The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T22685245A47987939
Strigops habroptila, Kakapo
Assessment by: BirdLife International
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: BirdLife International. 2013. Strigops habroptila. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2013: e.T22685245A47987939. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20132.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Aves
Psittaciformes
Strigopidae
Taxon Name: Strigops habroptila Gray, 1845
Synonym(s):
• Strigops habroptilus BirdLife International (2004)
Common Name(s):
• English:
• Spanish:
Kakapo, Owl Parrot
Cacapo
Taxonomic Source(s):
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife
International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International.
Taxonomic Notes:
Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002b).
Identification Information:
58-64 cm. Flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding, green parrot. Moss-green upperparts. Greenish-yellow
underparts. Brown-and-yellow mottling of feathers. Owl-like facial disk. Male has broader head, larger
bill. Weighs up to 4 kg. Female c.65% male weight. Voice Males 'boom' repetitively at night to attract
females, often audible for up to 5 km, for three to five months in some years.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Critically Endangered A2be ver 3.1
Year Published:
2013
Date Assessed:
November 1, 2013
Justification:
This species only survives as a tiny population on four offshore islands. With the instigation of intensive
management in 1995, numbers are now increasing, but the population trend over the last three
generations has still been extremely rapid; it therefore qualifies as Critically Endangered.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
2012 – Critically Endangered (CR)
2010 – Critically Endangered (CR)
2009 – Critically Endangered (CR)
2008 – Critically Endangered (CR)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
1
2006 – Critically Endangered (CR)
2004 – Critically Endangered (CR)
2000 – Critically Endangered (CR)
1996 – Extinct in the Wild (EW)
1994 – Extinct in the Wild (EW)
1988 – Threatened (T)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
Strigops habroptila formerly occurred throughout most of the North, South and Stewart Islands, New
Zealand. Although it disappeared from most of its original range in the wake of human colonisation, the
species remained abundant in Fiordland and some other higher-rainfall and more sparsely inhabited
parts of South Island until the early twentieth century (Clout and Merton 1998). By 1976, however, the
known population had been reduced to 18 birds, all males, all in Fiordland. In 1977, a rapidly declining
population of c.150 birds was discovered on Stewart Island. Between 1980 and 1992, 61 remaining
Stewart Island birds were transferred to offshore islands (Merton 1998, Merton and Clout 1998, Higgins
1999, Merton et al. 1999), and are presently located on Codfish and Anchor Islands (R. J. Moorhouse in
litt. 2007). The last accepted North Island record was in 1927, the last South Island record of three males
in Fiordland in 1987, and the last Stewart Island record of a female found and transferred to Codfish
Island in 1997 (Powlesland et al. 2006). In 2009, a male which was one of four transferred from Stewart
to Codfish in 1987 was refound after having been missing for 21 years (Anon. 2009). It is likely to be
extinct in its natural range, but, as of November 2005, birds are still present on four islands: Codfish,
Chalky, Anchor and Maud (Powlesland et al. 2006). In 1999, 26 females and 36 males survived (Merton
and Clout 1999), comprising 50 individuals of breeding age, six subadults and six juveniles. The
population stabilised, and has begun to slowly increase (Higgins 1999, Merton et al. 1999, P. Jansen in
litt. 1999) following the implementation of intensive management (Higgins 1999, Merton and Clout
1999, Merton et al. 1999). By 2005, the kakapo population stood at 86 (D. Merton in litt. 2005), of which
52 were breeding adults (21 females and 31 males) and 34 were juveniles (P. Jansen in litt. 2004, D.
Merton in litt. 2005); a productive breeding year in 2009 saw the total population increase to 124 birds
(Merton 2009), and there were known to be 126 birds in early 2012, including 78 breeding adults (R. J.
Moorhouse in litt. 2012).
Country Occurrence:
Native: New Zealand
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Distribution Map
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Population
In early 2012 there were 126 individuals, including 78 breeding adults (R. J. Moorhouse in litt. 2012).
Trend Justification
The species was described as still abundant in Fiordland and some other parts of South Island in the
early twentieth century. The current population comprises of at least 78 breeding adults, and 126 birds
in total (R. J. Moorhouse in litt. 2012), so although the population is now starting to slowly increase, it
has declined by >80% in the last 100 years (<3 generations) (P. Jansen in litt. 2004, D. Merton in litt.
2005, Merton 2009).
