thirty-eight secondary ones. Apart
from sanitation problems, the drains are of mixed variety, comprising of materials such as brick masonry, stone, and often only mud.
Tertiary drains, though few in number have also been plagued with similar problems over time, especially as people have built their
houses right over them. Therefore it is very difficult for ANN to control what goes into the drains, and often effluent of industries,
waste water of sewer, etc. all fall in these drains without any treatment (Regional Centre for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009) .
53
Regional Center for Urban and Environmental Studies, Lucknow; governed by the Ministry of Urban Development in New Delhi
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Sewage drains: The city of Agra has underground sewerage system, which is operated and maintained by the Agra Jal Sansthan
(Refer Table 8). The city is divided into 25 sewerage zones, grouped into 8 sewerage districts on the basis of topography and physical
barriers like railway lines, river, highway etc. The zones54 are:
a. Tajganj Sewerage district consisting Tajganj I, II and III zones.
b. Northern sewerage district covering Dayalbagh and parts of Sikandara I, Sikandara II, Khandari, Ghatwasan II zones.
c. Eastern sewerage district covering Trans Yamuna-I and Trans Yamuna-II.
d. Western Sewerage District covering Bodla-I, Bodla-II, Bodla-III, Shahganj-III and parts of Lohamandi, Sikandara-I, Sikandara-II,
Shahganj-I and Shahganj-II
e. Southern-I sewerage district covering Bundukatra and part of Shahganj-I
f. Southern-II sewerage district covering part of Shahganj-II.
g. Central sewerage district covering Ghatwasan-I, Kotwali, Maithan, Hariparbat, Chhata, Rakabganj and parts of old Khandari,
Ghatwasan-II and Lohamandi.
This area however comprises only about 17% of the city. Nearly 50% of the sewerage system in the city is inoperable. The area
covered by sewerage system is only 17%. About 50% of the sewerage system in the city was inoperable before 2009. While 3 sewage
treatment plants were built under the Yamuna Action Plan Phase 1, two of them were performing beyond capacity, leading to
sewage ending up in open drains in major parts of the city. The system was badly choked and damaged, leading to ecological,
environmental and severe health problems in the city (Regional Centre for Urban & Environmental Studies, 2009).
Water Supply: Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam (henceforth UPJN) has been the nodal agency for developing water infrastructure in Agra for
several years. UPJN then transfers the facilities to the Agra Jal Sansthan (henceforth AJS) for operation and maintenance (Refer Table
54
Those marked in red indicate wards and zones having historic/traditional neighborhoods
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
Ashima Krishna
Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
46
8). The mission of AJS has been to supply potable water in adequate quantity to the consumers and maintain the sewerage system of
the city efficiently. While Agra’s primary source of water supply is from river Yamuna, the city also receives about 115 MLD of raw
water from Gokul Barrage during the lean summer period. The total storage capacity available within Agra is about 48200 KL
comprising of 12 reservoirs. A distribution network of pipes measuring 1100 KM supply the water to various parts of the city, whose
total water requirement is about 300-350 MLD.
Water supply in Agra has been uneven to say the least; an estimated only 70% gets water supply, rather sporadically. Based on
topography and operational convenience, the city was divided into 25 zones to service the entire area indicated in the Master Plan.
While water supply is available in most areas, it still proves problematic, especially in historic neighborhoods and wards like
Sikandra-II, Bodla-II, Shahganj-III, Tanjganj-II, III, Trans Yamuna-II and Ghatwasan-II where mostly no water supply network is
available. Water requirement in these has for years been met by tube wells and hand pumps.
To counter such problems, the government of Uttar Pradesh introduced JNNURM funded, metered55 water supply schemes in seven
pilot cities of the state: Lucknow, Kanpur, Agra, Varanasi, Allahabad, Meerut and Mathura for the financial year 2010-11 to check
and put a stop to water wastage in the state. Therefore, metered water supply was made mandatory in the infrastructure
development schemes approved by MoUD for JNNURM. The project is wholly JNNURM funded, with no financial burden on the state
treasury; the cost of meters was included in the financial allocation by the Centre for the implementation of JNNURM projects in the
State. Under this scheme, the user charges are determined by the quantum of water used by consumers56. In order to get funding
from JNNURM for these projects, the state government rejected the State Finance Commission recommendations57 for panchayats
and urban local bodies which had called for exemption of metered water supply to domestic households58.
