CHILDRENS’ SOCIALLY ORIENTATED
PARTICIPATION IN SPORT
Principal Researcher: Edward Cope
© Edward Cope and RBES Ltd. All right s reserved.
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Contents
Research Question 1: .............................................................................................................................. 5
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Perceived Competence ....................................................................................................................... 6
To have fun ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Parents ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Health and Fitness............................................................................................................................... 8
Friends and Peers ................................................................................................................................ 8
Learning new skills .............................................................................................................................. 8
Children’s motives for playing golf ..................................................................................................... 9
Summary and Gaps in the Research ................................................................................................... 9
Research Question 2: ............................................................................................................................ 11
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Positive coaching environments ....................................................................................................... 12
Negative coaching environments ..................................................................................................... 13
Sampling vs. Specialisation ............................................................................................................... 13
Development Pathway of Golf Players ............................................................................................. 15
Potential solutions ............................................................................................................................ 16
Summary of the literature ................................................................................................................ 16
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Gaps in the literature ........................................................................................................................ 18
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix A - Table 1.0 Overview of research ....................................................................................... 28
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Figures
Figure 1: Sources and Consequences of Sport Enjoyment .................................................................... 7
Figure 2: Developmental Model of Sport Participation ....................................................................... 14
Figure 3: Participant Development Model ........................................................................................... 17
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Research Question 1:
What are the motivations for children and young people (up to 12
years of age) taking part in sport, with reference to appropriate
physical, psychological and social/lifestyle development?
Introduction
There are multiple motives as to why children take part in sport (Sit and Lidner, 2006). The following
are the motivating factors that children (12 or younger) have stated as reasons why they take part in
sport:
•
Perceived competence (May Woods, Bolton, Graber and Crull 2007; Salmon, Owen,
Crawford, Bauman and Sallis, 2003; Carroll and Loumidis, 2001; Duda, 1987; Klint and Weiss,
1987; Weiss, Bredemeier and Scewchuk, 1985; Roberts, Kleiber and Duda, 1981; Harter,
1978)
•
To have fun (May Woods et al. 2007; Macphail, Gorely and Kirk, 2003; Cote, 1999;
McCullagh, Matzkanin, Shaw and Maldonado, 1993; Longhurst and Spink, 1987; Sapp and
Haubenstricker, 1978)
•
Parents (Light and Lemonie, 2010; May Woods et al. 2007; Allender, Cowburn and Foster,
2006; Fredicks and Eccles, 2005; White, 1998; Brustad, 1992; Duda, 1987)
•
Health and Fitness (May Woods et al. 2007; Rowe and Bibby, 2006; Macphail et al. 2003;
McCullagh, et al. 1993)
•
Friends/Peers (Light and Lemonie, 2010; Smith, Balaguer and Duda, 2006; Vazou,
Ntoumanis and Duda, 2005; Macphail et al. 2003; McCullagh, et al. 1993; Brustad, 1992;
Duda, 1987)
•
Learning new skills (Light and Lemonie, 2010; Macphail et al. 2003; McCullagh, et al.
1993; Sapp and Haubenstricker, 1978)
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The following sections of this review will expand on each of these bullet points, providing an
explanation of why these are motives for children. Finally, a short section will be written on what is
known as to why children are motivated to play golf.
Perceived Competence
Harter’s (1978) competence motivation theory explains how individuals are motivated to be
competent in sport in order to satisfy their aims of mastering a skill. When this results in success,
children get a sense of positivity which increases motivation levels. On the other hand, when
children perceives they are not competent, motivation levels decrease which leads to children
deciding not to maintain participating in sport (Weiss et al. 1985). As such, children select tasks
which demonstrate their competence and lower the risk of failure (Roberts et al. 1981).
Another explanation is Nicholls’s (1984a) achievement goal theory whereby children define success
in relation the type of goal orientations they have. Those who are primarily task orientated define
success in accordance with their ability to self master and improve skills (Duda and Treasure, 2001).
Alternatively, those primarily ego orientated classify success as beating their peers (Duda and
Treasure, 2001). The research (see above for perceived competence) suggests that children are
mostly task orientated which explains the reasons they have cited for wanting to take part in sport.
Nonetheless, and as will be highlighted later, there is a shortage of studies conducted with children;
therefore these findings cannot be taken as conclusive.