Current Population Trend: Increasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
This large, flightless, nocturnal parrot feeds on leaves, stems, roots, fruit, nectar and seeds, and, prior to
human colonisation, it formerly inhabited a range of vegetation types throughout most of the North,
South and Stewart Islands. It breeds once every two to five years, coinciding with periodic
superabundant seeding or fruiting periods of key podocarp plant species: on Codfish, Stewart and Pearl
Islands nesting has only occurred when rimu Dacrydium cupressinum or pink pine Halocarpus biformis
fruit has been abundant (Harper et al. 2006). Males cluster in traditional lekking sites and advertise their
presence by calling each night for about three months, with mating occurring mainly between January
and early March (Powlesland et al. 2006). One to four eggs are laid and all parental care is performed by
the female, with eggs and chicks being left unattended for several hours at night. Female kakapo take 611 years to reach breeding age, and may live at least 90 years (P. Jansen in litt. 2004). One productive
male is at least 30 years old, and probably much older. Adult survivorship is now more than 99% per
year (Lloyd and Powlesland 1994, Cresswell 1996, Clout and Merton 1998, Merton and Clout 1998,
1999, Higgins 1999, Merton et al. 1999).
Systems: Terrestrial
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)
On Stewart Island, over 50% of monitored adults were killed each year by cats (Clout and Merton 1998).
Abnormally low egg fertility and exceedingly low natural reproductive and recruitment rates are major
concerns. In 2004, three juveniles died of septicaemia caused by the bacteria Erysipelothrix
rhusiopathiae (erysipelas), a disease which had not previously been reported in the species (P. Jansen in
litt. 2004).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I and II. Supplementary feeding has increased the success of breeding attempts, and
may be able to be used to trigger breeding: supplementary foods with low macronutrient:calcium ratios
may be most effective in supporting increased reproduction (Higgins 1999, Merton et al. 1999,
Raubenheimer and Simpson 2006, Anon. 2008). All individuals are radio-tagged, and tracked throughout
the year. Each nest is monitored continuously using infra-red video cameras, and heat pads are placed
over eggs and nestlings while females forage. In 1998, the Polynesian rat Rattus exulans (a predator of
eggs and nestlings) was eradicated from Codfish (Merton et al. 1999). Extensive research is on-going
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
4
(Merton 1997, P. Jansen in litt. 1999). Methods of hand-rearing chicks are being refined. Reducing
supplementary feeding levels has been shown to increase the percentage of female chicks produced and
may redress the skewed gender balance (Clout et al. 2002, Robertson et al. 2006). Genetic diversity of
the remaining population is managed to improve hatching rates (Merton 2006). Translocations have
been carried out to take advantage of locally abundant food supplies and increase the frequency of
breeding attempts (Merton 2006). Trials of artificial insemination methods have taken place (Anon.
2008b), and by early 2012 three chicks had been produced using this technique (R. J. Moorhouse in litt.
2012). In 2008, seven chicks hatched on Codfish Island were transferred to specialised facilities to be
hand-raised, as rimu fruit failed to ripen (Hirschfeld 2008). A search for any remaining birds in Fiordland
was completed in 2006, with no birds found and no evidence of their continued existence. A Kakapo
Recovery Plan (the third since 1989), produced in partnership between the Department of Conservation,
Forest & Bird and Rio Tinto Alcan (formerly Comalco), covers the period 2006-2015. Conservation
Actions Proposed
Continue research to identify key factors that limit breeding frequency and productivity, and address
these urgently (Cresswell 1996). Maintain existing management practices that have facilitated a recent
increase in the population, and increase the number of females to 60 by 2016. Restore sufficient habitat
to cater for the population increase and develop captive breeding programmes (Collar and Butchart
2013). Maintain public awareness and support (Hirschfeld 2009).
Credits
Assessor(s):
BirdLife International
Reviewer(s):
Butchart, S.
Contributor(s):
Jansen, P., Merton, D. & Moorhouse, R.
Facilitators(s) and
Compiler(s):
Benstead, P., Bird, J., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., McClellan, R., Symes, A., Taylor, J.,
Temple, H.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Bibliography
Anon. 2008. How to make a big-boned bird breed. New Scientist 199(2673): 16.
Anon. 2008. Kakapo set to breed. Forest and Bird: 3.
Anon. 2009. Long lost Kakapo rediscovered after 21 years. Available at:
#http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/kakapo-rediscovered.html#.
Clout, M.; Merton, D. 1998. Saving the Kakapo: the conservation of the world's most peculiar parrot.
Bird Conservation International 8: 281-296.
Clout, M.N., Elliott, G.P. and Robertson, B.C. 2002. Effects of supplementary feeding on the offspring sex
ratio of kakapo: a dilemma for the conservation of a polygynous parrot. Biological Conservation 107(1):
13-18.
Collar, N. J.; Butchart, S. H. M. 2013. Conservation breeding and avian diversity: chances and challenges.
International Zoo Yearbook.