55
Metered water supply is one of the pre-conditions imposed by the Centre for funding the water supply schemes from the JNNURM.
The Hindu, “Metered water supply for 7 cities in UP”, Dec 9, 2009. http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/other-states/article62640.ece
57
The state government had accepted these recommendations in April 1997.
58
Indian Express, “7 cities to get metered water supply”, Dec 10, 2009. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/seven-cities-to-get-metered-water-supply/552329/
56
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
47
Interviews with several Engineers at ANN elicited information that apart from the above, sewage and water supply development
work has also been going on in 6 basties (shantytowns) in Agra: Naraich, Bodla, Sarai Khwaja, Gowa Chowki, Bhuminagri, Dorotha.
The relative reluctance of engineers to talk about the status of projects going on is not surprising, given the pressure the state has
been under to finish the projects on time. Table 10 shows the status of JNNURM projects in Agra, and it is not surprising to see that
only one out of all the approved projects has been implemented fully so far. However, JNNURM projects across the country have
been lagging behind their timeline, thus leading to the Cabinet in March 2012 extending the deadline for JNNURM funding to be
utilized by 2014, adding two years to the original 7 year time period59. A follow-up study in 2014 to examine the overall progress of
JNNURM projects in Agra would be worthwhile and more fruitful to determine the relative success or failure of JNNURM initiatives
in Agra. 2014 is also the year when the Central Government will be facing elections, and it would be interesting to see how they
enact more stringent accountability on city municipalities like ANN about timely completion of JNNURM projects before the 2014
deadline.
59
Firstpost, “Cabinet extends projects by two years”, March 23, 2012. http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/cabinet-extends-jnnurm-projects-by-two-years-254165.html
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
48
The JNNURM website lists the following details for projects in Agra:
Detail of Sanctioned Projects for Agra Sector-Wise
Source: List of approved projects, JNNURM Website, www.jnnurm.nic.in
S.No
Sector
Name of
State
City
Project Name
Year of
sanction
Date of
approval by
CSMC
Approved
Cost (Rs. in
Lakhs)
2162.00
Additional Central
Assistance (ACA)
committed (Rs. In
Lakhs)
1081.00
ACA
Released
(Rs. In
Lakhs)
1081.00
306
Sewerage
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
2007-08
26-Oct-07
315
Sewerage
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
Yamuna Action Plan Phase
II for Branch and Lateral
Sewer Lines in Northern
Zone and Western Zone in
Agra
Agra Sewerage scheme
phase-1(part-1)
2009-10
24-Jul-09
19592.00
9000.00
3600.00
358
Solid Waste
Management
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
Municipal Solid Waste
Management in Agra
2006-07
5-Mar-07
3083.99
1542.00
1002.30
493
Water Supply
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
Agra Water Supply
2007-08
22-Feb-08
8270.50
4135.25
3721.72
Additional Central
Assistance (ACA)
committed (Rs. In
Lakhs)
1081.00
ACA
Released
(Rs. In
Lakhs)
1081.00
Detail of Completed Projects for Agra Sector-Wise as of April 2012
Source: List of completed projects, JNNURM Website, www.jnnurm.nic.in
S.No
Sector
Name of
State
City
Project Name
Year of
sanction
Date of
approval by
CSMC
Approved
Cost (Rs. in
Lakhs)
114
Sewerage
Uttar Pradesh
Agra
Yamuna Action Plan Phase
II for Branch and Lateral
Sewer Lines in Northern
Zone and Western Zone in
Agra
2007-08
26-Oct-07
2162.00
Table 10
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
49
3.2.2 Transportation
The transportation sector in the state, helmed by Uttar Pradesh State Transport Corporation (henceforth UPSRTC), is perhaps the
only other sector in Uttar Pradesh and Agra that has made use of JNNURM funding and impacted historic sites to some extent. This
impact, however, is marginal at best as this section will illustrate. An interview with Mr. Anil Kumar, the Managing Director of
JNNURM programs in Agra illustrated how JNNURM funding has only recently impacted historic sites in some way with the
introduction of JNNURM tour buses that are run in a partnership between UPSTRC and UP Tourism. One bus tour, known as the
World Heritage Sites tour is a full-day one comprising of visits to Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort and culminating at the Taj Mahal. Starting
at the Agra Cantt Railway Station, this tour is especially popular with the day-tourists from New Delhi who come to Agra aboard the
Taj Express train alighting at Agra Cantt railway station. There is a helpful, multilingual UP Tourism office located within the train
station where all visitors can get information and purchase tickets for the bus tour and other UP Tourism services. That the bus only
starts once the train has arrived is a clear indication of the clientele it primarily caters to. The bus is then back in time in the evening
for the visitors to catch the Taj Express train back to New Delhi. A single JNNURM AC bus is used for this endeavor60.
