AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch1
RUNNINGHEAD:ADVANCINGEMERGINGADULTHOODTHEORYANDRESEARCH
TurningPointforaTurningPoint:AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch
SethJ.Schwartz
UniversityofMiami
ThisarticleisbasedonDr.Schwartz’spresidentialaddressdeliveredatthe7thConference
onEmergingAdulthood,Miami,Florida,USA,October16,2015.Theauthorisgratefulto
JeffreyArnett,AlanMeca,andMoinSyedfortheirvaluablefeedbackonearlierdraftsofthe
article.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch2
Abstract
Thepresentarticlereviewsthreekeyissuesregardingtheemergingadultlifestage–the
waysinwhichemergingadulthoodrepresentsakeyturningpointinthelifespan(andthe
influencesthathelptodeterminethepaththatagivenindividualwillfollow),differencesin
theexperienceofemergingadulthoodbetweencollegestudentsandnon-college-attending
individuals,andinternationaldiversityintheexistenceandmanifestationofemerging
adulthood.Withineachoftheseareas,extantknowledgeisreviewedandareasinneedof
furtherattentionarespecified.Inparticular,thesocial,economic,andculturalforcesthat
shapeemergingadulthoodarediscussedintermsofwhoismost(andleast)likelyto
experienceemergingadulthoodandthewaysinwhichthestageislikelytomanifestitself.
Recommendationsforfuturetheorizingandresearcharepresented.
KEYWORDS:Emergingadulthood,collegestudents,work,relationships,family,peers,
identity,internationaldiversity.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch3
TurningPointforaTurningPoint:AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryand
Research
Thepurposeofthisarticleistotracetheevolutionofemergingadulthoodasalifestage,
aswellastooutlinekeychallengesforemergingadulthoodtheoryandresearch.
ScholarshiponemergingadulthoodhascomealongwaysinceArnett(2000)first
introducedthetermandproposedthefivefeatures(identityexploration,possibilities,
feelinginbetween,self-focus,andinstability)thatcharacterizethislifestage.Wenow
understandsomeofthewaysinwhichemergingadulthoodmaybedistinctfrom
adolescenceandfromlaterstagesofadulthood.Weunderstandthewaysinwhich,for
manypeopleinWesterncountries,emergingadulthoodmayrepresentaturningpoint–a
timewhenadifficultearlierlifecanberedeemed,orwhenapreviouslyeasylifecan
becomemoretroubled.Althoughsuchacharacterizationmayapplytoanypost-adolescent
lifestage,emergingadulthoodislikelythefirsttimewhenonecanredirectone’slifecourse
–eitherforbetterorforworse.
SpeakersofAmericanEnglishwilllikelybefamiliarwiththeterm“two-faced,”which
referstoapersonwhotellsothersonething,andthendoessomethingquitedifferent
behindthoseotherpeople’sbacks.Beingtwo-facedisgenerallyregardedassomething
undesirableanddishonest,andcallingsomeonetwo-facedisusuallyaninsult.Butcana
developmentalstagealsobetwo-facedinawaythathasnothingtodowithdishonesty?If
thatstageissimultaneouslyatimeofgreatoptimismbutalsogreatuncertainty,atimeof
increasingwell-beingbutalsocharacterizedbytheonsetofanxietyanddepressive
disordersinmanypeople,thenwouldthatstagebeconsideredtwo-faced?Thatis,the
stagehastwofaces–somepeopleexperienceoneface,othersexperienceanotherface,and
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch4
stillothersmayexperienceboth.Thistwo-facedcharacterizationisdifferentfrom
normativegainsandlossesindevelopment(e.g.,Heckhausen,Dixon,&Baltes,1989),in
thatthelifecoursecanberedirectedinemergingadulthood.Forexample,someonewho
experiencedadifficultchildhoodcandevelopapositiveandsuccessfullifetrajectoryin
her/histwenties,andsomeonewhoseearlylifewasfairlycomfortablecanbecome
involvedinpersonallyorsociallydestructiveactivitiesasanemergingadult.Sucha
redirectioncanbemorethanagainoraloss–itrepresentsawholesalechangeinhow
one’slifeisexperienced.