To have fun
Fun has been defined as a positive affective response that children give as a motive for sport
participation (Wankel and Kreisel, 1985). Fun is believed to be the primary motive for children
taking part in sport (Chalip and Green, 1998; Green, 2005; Weiss and Amorose, 2008), yet because of
individual characteristics there can be no one global definition of fun. For example, pre-adolescent
soccer players stated that fun was to experience freedom and self expression (Piggott, unpublished
thesis), whereas children swimmers experienced fun when competing in activities which were
inherently challenging (Light and Lemonie, 2010). Weiss and Amorose (2008 p. 151 in Piggott,
unpublished thesis) offer a conceptual model to describe the sources of fun (Figure 1.0 Sources and
consequences of sport enjoyment). Therefore, dependent upon what children perceive to be
enjoyable will dictate whether they are motivated to engage in sport. (Wankel & Kreisel, 1985)
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Figure 1: Sources and Consequences of Sport Enjoyment
Parents
For children of a young age, parents have a considerable impact on their children’s motivation to
take part in sport (e.g. Brustad, 1992); with it being found that some children base their level of
competence on the feedback they receive from their parents (Eccles, 1993; Brodkin and Weiss,
1990). In a recent study by Light and Lemonie (2010), it was reported that 61% of the children cited
parental influence as a motivating factor in joining the swimming club. Most of the swimmers in this
study were part of families which were physically active which could explain the strong parental
influence. According to Byrne (1999), the involvement of parents can determine the motivation of
their children to take part in sport. If parents are under involved, there is a likelihood that they will
be disinterested in their children’s sporting endeavours leading to children becoming de-motivated
(Byrne, 1999). Alternatively, over involved parents place too much pressure on their children which
makes the sporting experience less enjoyable (Byrne, 1999). Light and Lemonie (2010) found support
for this as 28% of the children they interviewed suggested that their father could be too demanding.
Consequently, a caring and supportive family environment best motivates a child to take part in
sport (Allender et al. 2006). As well as providing caring support, parents who provide financial
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support (e.g. buying equipment, taking them to practice, and assisting with team events) also serve
to motivate their children (Fredicks and Eccles, 2005).
Health and Fitness
From an early age, children are aware of the effects that regular physical activity can have on their
health and well being (Rowe and Bibby, 2006). Children with a task orientation perceive health and
fitness to be more of a motivating factor than those children with more of an ego orientated
disposition (Smith et al. 2006).
Friends and Peers
Children have alluded to working together, gaining social acceptance (Smith et al. 2006; Harter,
1997), making friendships (Light and Lemonie, 2010) and the opportunity to meet new people
(Macphail et al. 2003) as motives for taking part in sport. Furthermore, peers were found to
influence motivation through competitive behaviours, working in collaboration and evaluative
communication (Keegan, Harwood, Spray and Lavellee, 2009). However, bring judged or compared
against peers is a determinant as to why some children become de-motivated to participate in sport
(Sagar, Lavellee and Spray, 2007).
Learning new skills
In Light and Lemonie’s (2010) study, the primary motive of the children for participating was to learn
new skills to make them better swimmers (88% of children stated this). In this study children wanted
to learn new skills for personal achievement. In Machphail et al’s (2003) study they found that
children enjoyed learning new skills because of the inherent challenge it presented. Nonethless,
McCullagh et al. (1993) established in their study that children took part to be recognised as
competent by coaches, peers and parents. Similarly, Klint and Weiss (1987) asserted that for children
who perceived that they have a high level of physical competence; skill development was a
motivating factor, whereas children with a highly perceived social competence stated affiliation to
be their primary motive.
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Children’s motives for playing golf
Children’s motives for playing golf are because they found the activity fun and they received
parental encouragement and support from a young age (Mattsson, Hassmen, McCullick and
Schempp, 2007). Although these findings are from a very small sample size, they do reflect what has
been discussed more generally as children’s motives for taking part in sport. It would appear that
regardless of the sport being played, all children of a young age are motivated to participate for
similar reasons.
Summary and Gaps in the Research
From reviewing the literature, there appears to be a number of key areas where empirical research
has been overlooked.
•
Research to date has not been specific or concentrated on a particular context within
children’s coaching (e.g. schools, clubs or development squads). Therefore little is known
about how children’s motives for taking part change, dependent upon the context they
participate within. A focus on UK based studies is particularly limited. Table 1.0 (appendix A)
provides an overview of research that has been conducted with children.