More recently, UP Tourism began a new tour bus, taking cognizance of the lack of tourist interest in the other historic structures
across the city (as has already been outlined in this report). The tour bus was inaugurated on March 14, 2012 (fortunately while I
was in residence in Agra) from the Shilp Gram complex located at Taj Mahal’s East Gate. This pilot tour AC bus with A/V facilities has
been planned to ply from Taj Mahal’s West Gate, charging Rs. 150 for Indians and Rs.200 for Foreigners. According to Mr.Kumar,
children under 5 years of age will go free and over 5 years of age will have to pay Rs.100. This tour bus is planned to last 3 hours,
touring from the West Gate of the Taj Mahal to then head to Mehtab Bagh, followed by Itmad ud daula’s tomb, then Chini ka Rauza,
and Rambagh gardens and before dropping off its passengers at Agra Cantt Railway Station. The tour guides provided within both
60
Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
Ashima Krishna
Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
50
kinds of bus tours are trained and employed by UP Tourism, while the bus is funded and maintained by UPSRTC. The revenue and
facilities maintenance are shared equally between the two government departments involved61.
Today there are about 17062 UPSRTC buses plying on Agra roads under JNNURM funding, a mix of AC and non-AC low-floor models.
These buses connect various parts of the city and form the primary mode of public transportation, in addition to auto rickshaws,
cycle rickshaws and horse tangas (carriages). In May 200963, the then government of the state was the first state in the country to
finalize the purchase of buses for basic transport service for seven cities. This was made possible through a grant of Rs.4000 crore
made to the state by the MoUD for the
purchase of buses. A deal for 1,310 buses
Most frequent modes of transport for visitors
of varied combinations: air-conditioned
3%
8%
(AC) low floor, non-AC low floor, semi-low
floor and mini-buses was made with Tata
Public transportation
Motors, with the first batch of new buses
Personal vehicle
starting on the roads in June 2009. As per
42%
the agreement, Lucknow and Kanpur got
47%
Autorickshaw / Taxi / Hired car
Other
300 buses each, Allahabad, Varanasi and Figure 17
Agra got 200 each, Meerut got 150 and
Source: On-site survey, March 2012
Mathura got 60 buses. Each city formed a Figure 18
shell company for maintenance and
61
Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra
Several buses out of the allotted 200 are being used for other initiatives in the city, while some have been taken off the roads for various reasons not divulged during the interview
63
A Detailed Project Report (DPR) for transportation initiatives in Agra was unavailable for Agra at the time of preparing this report.
62
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51
management of these buses (eg. Lucknow City Transport Company Limited for Lucknow) in order to better execute the projects,
headed by the respective Divisional Commissioners and assisted by various directors. Initially, though UPSRTC planned to only run
the buses for the first year before handing them over to private agencies, this has not taken place and UPSRTC still runs the buses64.
Another special air-conditioned bus under JNNURM funding is slated to be put into use to connect Agra Cantt Railway Station to the
Taj Mahal West Gate all year round for Rs.20 per person, especially for those who do not wish to take the guided World Heritage
Site tour. During the annual Taj Mahotsav (festival) that occurs in February each year, special JNNURM buses connect various parts
of the city to Shilp Gram, the site for the festival. Apart from the above, UPSRTC also has plans to start a multi-use bus system where
the JNNURM buses plying in the morning will drop workers to the various shoe factories located in the city; the buses will then
resume their public transportation duties during the day and in the evening, will pick up the workers from the factories. This project
is still in the planning stage, and therefore more information is still awaited65.