Emergingadulthoodmayrepresentsuchatwo-faceddevelopmentalstage.Formany
people,well-beingishigherinemergingadulthoodthanduringadolescence(Galambos,
Barker,&Krahn,2006).Forothers,however,emergingadulthoodisatimeofworsening
symptomsofanxietyanddepression(Reinherz,Paradis,Gianconia,Stashwick,&
Fitzmaurice,2003).Paradoxically,emergingadulthoodisbothan“ageofpossibilities”
(Arnett,2000,2007)andisoftenfraughtwithprecarityandworryregardingone’sfuture
(Côté,2014;MacMillan,2007).Emergingadulthoodisatimeofproductiveidentity
exploration(Schwartz,Zamboanga,Luyckx,Meca,&Ritchie,2013),butitisalso
characterizedbypeaklevelsofillicitdruguse,sexualriskbehavior,anddrunkendriving
(Chou,Grant,Dawson,Stinson,Saha,&Pickering,2005;SubstanceAbuseandMental
HealthServicesAdministration,2014).
Thetwo-facednatureofemergingadulthoodsuggeststhatthisisoneofthefirsttimes
timewhenlifecaneither“gogood”or“gobad”formanypeople.Psychosocialandhealth
outcomesinemergingadulthoodare,toalargeextent,dependentonone’spersonality,
familyrelationships,andsocioeconomicsituationduringchildhoodandadolescence
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch5
(Luecken,Kraft,&Hagan,2009;Orth,Robins,&Roberts,2008).However,thereisagreat
dealofroomfortheexerciseofagencyandself-direction,whichcanpromoteresiliencein
youngpeoplewhohavefacedgreatdifficultiesearlierinlife(Masten,Burt,Roisman,
Obradović,Long,&Tellegen,2004).Atthesametime,individualswhoappearedtofunction
wellinchildhoodandadolescencecantransitionintonegativebehaviorsduringemerging
adulthood.McAdams(2010)usestheexampleofformerU.S.PresidentGeorgeW.Bush,
whobecameanalcoholicinhistwentiesdespitehavinggrownupinawarmand
supportivefamily.Asindividualsgainincreasedautonomyfromtheirfamiliesoforigin,
exposuretonewcontextsandrelationshipscanchangethelikelihoodofpositiveand
negativelifetrajectories(Luecken&Gress,2010).Enteringintoastableromantic
relationship,forexample,canoffsettheeffectsofearlierfamilydysfunction(Cui&
Fincham,2010;vanDulmen,Goncy,Haydon,&Collins,2008)–andsimilarly,association
withrisk-takingfriendscanincreasethelikelihoodofproblematicoutcomesinindividuals
regardlessoffamilybackground(Borsari&Carey,2006).
Researchalsoindicatesthatsuccessincompletingthedevelopmentaltasksofemerging
adulthood–suchascareerpreparation(e.g.,throughcollege)andsustainingfriendships–
ispredictiveofcareerandrelationalsuccesslateron(Roisman,Masten,Coatsworth,&
Tellegen,2004).Similarly,riskybehaviorinemergingadulthood–suchasproblematic
alcoholuse–ispredictiveoffailuretoprepareadequatelyforthechallengesofadulthood
(Gotham,Sher,&Wood,2003).Sothe“forkintheroad”thatonefollowsduringemerging
adulthoodholdsimportantimplicationsforlateradultfunctioning,andasaresult,
emergingadulthoodrepresentsakeyjunctureinthelifecourse(Arnett,2000,2007).
Again,althoughthisislikelytrueoflaterpartsofadulthoodaswell,emergingadulthoodis
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch6
likelythefirsttimethatyoungpeoplehaveencounteredadevelopmentalstagewherethey
havesufficientautonomytodirecttheirfuturelifepaths.
Theremainderofthisarticleisdevotedtothreeprimarytopics–predictorsof
emergingadultoutcomes,differencesbetweencollegestudentsandtheirnon-college
counterparts,andculturalandinternationaldiversityinthemanifestationofemerging
adulthood.Theseissueswereselectedbecausetheyareunresolvedand/orpivotal
concernswithinthestudyofemergingadulthood.Eachofthesetopicsisaddressedinits
ownsection,andtheconcludingsectionisdevotedtotyingtogetherthethemesraisedin
thesethreesections.
PredictorsofEmergingAdultOutcomes:Parents,Peers,andIdentity
Whataccountsforthetwo-facedcharacterofemergingadulthood?Whatpredictswho
will“gogood”andwhowill“gobad”duringtheirlateteensandtwenties?Thereareclearly
anumberoffactorsthatcanbeimplicated,butwewillreviewthreeprimaryfactorshere–
parent-emergingadultrelationships,peerinfluences,andidentitydevelopment.