•
At present, researchers have predominantly used quantitative methodologies (mainly
questionnaires) to assess children’s motives for taking part in sport. Consequently, detailed,
in depth empirical studies are lacking (May Woods et al. 2007; Macphail et al. 2003) which
are needed to better understand children’s reasoning and perceptions (Light and Lemonie,
2010). Furthermore, the coaching environment is complex and multifaceted (Cushion,
Armour and Jones, 2006) therefore only through adopting a qualitative methodology could
this complexity be captured (Hassandra, Goudas and Chroni, 2003).
•
A lack of longitudinal research into children’s motives for continued participation in sport
means that there is a failure to explain children’s motives for participating throughout their
lifespan (Barber, Sukhi and White, 1999). Research that has been undertaken has shown a
strong correlation between physical activity levels as a child and later as an adult (Telama,
Yang, Viikari, Valimaki, Wanna and Kaitakari, 2005)
•
There is unawareness of how children’s motives change dependent on their individual
characteristics. There is little research that provides evidence that certain motivations are
more dominant than others.
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•
A significant number of research studies investigating children’s motivation to take part in
sport are relatively dated (pre the year 2000). As such, there has been a lack of research
focus, documenting the changing social and cultural climates (Macphail et al. 2003; Allen,
2003). In general, there are limited studies which investigate how sociological factors have
impacted on athlete’s motivation to take part in sport (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2009). The
theories which are used to explain motivating factors for sports participation are; attribution
theory, achievement goal theory and cognitive evaluation theory. Socialisation theories are
just as applicable in explaining why children take part in sport, given the reasons stated from
the research.
A database of research as to what motivates individuals to take part in sport does exist. However, as
has been discussed, in relation to young children this research is limited, lacks context specificity and
fails to consider children’s perceptions in any real depth. Children have different notions of what fun
is, which then influences what they perceive to be motivating factors to taking part in sport. For
example, a child who is motivated to take part in sport because they want to make friends perceives
this as an ‘act’ of fun. On the contrary, a child who is motivated to take part because they want to
develop their technical skills perceives this as an act of ‘fun’. There is a need for research to better
investigate children’s perceptions of fun in different contexts, as this determines their motivations to
engage in sport.
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Research Question 2:
What
are
the
most
developmentally
appropriate
coaching
environments ("look and feel") that will ensure their 'wants' (the
reasons for taking part and staying involved) can be best addressed
and satisfied for children and young people?
Introduction
Taking part in sport from a young age is crucial if children are to become lifelong participants (Kirk,
2005). By the time children reach their teenage years they will already have decided whether they
are motivated to take part in sport. Having enjoyable, early sporting experiences isn’t just important
for children who wish to achieve sporting expertise, but also for those who wish to remain active in
their adult years (Kirk, 2005). Hamilton, Hamilton and Pittman (2004) suggest that the benefits of
optimal development in youth ‘enables individuals to lead a healthy, satisfying, and productive life
as youth, and later as adults, because they gain the competence to earn a living, to engage in civic
activities, to nurture others, and to participate in social relations and cultural activities’ (p. 3).
Achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1984a) proposes that there are two types of approaches (task or
ego) which explain children’s motives for taking part in sport. Task orientated children are motivated
through achieving personal mastery (Ames, 1992), whereas ego orientated children are motivated to
beat their teammates or opponents. The way in which children perceive their competence,
determines what motivates them to participate. Children are mostly task orientated and engage in
sport to satisfy their intrinsic motivations. Although these findings are not conclusive and gaps in the
research have been highlighted, they do give inclinations as to what an appropriate coaching
environment may consist of.
According to Becker (2009), coaches are recognised by the public as being ‘great’ based on two
criteria; their won/loss records and media attention. This perception summarises elite/professional
sport, however, the characteristics of professional and elite level sport are not characteristics of
sport that millions of children are involved in, yet are usually the basis by which many youth sport
coaches attempt to train and develop their teams (Wiersema, 2000). Rather, the UK coaching
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workforce is characterised by coaches working with children as parents, volunteers, part-time and
fulltime paid coaches (North, 2009), therefore investigating this context is a necessity (Schinke,
Bloom and Samela, 1995).