3.3 Other initiatives in Agra
The descriptions above have clearly shown the vastly uphill task that the Agra administration has faced and still faces in not only
implementing basic urban infrastructural reforms within the city, but also in managing its vast and varied architectural heritage. The
administration, through its various agencies has been neither enthusiastic nor competent to implement any kind of holistic
development in the city. There have been, however, several other initiatives that have attempted to look at Agra holistically within
the backdrop of its various historic sites. One of these was highlighted in a report prepared by students of the National Institute of
Design at Ahmedabad for the Department of Tourism, Govt of Uttar Pradesh in 2011, attempting to make the Taj Ganj area more
accessible to enable tourists to enter Taj Mahal from the South Gate, where today only East and West Gates are accessible. While
most of the initiatives in the report have been officially implemented, some of them overlap with the JNNURM initiatives in the field
64
65
Indian Express, “7 cities to get new bus fleets next month”, May 22, 2009. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/7-cities-to-get-new-bus-fleets-next-month/464142/0
Interview with Mr.Anil Kumar, Managing Director of JNNURM programs in Agra
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
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52
of sanitation and water supply. The report’s recommendations are nevertheless a good starting point for the city administration to
begin implementing holistic development at the smaller scale of the Taj Ganj locality and then to expand to other areas of the city.
NID Report: The report comprehensively looked at various aspects of the historic precinct of Taj Ganj (adjacent to the Southern Gate
of Taj Mahal) and formulated several proposals:
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“Improved municipal water supply system and water conservation measures are required.
Provision for improved sewerage system is necessary, including properly lined drains for sullage and storm water drainage so as to avoid leakage into municipal water supply system.
Local initiatives to develop alternative water management initiatives like rain-water harvesting, and bio-purification can be encouraged.
An Infrastructure master plan needs to be proposed for streamlining and rehauling the water supply, storm water and drainage systems.
Public toilets, drinking fountains and basic facilities to be planned at convenient locations for local community and visitors.
Provision of underground cabling for electric supply to the Taj Ganj area and relocation of transformers must be undertaken to improve the visual and physical qualities of public spaces.
Ensuring 100% electric supply to the Taj Ganj area and ban on diesel generators is required to minimize environmental threat to the Taj Mahal.
Provision for adequate Street lighting needs to be made to improve the quality of public spaces. This can be an opportunity to promote the use of renewable energy sources by using Solar LED
streetlights in public spaces.
PCO’s and internet cafes must be integrated with other public utilities for maximum benefit to visitors in Taj Ganj area.
Street light design must keep in mind the heritage character of the Taj Ganj area
Provision of traffic management system/ accessibility planning.
Solid waste management system that takes care of garbage build-up in streets and open-spaces.
Provision of adequate visitor rest areas with washrooms and amenities.
Promote invisible security through community partnership for providing inviting public spaces.
Preserve elements that display heritage characteristics in public space.
All the above must be synchronized with a master plan level study and strategy.
Listing and documentation of all houses which include heritage structures or are of architectural heritage value. Establish Regulatory Protection for Heritage Features
Develop and establish heritage guidelines and special building design guidelines - bylaws which shall govern the precinct and help protect the existing built heritage and act as a sensitive
regulator for future modifications and development of the remaining built fabric within Taj Ganj.
Economic incentives and concessions for heritage conservation to those living in historic structures. Education and sensitization of these residents to protect further damage to the heritage.
Basic services and necessary amenities need to be upgraded and provided to all residents.
It is proposed to encourage the formation of a Taj Ganj Public initiative through an association or body that is democratically elected. This body shall be the voice and shall help communicate and
negotiate issues problems suggestions with the authorities.
As Taj Ganj has become a highly dense habited area there are serious issues related to its quality of life, light and ventilation, health and hygiene and basic amenities. A special committee action
group needs to be formulated which shall comprise of expert representatives from relevant domains and government departments to evaluate options on the way ahead.