Parent-EmergingAdultRelationships.Forthemostpart,familyrelationshipsexert
theireffectsonemergingadultoutcomesthrougheventsandbondsthatoccurredearlier
(e.g.,Kim,Conger,Lorenz,&Elder,2001).Whenparentsandadolescentsestablishasecure
relationshipwithoneanother,adolescentslikelycarrythisemotionalsecurityintotheir
adultrelationships.However,asthecaseofGeorgeW.Bushsuggests,thisisnotalways
true.
Parentingduringemergingadulthoodmayalsobeimportantforemergingadults’life
outcomes.Inparticular,autonomy-supportiveparenting,whereparentsencourageyoung
peopletomaketheirowndecisions,isespeciallyfacilitativeofwell-beingandcompetence
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch7
amongemergingadults(Kins,Beyers,Soenens,&Vansteenkiste,2009).Onekeyemergingadulttransitionthatdirectlyinvolvesfamilymembersinvolvesleavinghomeandventuring
outonone’sown.Seiffge-Krenke(2006)foundthatemergingadultswholefthomeata
“normative”time(ages21-23inthisspecificGermansample)tendedtoenjoythemost
favorablerelationshipswiththeirparents.Thoseparticipantswholefthomeatalatertime
tendedtobeinsecurelyattachedandtomanifestgreaterdegreesofmentalhealth
problems(e.g..,depressiveoranxietysymptoms),especiallyaccordingtoparentreports.
Paradoxically,althoughemergingadulthoodinvolvesincreaseddegreesofself-direction
andindependencefromparents,establishingoneselfasanincreasinglyindependentadult
appearstobebestaccomplishedinthecontextofparentalwarmth,guidance,andsupport
(Aquilino,2006).
Anumberofpotentialmoderatorsmayexplainwhyparent-adolescentandparentemergingadultrelationshipsexertstrongereffectsonemergingadultoutcomesforsome
individualsthanforothers.Forexample,youngpeoplewithcertaingeneticprofilesmaybe
moreorlesssusceptibletoparentalinfluences(andmayevokemoreorlesswarmthor
hostilityfromtheirparents;Feinberg,Button,Neiderhiser,Reiss,&Hetherington,2007);
parent-youthrelationshipsmaybelessprotectiveindangerousandviolentcommunity
contextsthaninlessdangerouscontexts(Law&Barber,2007);parentswithpsychiatricor
substanceuseissuesmaybemorelikelytotransmittheseproblemstotheirchildren(Anda
etal.,2014);divorcedparents(especiallynonresidentparents)mayexertlessinfluence
overtheirchildren’sbehaviorcomparedtoparentsinintactfamilies(Carlson,2006);and
youthwithmoreimpulsiveordifficulttemperamentsmaybemoreresistanttoparental
influenceandmayhavetroubleestablishingandmaintainingclosefamilyrelationships
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch8
(Kahn,Holmes,Farley,&Kim-Spoon,inpress).Itisessentialtoconsiderthese(andother)
moderatorswhenstudyingparentalinfluencesonemergingadultoutcomes.
PeerInfluences.Peersareamongthemostproximalinfluencesonadolescentand
emergingadultbehavior.Emergingadultsarelikelytocitefittinginwithfriendsasa
reasonforengaginginbingedrinkingandotherproblematicformsofalcoholuse(Borsari,
Murphy,&Barnett,2007).Sexualrisktakinginemergingadulthood–whichoftenoccursin
thecompanyofsimilarlyagedpeers–hasbeenassociatedwithahostofotherrisky
outcomes,suchasharddruguseanddomesticviolencevictimizationandperpetration
(Ellickson,Collins,Bogart,Klein,&Taylor,2005).Althoughbeinginacommitted
relationshipisgenerallyrelatedtolowerlevelsofrisktakinginemergingadulthood,
involvementwithsubstanceusingpartnersispredictiveofgreaterriskforone’sown
substanceuse(Fleming,White,&Catalano,2010).Itcanbesurmised,then,thatthekindof
risksthatpeersconferdependsonwhothosepeersare,andtheactivitiesinwhichtheyare
involved.