Positive coaching environments
A central component in any youth sport context are the coaches (Smoll, Smith, Barnett and Everett,
1993) as these play an integral part in helping to shape the learning experiences of children (Strean,
2009). A study of youth basketball generated findings that seem to reflect research in other sports in
that the strongest and most consistent predictor of enjoyment was the environment created by
coaches (Cumming, Smoll, Smith and Grossbard, 2007).Referred to as the motivational climate,
Weiss and Ferrer-Caja (2002) suggest that the ways in which coaches structure practice sessions and
respond to athletes ‘significantly affect children and adolescents competence perceptions, self
worth, affect, motivational orientation and actual participation’ (p. 119).It has been found that
coaches who use high levels of praise enhance effort, whilst coaches who use high levels of criticism
reduce the effort of children (Barker and Graham, 1987). In Amorose and Weiss’s (1998) study, all
children associated being praised with having a high level of ability. By creating a motivational
climate which is mastery orientated ensures that the coaching environment is aligned with children’s
motives for taking part (Cumming, Smoll, Smith and Grossbard, 2007; McArdle and Duda, 2002). As
such, skill development, making friends, and putting in maximum effort is prioritised over
competition and winning (Smoll and Smith, 2006). On the other hand, children whose coaches
reinforced ego orientated behaviour had far more negative experiences of sport. Positive changes in
attitudes (toward coaches and sport) and the self have been observed in boys who played for
coaches who were more reinforcing, encouraging, and autonomy supportive than coaches who were
critical of performance (Conroy and Coatsworth, 2006; Smoll, Smith, Barnett and Everett, 1993;
Smith and Smoll, 1990; Smith, Smoll, and Curtis, 1979).
Based on what have been established as motives for children taking part in sport, it is incorrect to
assume that children’s perceived competence determines their participation all of the time. Rather,
coaches also need to be aware of how to create an environment which reinforces friendships and
builds relationships with parents. Parents have an important role to play in motivating their child to
become engaged in sport, particularly because of the influence they have in reinforcing or dismissing
the message coaches are trying to promote (Martindale, Collins and Abraham, 2007). If parents do
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not ‘buy into’ the environment coaches are trying to create it may be that children also decide
against doing.
Negative coaching environments
Children have stated a number of reasons which lead to them becoming de-motivated and dropping
out of sport:
•
Coaching sessions are too serious and there is an over-emphasis placed on winning by
parents, coaches and peers (Orlick, 1974)
•
Being judged in a competitive environment due to fear of failure and being assessed against
peers (Sager, Lavellee and Spray, 2007)
•
A lack of enjoyment (Weiss, 1993; Gould and Petlichkoff 1988, Ewing and Seefeldt 1990,
Weiss and Chaumeton 1992).
In light of what motivates children to take part in sport it is not surprising that these have been listed
as key determinants for dropping out of sport. Nicholls (1989) suggests that children of a young age
have an innate task orientation, therefore a coaching environment which fails to satisfy this type of
motivation will lead to children becoming de-motivated. Indeed, studies with dropout swimmers and
football players (Pelletier et al., 2001; Robinson and Carron, 1982) found that children who had
dropped out of sport perceived their coaches as less encouraging and supportive, and more
controlling and autocratic than children who had maintained active participation. In this way, an ego
involved climate occurs when the coach promotes intra-team rivalries, favours the most talented
players, and punishes players for making mistakes (Newton, Duda, and Yin, 2000). Another cause of
negative coaching environments is coaches’ perceptions that fun and skill development cannot occur
in tandem (Bengoechea, Strean and Williams, 2004). This suggests that some coaches may believe
that whilst children are having fun they are not learning. Incidentally, this study found that children
did not share this view, seeing fun as a by product of skill development.
Sampling vs. Specialisation
It has been suggested that children go through three distinct developmental stages; sampling years,
specialising years and investment years (Côté and Hay, 2002). In the sampling years (aged 6-12) it is
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recommended that children get the opportunity to sample a range of different activities and sports
in a way which promotes fun and enjoyment (Côté, Young, North and Duffy, 2007). As a child moves
into the specialising years (aged 13-16) they start to become engaged in only two or three sports
with the emphasis moving from deliberate play to deliberate practice. Finally, the now adolescent
moves into the investment years (aged 17+) which are characterised by a focus on only one sport in
a competitive environment (see figure 1.0 Development Model of Sport Participation). However,
these dates resemble the different transition points of the Canadian school system leading to Bailey
et al., (2010) questioning the applicability of these stages in a UK context.
Investment
Sampling
Drop Out
Specialising
Drop Out
Recreation
Drop Out
Figure 2: Developmental Model of Sport Participation
Côté’s Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) appears to be congruent with children’s
motives for taking part in sport, as well as maintaining and developing children’s sporting ability as
they move through the developmental stages. Certainly, an approach whereby ‘success’ is defined
by skill development over winning is something which coaches need to become aware of and
promote (Abbott, Collins, Martindale, and Sowerby, 2002), given what motivates children to
participate in sport. While this developmental framework can lead to expertise and maintain
children’s participation, there is still a need to understand what coaches are doing and how they are
doing it within the sampling, specialised and investment years (Fraser-Thomas, Côté and Deakin,
2005).