Community advocacy is a powerful weapon to bring about change.
Community consultation is extremely important to tackle problems of pressures related to family expansions and upgraded quality of living.
A financial and economic resurrection plan for the communities could be explored which is tourism oriented and sensitive to the nature of existing livelihoods and does not interfere or change the
overall cultural significance of the area. This has to be done by experts and in collaboration with local support.
Tourism based livelihood is a cultural heritage of Taj Ganj residents and this should be recognized as such so as to provide maximum benefit to stakeholders as opposed to lobbies.
Local community participation in planning process is a must for sustainable development.
Promote heritage based sustainable livelihood to supplement family incomes and generate more jobs
Management Plan for Traffic using one-way system and enforcement of traffic rules can ease the current situation.
Public information systems, way finding and signage can improve accessibility to the South Gate area.
Provision of emergency services within the area is essential and a system can be evolved with community participation.
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
Ashima Krishna
Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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All plans and schemes to be integrated as a part of a macro level master plan for heritage management strategy.
Community consultation and liaison at all stages of planning.
Provision of emergency services within the area is essential and a system can be evolved with community participation.
Public information systems for easy access and wide dissemination of accurate public information.
Improving basic infrastructure and taking care of safety hazards in public spaces.
Management Plan for Traffic – vehicular and human
Public information systems – tourism interface providing authentic visitor information
Better national/international connectivity
Develop Heritage Communication delivery through interpretation centers, Museums
Promote invisible security through community partnership
Digitization of the ticketing system at the Taj Mahal
Generate awareness about the value of cultural heritage to the tourism economy and the role that community needs to play
Greater local participation and involvement through promotion of city identity and a sense of citizenship for all, public meetings, participatory planning and budgeting.
Efficient urban management through taking account of all interests in promoting efficiency and better services. Efficient investment in infrastructure and environmental planning and
management carried out in co-operation with the citizens.
Accountability/ transparency through monitoring of government activities by coalitions of outside organisations, disclosure of information, and fair and predictable regulatory frameworks.
Accessibility through regular and structured consultation with representative bodies from all sectors of society.
To declare Taj Ganj as a Heritage Precinct and establish a special area development authority, through a special action group which shall comprise of expert representatives working with local
community.
This shall develop a mechanism to streamline issues and have effective implementation.
A heritage management master plan needs to be put together. This shall serve as an integrated incremental development plan for this precinct which shall include conservation strategy for the
built heritage, planning framework, holistic infrastructure for the existing populace and also the inherent cultural heritage.
A detail study required to identify, list and document the built heritage of the Taj Ganj area. This should be done by professional consultants in collaboration with the locals and as per
international guidelines for conservation.
To develop and establish heritage guidelines and special building design guidelines and bylaws which shall govern the precinct and help protect the existing built heritage and act as a sensitive
regulator for future modifications and development of the remaining built fabric within Taj Ganj.
Community consultation and involvement is essential to the ugradation of Taj Ganj. The process of research, planning, implementation and monitoring must be an inclusive process making the
local people stakeholders and induce feeling of ownership and pride. Heritage and conservation based strategy is preferable.
The Taj Ganj area along with its built and cultural heritage must be infused into the larger Taj Mahal experience. Local community education and awareness programs along with tourist outreach
programs and interpretation tools need to be established. This includes seminars, workshops, visitor trails and publications among others. As most of the katra walls – sarais are part of residential
units this is very important to find ways of containing further modifications to the original built heritage and preserve them.
To identify and carry out few pilot conservation project. Adaptive reuse and regeneration to try and make the built heritage more accessible to tourist where possible and develop opportunities
for Heritage experience through community museums, exhibition, heritage trails, and interpretation centre. Option of specialized home stays within the heritage residential units of the Katras
could be evaluated.
The Built heritage and architectural value should be promoted and used as economic driver as heritage tourism for the local community. To create a heritage value system where the local
community has incentive to maintain and conserve the built heritage environment.