Peersdonotonlyconferriskinemergingadulthood–theyalsohelptofacilitate
positivedevelopmentaloutcomes.Forexample,havingatleastoneclosefriendis
predictiveofmorefavorableadjustmentduringthefirstyearofcollege(Swenson,
Nordstrom,&Hiester,2008).Friendsandromanticpartnersserveasimportant
attachmentfiguresandsupportsourcesduringemergingadulthood(Markiewicz,Lawford,
Doyle,&Haggart,2006).Positivepeerrelationshipscanguideemergingadultstowardcivic
engagementandotherpositivecontributionstosociety(Obradović&Masten,2007).Again,
thefunctionsofpeerrelationshipsmaydependonwhichspecificindividualstheemerging
adulthaschosenasfriends.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch9
Ofcourse,peersarenotnecessarilypeoplewithwhomoneinteractsinperson.Social
mediahaveallowedyoungpeopletomaintaindifferentonlineandofflinesocialnetworks
(Subrahmanyam,Reich,Waechter,&Espinoza,2008).Onlineandofflinenetworkseach
contributedifferentlytowell-being,inthatyoungpeoplearelikelytoseeklesspersonal
typesofsupportfromonlinefriends(Manago,2015;Manago,Taylor,&Greenfield,2012).
Further,someemergingadults,especiallythosewhoareunsureofthemselves,mayseek
socialsupportbypresentinga“falseself”online(e.g.,developinganonlinepersonalitythan
isdifferentfromtheirofflinepersonality;Michikyan,Subrahmanyam,&Dennis,2014).
Moreover,preferenceforonlineversusofflinefriendsmayplaceemergingadultsatriskfor
lonelinessandInternetaddiction(Smahel,Brown,&Blinka,2012).Onlinesocialnetworks
mightbemosteffectivelyusedtosupplement,ratherthanreplace,traditionalpeer
connectionsinemergingadulthood–andface-to-facefriendinteractionsappeartobe
essentialforemergingadultwell-being.
IdentityDevelopment.Identityisanothercriticaldomainthathelpstodetermine
whetheremergingadultsaresuccessfulinassumingandmaintainingadultrolesand
responsibilities.Thequestions“WhoamI?”,“HowdoIfitintotheworld?”,and“Howdothe
variouspartsofmyselffittogether?”begintobeaddressedinadolescence,butthemajority
ofidentityworkinmanyWesterncountriesoccursduringemergingadulthood(Luyckx,
Klimstra,Duriez,VanPetegem,&Beyers,2013).Duebothtoincreasedautonomyandmore
advancedcognitiveabilities,emergingadultsareabletoexperimentwithanumberof
potentialroles,relationships,andbehaviorsinawaythatisnotpossibleduring
adolescence(Thompson,2014).Increasedautonomyfromparentsandotherfamily
membersallowsemergingadultstotravelindependently,goawaytocollege,cohabitwith
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch10
romanticpartners,andengageinotherbehaviorsthataregenerallynotpermittedin
adolescence(Arnett,2007).
Further,moderatedegreesofriskybehaviorsmayserveadevelopmentalpurpose
duringemergingadulthood.Druguse,casualsex,anddangerousdriving,amongother
potentiallyharmfulbehaviors,canrepresentattemptstoexplorepossibilities(Arnett,
2005;Ravert,2009).Youngpeoplecanexperimentwithdifferenttypesofsexual
relationships,andwithdifferenttypesofrecreationalactivities(includingthosethat
involvehealthrisks)–andthendecidewhethertheserelationshipsandactivitiesfitwith
whomonewishestobecome.Clearly,however,thesebehaviorscarrypotentialdangers,
especiallywhentakentoextremes–andalthoughmostemergingadultsmoveontoadult
responsibilitiesandleavedangerousbehaviorsbehind,somedonot.Generally,those
individualswithgeneticorpersonality-basedpredispositionstowardaddiction,
impulsivity,orthrillseeking,orthosewhowerealreadyinvolvedinnon-conventional
activitiesduringchildhoodandadolescence,aremostlikelytoengageinsevereextentsof
risk-takingbehaviorsduringemergingadulthoodandtoexperiencelong-termnegative
consequencesofthesebehaviors(Harden,Quinn,&Tucker-Drob,2011;Shin,Hong,&Jeon,
2012).Identityexplorationisclearlynotwithoutpotentialrisksanddangers,especiallyfor
thoseindividualswhomaybepredisposedtowardsevererisk-takingbehavior.
Thereareanumberoflifedomainsinwhichemergingadultsmayworktodevelopa
senseofidentity(seeSchwartz,Zamboanga,Luyckx,Meca,&Ritchie,2013,forareview).