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Traditionally, in sports like tennis, gymnastics and swimming children of a young age have been
required to invest a serious amount of their time into training and competing. Alternatively, sports
such as soccer, hockey and golf have not required the same level of training intensity from young
children. Sports which emphasize early competition and a focus on predominantly one sport have
been termed early specialised. Research by Côté and colleagues have found sports which specialise
early to have negative effects on children. Côté (2004) suggests that if specialization occurs at a
developmentally inappropriate age, benefits (e.g. improved skills) are outweighed by physical,
psychological, and social disadvantages (e.g. overtraining, injury, failure to develop transferable
skills, decreased enjoyment, burnout, depression, decreased self-esteem, increased sensitivity to
stress, fear of competition, sense of failure, missed social opportunities) (Boyd and Yin, 1996).
Development Pathway of Golf Players
All of the participants in a study by Mattsson, Hassmen, McCullick and Schempp (2007) stated that
they did not specialise in one sport until between the ages of 15-20. Everyone commented that
experiencing and playing in at least two or three different sports was important to their future
development as golf players. When asked what the five most important factors were on their
development up until the age of 20, the players listed a) parents; b) golf was fun, c) their own
determination, d) discipline for training, and e) good coaches.
From a broader perspective, when asked about how the structure of Swedish golf had supported the
player’s development, they listed the following as reasons for the success of the Swedish golf system
(Mattsson et al., 2007, p 93):
• Well-structured junior activities in the clubs
• Little negative pressure on the young athletes
• Well-developed tournaments and competition structure
• Professional management of all golf clubs
• Golf nowadays is seen as a “real sport” instead of some recreational game
• Internationally renowned coaches and players who also function as role models
• Good education for coaches and other persons involved in the sport
• Educational focus in programmes in more things than golf
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Children in golf, like many other sports valued the opportunity to take part in a number of different
sports up until the age of 15, which was the age when most technical golf training began. Many of
the examples given as to what constitutes a developmentally appropriate coaching environment in
golf are similar to those stated in other sports.
Potential solutions
Children described games which were low organised as being most enjoyable (Strean, 2009),
providing further support that children should be subjected to deliberate play type activities as
opposed to deliberate practice. Alternatively, a primary reason why children become de-motivated
and decide to drop out of sport is because of lack of fun (Gould and Petlichkoff, 1988). Fun is a term
located within the affective domain of learning, yet research into this domain has received scant
attention in comparison to the cognitive and physical domains (Pope, 2006).
A potential learning environment which can encourage feelings of fun and develop intrinsic
motivation, are models based practice approaches. Kirk and Gorely (2003), when writing about
Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) posit that ‘valuing’, ‘interesting’ and ‘enjoyable’ are all
integral to and central tenets of, the TGfU model. Other motivating factors such as making friends
can be developed through Cooperative Learning approaches (Slavin, 2006), with Play Practice
(Launder, 2001) offering children the opportunity to take part in unstructured activities. Therefore,
there is potential scope for model based practice approaches to be incorporated into children’s
coaching.
Summary of the literature
While there appears to be some consistency in research as to what constitutes an appropriate
coaching environment, this is limited, restricting coaching to a rationalistic act (Jones and Turner,
2006). Cushion, Jones and Armour (2006) claim that research has tended to focus its efforts on
proving one aspect of the coaching process to be more suitable in the quest to develop athletes
more than others (i.e. feedback over instruction). Jones and Wallace (2005) argue that coaching
cannot be reduced to such simplicity as to whether there is a ‘best’ or ‘right’ way to coach.
Such diversity in participant need, motive and sporting context reveal much about the complexity of
sport coaching (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2009). Indeed Cote, Samela, Trudel, Baria and Russell
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(1995), provided a conceptual coaching model which places the athlete and the context at the heart
of the coaching process. Therefore, the sport being coached, the context coached within and the
developmental level of the child will ALL determine whether the coaching environment is
appropriate or not.
In part, Sports Coach UK have acknowledged this through the development of a Participation
Development Model (PDM). This model (see figure 1.1) presents four broad domains of participant
development: 1) Children; 2) Participation; 3) Performance Development; 4) High Performance;
reflecting how the participant population could be thought about and structured, rather than how it
actually is (sports coach UK, 2009). The segmentation within the PDM represents the different
needs, motives and entitlements of the participant population related to sporting environments,
goals, pathways and key transition points.