It is essential to entail effective legislative protection and implementation to the built heritage and Taj Ganj precinct at large once the built heritage is identified and a management master plan
and conservation strategy is approved.
Educating and sensitization of Government officials on issues related to built heritage, conservation, heritage tourism is a very essential component for the success of any initiative.
Since social aspirations are diverse and often at odds with each other, the conservation team must include social workers to facilitate dialogue and decision-making.”
(National Institute of Design, 2011)
CURE, Agra: The Center for Urban and Regional Excellence, an NGO based in New Delhi opened a ‘Heritage Cell’ at the ANN offices in
Agra to facilitate a dialog between the government and civil society with respect to holistic JNNURM development programs keeping
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
54
in mind the historic aspect of the city. However, this Heritage Cell was found to be nearly out of commission at the time of my site
visit in March 2012, with only the staff of CURE remaining to implement their USAID funded programs in Agra especially related to
community development and slum eradication. One of their main programs in Agra in recent years has been CAP (Crosscutting Agra
Program), a pilot project aimed at demonstrating processes of community inclusion in planning for improved sanitation and urban
livelihoods. CURE initially conducted a tourism assessment (also funded by USAID) to determine the project feasibility (CURE, 2006).
The project’s goal was to develop a livelihood and slum upgrading pilot program around a heritage trail of lesser-known monuments
in Agra linked to the Taj Mahal and the Agra Fort on the other side of River Yamuna and five nearby slum communities: Katra Wazir
Khan, Marwari Bastee, Kucchpura, Nagladevjeet and Yamuna Bridge. Thus the Mughal Heritage Walk was born; conceived as a 1km
walking loop that linked a traditional Rajasthani settlement through agricultural dikes, fields and riverbank to the historic village of
Kucchpura and the heritage sites/structures of Mehtab Bagh, the Mughal aqueduct system, the Humayun Mosque and the Gyarah
Sidi (Eleven Steps). The cornerstone of all CAP livelihood and sanitation initiatives has been related to the tourism-based economy.
The target groups for CAP projects have included both women and young people. Specifically, CAP aimed to:
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“Mobilize and organize low -income communities, in particular women and young people, to participate in the planning and implementation of
sanitation services and livelihoods;
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Develop a Mughal Heritage Trail around a cluster of lesser -known monuments to enhance tourism-based livelihood opportunities, skills and access to
credit; and
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Improve environmental conditions in communities through better practices for solid waste management in partnership with local agencies” (CURE,
2007)
Apart from CAP and its pilot Mughal Heritage Walk, CURE has also implemented a wastewater treatment system at the historic
settlement of Kacchpura, the location for the Mughal Heritage Walk and a historic settlement of Agra located across the Taj mahal
along the river Yamuna. The settlement borders Mehtab bagh and is home to the lesser known Humayun Mosque, which by most
historical accounts predated the Taj Mahal. Kachhpura is located by the side of a large city drain that cuts across the northern part of
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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the settlement carrying wastewater from Kachhpura and 5 other settlements upstream of the drain, creating highly unsanitary
conditions, putting its residents at risk. Cognizant of this, CURE designed and implemented a Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
(DEWAT) system on the Kachhpura drain in partnership with ANN, USAID and Cities Alliance with financial assistance from Water
Trust, United Kingdom and London Metropolitan University. This project found mention amongst the best practices compiled by
Peer Experience And Reflective Learning (PEARL) under JNNURM (NIUA, 2011).
The other CURE project that is currently being implemented in Agra, also in partnership with ANN with financial assistance from
Cities Alliance is the Citywide Slum Upgrading Project (CSUP) closely related to the CAP project mentioned above. This vast project
has included mapping of all city slums with spatial boundaries as well as up-gradation of toilets in slums – at homes, communities
and in schools. Communities participated in the design, construction and operations management of toilets. A Toilet Savings Group
enabled women to save-up for home toilets with matching/upfront contribution from project funds for a functional unit (pan,
plumbing, septic tank). This project has had an impact at both the slum and city levels. At the slum level besides improving access to
basic services, the settlements are now mainstreamed with city systems and the local economy. Improved access to basic services
has resulted in cleaner living environments due to a greater willingness among residents to maintain community
infrastructure/resources. Livelihood interventions have ensured sustainable and enhanced incomes for women and youth. At the
city level, the project has helped generate a spatial database with analysis that is contributing to the development of a Slum Free
Agra Plan. CAP has successfully forged multi-stakeholder partnerships between government agencies, private sector and civil
society. Critical capacity was built within ANN and DUDA to facilitate pro-poor urban development (NIUA, 2011).