Theseincludecareer,relationships,ethnicity,morality,sexuality,gender,nationality,
religion,andpolitics,amongothers.Differentdomainsarelikelytobesalienttodifferent
individualsatdifferentpointsintime(Azmitia,Syed,&Radmacher,2008).Forexample,
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch11
academicidentityislikelymostimportanttoindividualsincollege,ethnicidentityislikely
mostimportanttoindividualsfromethnicminoritygroups,andsexualidentityislikely
mostimportanttoindividualsfromsexualminoritygroups.Further,identityelements
withinonedomainmayinfluenceorconflictwiththoseinotherdomains–suchas
religiousindividualsfeelingconflictedaboutexploringtheirsexuality(Schachter,2004);
andelementswithinonedomainmayintersectwiththoseinotherdomainstocreatea
wholethatisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts(Bowleg,2008).Forexample,beingafemale
engineeroramalenurselikelyinvolvesmorecomplexitythanthesimplesumofgender
andcareeridentities.
Allindividualsholdmultipleidentities–thatis,rolesorcommitmentsinmultiple
domains–thatinfluenceanotheratleasttosomeextent(Vignoles,Schwartz,&Luyckx,
2011).Ageneralprincipleisthat,inemergingadulthood,theabilitytointegrateone’s
variousidentitiesintoacoherentwholeisassociatedwiththegreatestlevelsofwell-being,
thelowestlevelsofinternalizingsymptoms,andthelowestlikelihoodofengagementin
harmfulanddangerousbehaviors(Gonzales-Backenetal.,2015;Mecaetal.,2015).Tothe
extenttowhichintegrationisimportantforwell-beingandforprotectingagainstrisky
behavior,Conflictbetweenoramongidentitiesduringemergingadulthoodmaybe
distressingandmightbelinkedwithattemptstoself-medicatethroughdrugandalcohol
use,sexualrisktaking,andotherpotentiallyharmfulbehaviors.Moreresearchisneededto
examinethispossibility.Indeed,SyedandMcLean(inpress)provideanumberof
recommendationsforstudyingidentityintegration.
Inmoregeneralterms,wecandrawonErikson’s(1950,1968)theorizingabout
identitytopinpointwaysinwhichidentityhelpstodeterminewhetherdevelopment“goes
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch12
good”or“goesbad”inemergingadulthood.Eriksonspokeofidentityasaninterplay
betweensynthesisandconfusion,wheresynthesisreferstoanintegrationofdomainspecificelementsintoacoherentwholewhereasconfusionreferstoapoorlydeveloped
and/orintegratedsenseofself.Indeed,someresearchhassupportedErikson’sposition.
Forexample,Schwartz,Hardy,etal.(2015)foundthatindividualswithwell-integrated
identityconfigurationswerethemostpsychologicallyhealthyandengagedinthelowest
degreesofdelinquentandhealth-compromisingbehavior,whereasthosewhowerelargely
confusedabouttheiridentitiesreportedlowwell-being,highlevelsofinternalizing
symptoms,andthehighestprobabilityofriskbehaviorengagement.
Importantly,identityconfusion–andthedistressandriskbehaviorthataccompanyit–
canbeeithertransitionalorcharacterological(Luyckx,Goossens,&Soenens,2006;
Schwartz,Klimstra,Luyckx,Hale,&Meeus,2012).Thatis,whileindividualsaresorting
throughidentityalternatives(whichmayinvolvesuspendingone’sexistingcommitments),
identityconfusionandinternalizingsymptomsarelikelytoincrease(Schwartz,
Zamboanga,Weisskirch,&Rodriguez,2009).Inthis“temporaryconfusion”scenario,
identityconfusionislikelytodecreaseoncenewcommitmentsareenacted(cf.Luyckx,
Schwartz,Goossens,&Pollock,2008).However,incaseswhereconfusionismore
characterological,individualsmayengageinveryhighlevelsofriskybehavior(Schwartz,
Beyers,etal.,2011).Indeed,thehighestlevelsofrisktakingwereobservedamongthose
individualswhowerenotinterestedindevelopingasenseofidentity,withthosewhowere
tryingtoexplorebutcouldnotsustaintheirexplorationreportingsomewhatlowerdegrees
ofrisktaking.Incontrast,Schwartz,Beyers,etal.foundthatindividualswhowere
unsuccessfulatsustainingidentityreportedlowerwell-being,andhigherlevelsof
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch13
internalizingsymptoms,comparedtothosewhowereuninterestedinidentityissues.
Emergingadultsexperiencing“temporaryconfusion”–thatis,thosewhowereexploring
identityissues–reportedlessseveresymptomatologythaneitherofthecharacterological
confusiongroups.Socharacterologicalidentityconfusion,whethercharacterizedbyan
inabilitytoengagewithidentityissuesorbyalackofinterestinidentityissues,appearsto
belinkedwiththegreatestextentofproblematicfunctioning.