Figure 3: Participant Development Model
Adapted from: Sports Coach UK (2009)
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Central to this body of work is the review of the participant development literature commissioned by
Sports Coach UK (Bailey, Collins, Ford, MacNamara, Toms, and Pearce, 2010), which highlighted the
need to recognise the differing biological, psychological and social development of children and
young people. Nonetheless, theoretical models ‘for’ coaching are idealistic representations as
opposed to realistic models ‘of’ coaching (Cushion et al. 2006). Consequently, there is a requirement
to put these models into practice and test their robustness.
Conclusion
According to Horn (2008), effective coaching is defined as “that which results in either successful
performance outcomes (measured in terms of either win-loss percentages or degree of selfperceived performance abilities) or positive psychological responses on the part of the athletes (e.g.,
high perceived ability, high self esteem, an intrinsic motivational orientation, high level of sport
enjoyment)” (p. 240). To ensure that coaching is effective, children should be at the centre of the
coaching process (Wiersema, 2000). Coaches need to recognise the needs of the specific coaching
situation and act accordingly (Jones, 2000) as effective coaching is context dependent (Côté, et al.,
2007). It should not be surprising that carefully constructed activity settings can have positive
benefits on the psychosocial development of participating children and youth (Conroy and
Coatsworth, 2006). In this way, coaches need to start to move away from the more traditional
techno-cratic methods (Tinning, 1988) to appreciating more holistic, child centred methods of
coaching, that are better aligned with children’s motives for taking part in sport.
Gaps in the literature
Context specific, coaching research is at present underdeveloped. As such, it is very difficult to make
any conclusive statement about what an appropriate coaching environment for children actually is.
The research reviewed does give a starting point as to what this coaching environment may look like,
but due to the severe lack of empirical research in this area, the findings are not conclusive. The
following, outlines areas of the literature which need further researching:
•
As stated in the first review, there is a need for more qualitative research (Cushion et al.
2006), in an attempt to capture children’s perception of what they believe to be appropriate
coaching environments (Dyson, 1995).
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•
There is limited evidence in the youth sport literature on sources of non enjoyment,
although by understanding what contributes to low enjoyment it should be possible to
outline strategies for coaches and parents to develop enjoyment when working with
children (McCarthy and Jones, 2007).
•
No research to date has examined specific pedagogical issues (e.g. learning settings, general
subject matter, and methods of instruction) within the framework of positive youth
development through sport (Fraser-Thomas, Cote and Deakin, 2005). This is concerning
given that pedagogy lies at the heart of coaches practices (Jones, 2006).
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Appendix A - Table 1.0 Overview of research
Study
No. of Participants
Methods
Sport
Age Group (Years)
Context
Macphail et al. (2003)
75
Field Notes, Interviews, Questionnaire
Athletics
9-15
Club – England
115
Observations, Semi-Structured Interviews ,
Swimming
9-12
Club – France
Light and Lemonie (2010
Questionnaire
Brodkin and Weiss (1990)
14
Questionnaire
Swimming
6-9
Club - USA
Fredricks and Eccles (2005)
365
Questionnaire
Not Sport Specific
4-7
School - USA
May Woods et al. (2007)
49
Formal Interview, 2 Formal Inventories
Not Sport Specific
7-12
School - USA
McCullagh et al. (1993)
81
Questionnaire
Soccer
7-14
Club - USA
Roberts et al. (1981)
143
Questionnaire, Formal Interview
Not Sport Specific
9-11
School - USA
Smith et al. (2006)
223
Questionnaire
Soccer
9-12
Club - Spain
Klint and Weiss (1987)
67
Questionnaire
Gymnastics
8-16
Club - USA
Barber et al. (1999)
62
Questionnaire
Soccer
9-14
Club - USA
8-12
Youth Sport Program - England
(N=29),
Football
(N=13),
Baseball (N=8), Basketball (N= 6),
Softball (N=6)
McCarthy and Jones (2007)
22
Focus group interviews
Soccer (N=13), Rugby (N=6), Hockey
(N=2), Netball (N=6), Cross Country
(N=6), Swimming (N=5), Gymnastics
(N=3), Martial Arts (N=1), Golf (N=1),
Cricket (N=2)
30
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31
© Edward Cope & RBES Ltd., 2011