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56
4 In Conclusion
The site perhaps most synonymous with Agra, and indeed with India outside of the country is The Taj Mahal. Statistical figures from
the Indian financial year (ending on March 31,2011) indicate that Agra was the most popular tourist destination in India, with The Taj
Mahal alone earning Rs.20 crore ($4.5 million). The Taj Mahal, administered and ticketed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
recorded 4.18 million Indian and 624,000 foreign tourists in that year. These figures spurred on efforts by the city and state Tourism
offices to introduce several programs geared toward tourist facilities and safety at the well-known historic site66. However, as is the
tendency of most World Heritage Sites to garner maximum attention, other historic sites in the city have not received as much
administrative or tourist attention. Agra, however is unique in not only having one but three World Heritage Sites and yet the city
languishes in the most basic of urban ways.
Agra’s vast and varied heritage, both tangible and intangible has a variety of administrators and stakeholders, as is the case with
most Indian cities dating back several centuries. In the case of Agra, however, owing to the presence of the Taj Mahal, all other kinds
of heritage have taken a back seat over the past few decades. Admittedly, the grace and beauty of the Taj Mahal cannot be denied.
However, many of the other historic structures in the city, apart from the three well-known World Heritage Sites have their own
architectural and cultural significance, important in the larger historical narrative of the Mughal dynasty that gave India the Taj
Mahal. In addition, the city of Agra also boasts several historic neighborhoods that have been existence for almost as many years as
the Taj, if not more. They also have a history and a story that can give a visitor a holistic view of Agra’s historical narrative. These
neighborhoods, clustered around the Taj Mahal, Mehtab Bagh and Agra Fort have tremendous potential waiting to be explored; and
they have been largely ignored thus far by the government agencies that govern other historic sites. This has been one of the most
problematic aspects of Agra that has come of out of my fieldwork. As is the nature of cities, urban processes are all interconnected,
66
Times of India, “Agra promises a better deal for tourists“, Aug 7, 2011
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
57
and an imbalance in a certain aspect of the urban fabric necessarily affects the others as this report has shown in the case of Agra.
Agra urgently needs a policy change at the city level to implement a local heritage ordinance creating a local competent authority
devoted solely to the preservation, administration and collaboration of historic sites across the city. Administratively, the presence
of ASI and State Directorate of Archaeology creates a problem in the pecking order; this ordinance needs to facilitate a connection
between these agencies and the city administration to allow for better implementation of projects in collaboration so as to not only
benefit the historic sites but the people who live in and around them as well. Agra has several precedents that it can follow:
Mumbai, Hyderbad and Hampi all have local legislation that is attempting to streamline the historic preservation and urban
development processes within their jurisdictional areas.
Bringing in JNNURM within this urban cauldron of haphazard development may have begun with good intentions; however it has not
ended that way. As the single largest central government initiative in urban development in recent times, JNNURM sought to adjust
the existing rules and regulations to what contemporary urban India needed. With large-scale investments, population coverage and
broad-spectrum reforms that it sought to put in place, JNNURM indeed seemed like an urban development boon when it first began
in 2005. Today, in hindsight, the program has left a lot to be desired. JNNURM has over the years garnered several theories; many
sinister, some promising. While those are easily available online, it would be prudent to point out that JNNURM did indeed seek to
bring in private players into the provision, production and management of local public goods and services like water supply,
sewerage and sanitation, solid waste management and city roads — a sphere that has remained historically protected from any
private intrusion. This has its own critics, and has led to JNNURM being criticized as ‘anti-poor’ in many quarters. However, security
of tenure and the universalization of services to the urban poor has been the centerpiece of the JNNURM program and have been
some of the few sectors that have actually been implemented in most of the pilot cities.