Cresswell, M. 1996. Kakapo recovery plan 1996-2005. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
David, N. and Gosselin, M. 2002. Gender agreement of avian species names. Bulletin of the British
Ornithologists' Club 122: 14-49.
Harper, G. A.; Elliott, G. P.; Eason, D. K.; Moorhouse, R. J. 2006. What triggers nesting of Kakapo (Strigops
habroptilus)? Notornis 53(1): 160-163.
Higgins, P. J. 1999. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds: parrots to dollarbirds.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.
Hirschfeld, E. 2008. Rare Birds Yearbook 2009: the world's 190 most threatened birds. MagDig Media
Ltd., Shrewsbury, UK.
IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List categories and criteria: version 3.1. IUCN, Gland & Cambridge.
IUCN. 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (ver. 2013.2). Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 13 November 2013).
Lloyd, B. D.; Powlesland, R. G. 1994. The decline of Kakapo Strigops habroptilus and attempts at
conservation by translocation. Biological Conservation 69: 75-85.
Merton, D. 1997. Kakapo update. PsittaScene 9(1): 3-4.
Merton, D. 1998. Kakapo update.
Merton, D. 2009. Kakapo news. PsittaScene 21(3): 18.
Merton, D.; Clout, M. 1998. Red Data Bird: Kakapo Strigops habroptilus. World Birdwatch 20: 20-21.
Merton, D.; Clout, M. 1999. Kakapo: back from the brink. Wingspan 9(2): 14-17.
Merton, D.; Reed, C.; Crouchley, D. 1999. Recovery strategies and techniques for three free-living,
critically-endangered New Zealand birds: Kakapo Strigops habroptilus, Black Stilt Himantopus
novaezelandiae and Takahe Porphyrio mantelli. In: Roth, T.L.; Swanson, W.F.; Blattman, L.K. (ed.),
Proceedings 7th world conference on breeding endangered species, pp. 151-162. Cincinnati Zoo and
Botanical Garden, Cincinnati.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Merton, D. V. 2006. The Kakapo: some highlights and lessons from five decades of applied conservation.
Journal of Ornithology 147(5): 4.
Powlesland, R. G.; Merton, D. V.; Cockrem, J. F. 2006. A parrot apart: the natural history of the Kakapo
(Strigops habroptila), and the context of its conservation management. Notornis 53(1): 3-26.
Raubenheimer, D.; Simpson, S. J. 2006. The challenge of supplementary feeding: can geometric analysis
help save the Kakapo? Notornis 53(1): 100-111.
Robertson, H.A., Karika, I. and Saul, E.K. 2006. Translocation of Rarotonga monarchs Pomarea dimidiata
within the Southern Cook Islands. Bird Conservation International 16(3): 197-215.
Citation
BirdLife International. 2013. Strigops habroptila. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013:
e.T22685245A47987939. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
7
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
1. Forest -> 1.4. Forest - Temperate
Resident
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland
Resident
Suitable
No
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.2. Artificial/Terrestrial - Pastureland
Resident
Suitable
Yes
Use and Trade
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
End Use
Local
National
International
Pets/display animals, horticulture
No
No
Yes
Threats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Threat
Timing
Scope
Severity
Impact Score
8. Invasive & other problematic species & genes ->
8.1. Invasive non-native/alien species -> 8.1.2.
Named species (Felis catus)
Past, likely
to return
Majority (5090%)
No decline
Past impact
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Past, likely
to return
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
8. Invasive & other problematic species & genes ->
8.1. Invasive non-native/alien species -> 8.1.2.
Named species (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae)
Slow, significant
declines
Past impact
Conservation Actions in Place
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
Action Recovery plan: Yes
Systematic monitoring scheme: Yes
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Conservation sites identified: Yes, over part of range
Occur in at least one PA: No
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Conservation Actions in Place
Invasive species control or prevention: Yes
In-Place Species Management
Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: Yes
Subject to ex-situ conservation: Yes
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: No
Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions Needed
2. Land/water management -> 2.3. Habitat & natural process restoration
3. Species management -> 3.2. Species recovery
3. Species management -> 3.4. Ex-situ conservation -> 3.4.1. Captive breeding/artificial propagation
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
Research Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.6. Actions
Additional Data Fields
Distribution
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 26
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): No
Number of Locations: 2
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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Distribution
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 300
Population
Number of mature individuals: 78
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations: No
Population severely fragmented: No
No. of subpopulations: 1
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No
All individuals in one subpopulation: Yes
No. of individuals in largest subpopulation: 100
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Unknown
Generation Length (years): 27
Movement patterns: Not a Migrant
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Strigops habroptila – published in 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22685245A47987939.en
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership. The IUCN
Red List Partners are: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation
International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas
A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™