Most Indian cities, like Agra today face huge infrastructural and service deficits; many are in fact at a breaking point. It is a known
fact that many residents of urban India only receive water on alternate days, others have a two-four hour water trickle of
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questionable quality. Some have storm water and wastewater disposal networks, and suffer from water stagnation with huge
negative health impacts. City road systems can barely take on any additional load that has risen at exponential rates in the post-1991
period. And the urban population living in slums in sub-human conditions has only risen with every passing year. With such an urban
backdrop, it is not surprising that JNNURM was heralded by many as the solution to urban India’s myriad problems. But the creators
of the program overlooked three key points that have eventually led to a partial failure of the Mission in most India cities.
Urban reforms cannot be implemented if obsolete laws, rules and procedures that impinge on cities and urban development are
still in force: Cities, not only in India but world over continue to rely on laws, rules and procedures that have no place in
contemporary urban context. The ratio of the area occupied by urban India versus the population in that urban area is rather
startling. It is a known fact amongst urbanists that the developing world’s urban population is consistently on the rise; but several
dated laws, rules and procedures do not allow for cities to expand correspondingly. Additionally, existing municipal government
system in India dates back to the turn of the twentieth century; it has not changed according to the extraordinary changes that have
occurred in the demographic, social-economic and physical profiles of Indian cities. Cities and towns in India also have a dated
accounting system that has led to large-scale gaps in the revenue and funding received and the amount expended in projects leaving
grey areas that funding often disappears into; it also renders accountability null and void. No clarity in functional
responsibilities: One of the most highly criticized features of the Indian administrative system is its overlapped, often fragmented
and unclear assignment of responsibilities pertaining to municipal services like water supply, sewerage systems, solid waste
management, city-wide roads and street lightning as has was seen in Table 8. All this does is create innumerable government
agencies that stay afloat like rudderless boats in a sea of urban chaos, unable to shed light on why old, new and existing assets are
created by one agency, managed by another and billed by yet another. This is perhaps most poignantly seen in urban poverty
alleviation. Which is why ANN has been able to successfully implement slum upgradation projects with the help of NGOs like CURE
but not on its own (Refer section 3.3 Other initiatives in Agra).
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Report on the status of Agra, home to three World Heritage Sites
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Heritage needs heritage professionals: One of the biggest mistakes of the JNNURM program has been a misplaced sense of
guidance. In its attempt to save the entire city in one clean sweep, creators of the JNNURM program included the redevelopment of
historic areas and sites in its “urban renewal” mandate, little realizing that without the implementation of local heritage ordinances
that can govern, liaise, coordinate, oversee and administer the redevelopment of historic areas and sites, their mandate is not
possible. Central and state level agencies like ASI and state Directorates are neither equipped nor interested in a holistic approach to
historic preservation planning and management. Indeed, with the sad exception of the Ancient Monument and Archaeological Site
and Remains Act Amendment of 2010, most legislation across the country dealing with historic sites and areas dates back either to
the period immediately after Independence, or worse, before it.
As the case of Agra has shown, urban India is not simple. It is a complex mix of equally complex problems and JNNURM was needed
as a response to address those problems. As a partnership between the centre, states and cities, the program had the potential to
slowly but surely change the ways in which Indian cities dysfunction. But simply by tweaking and adjusting the existing system of
laws, rules and procedures to the requirements of the contemporary urban needs, JNNURM did itself and urban India a disservice
and Agra is a prime example of unsatisfactory implementation of the scheme. The inclusiveness that MoUD through JNNURM sought
to bring to urban development was sporadic at best and non-existent at worst. While the program did bring in some municipal
reforms in the form of augmenting the revenue system in Agra and ushering in e-governance, its mandate to bring basic services to
every household, did not reach its full potential – at least in a complex and contradictory city like Agra where policy and legislative
changes needed to be first put in place before pumping in crores of money for projects that have not realized their potential.
Perhaps the reprieve given by GOI for the 2 year extension can change the picture to some extent; but without a compelte overhaul
of antiquated policies there is little chance of things drastically improving.
Research made possible through Global Heritage Fund’s Preservation Fellowship
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