Ofcourse,thethreemechanismsthatwereviewhere–family,peers,andidentity–are
interconnectedandmayworktogethertoinfluenceoutcomes.Forexample,family
relationships,peeraffiliations,andidentityprocessesmayworktogethertoinfluence
adolescentandemergingadultpsychosocialandhealthoutcomes(Schwartz,Mason,etal.,
2009).Moreresearchisneededthatassessesmultiplemechanismsandexaminesthe
relativecontributionsof–andinteractionsamong–these(andother)mechanisms.
DifferencesbetweenCollegeStudentsandTheirNon-CollegeCounterparts
Arnett’s(2000,2007)theoryofemergingadulthoodhasbeenendorsedbymany
scholars,butithasalsodrawnitsshareofcritics.Côté(2014),forexample,contendsthat
Arnett’soptimisticportrayalofemergingadultsdoesnotgeneralizeacrosssocioeconomic
gradients.Healsoarguesthatthetheoryofemergingadulthoodunnecessarily
homogenizesthetransitiontoadulthoodratherthanrecognizingthediversewaysinwhich
youngpeoplecomeofage.Schoon,Chen,Kneale,andJager(2012)andMaggs,Jager,
Patrick,andSchulenberg(2012),forexample,haveidentifiedseveralheterogeneous
groupsofyoungpeopletransitioningtoadulthood–manyofwhomneverattendedcollege,
workfulltime,andareraisingfamilies.CôtéandSchoonetal.askrhetoricallywhether
theselow-socioeconomic-statusindividuals–whoarenotfinanciallyabletodelay
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch14
adulthoodandexplorefuturepossibilities–canbeconsideredtobeemergingadultsinthe
senseinwhichArnetthasdefinedtheterm.
Manyresearchersstudyingemergingadulthoodhavestudiedsamplesoffull-time
studentsattendingfour-yearuniversities(Hendry&Kloep,2007).Arnetthimself(inpress)
acknowledgesthistrendasproblematic,giventhatcollegestudentsoftendifferfromtheir
non-collegepeersintermsofsocioeconomicstatus,ethnicity,andprioreducational
opportunities(e.g.,attendingwell-resourcedversusunderfundedschools;Maggsetal.,
2012)–andgiventhatcollegestudentsoftenhaveverydifferentearningpotentialsand
futurelifestylescomparedtoindividualswhodonotattendcollege(orwhodonotfinish;
Mitchell&Syed,inpress).
IfweexaminethedistinguishingfeaturesofemergingadulthoodproposedbyArnett
(2000,2007)–identityexploration,possibilities,feelinginbetween,instability,andselffocus–onemightmosteasilypicturecollegestudentswholiveonornearcampusand
spendmostoftheirtimeinanenvironmentthatisisolatedfromthe“realworld.”In
Arnett’s(inpress)words,“Residentialcollegesanduniversities…representasocialisland
setofffromtherestofsociety,atemporarysafehavenwhereemergingadultscanexplore
possibilitiesinlove,work,andworldviewswithmanyoftheresponsibilitiesofadultlife
keptatbay”(p.1).Individualswithinsuchacontextareexposedtoanaturallaboratoryfor
tryingoutpotentialworldviews,romanticandsexualrelationships,andcareerpaths
withouttheexpectationthatthesechoiceswillbepermanent(Montgomery&Côté,2003).
Residentialmobilityisexpected–manyuniversitystudentsliveinadifferentdormitory,
fraternity/sororityhouse,orapartmenteachacademicyear(Arnett,2004)–and
residentialmobilitycarriesaquitedifferentmeaningamongfull-timecollegestudents
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch15
(especiallythosewholiveonornearcampus)thanitdoesamongindividualswhoare
workingfulltimeand/orraisingfamilies.Forexample,collegestudentslivingawayfrom
homemayspendtheirfirstyearinthedormitory,theirsecondyearinafraternityor
sororityhouse,andtheirlasttwoorthreeyearssharingapartmentswithfriendsor
cohabitingwitharomanticpartner.Incontrast,non-collegeemergingadults–especially
thosefromlowsocioeconomicbackgrounds–maybemorelikelytomoveinsearchof
workorbecausetheycannolongeraffordtostayintheircurrentresidence(Mitchell&
Syed,inpress).
Intermsoftheotherpillarsofemergingadulthood,a20-year-oldwhoisattending
collegeina“universitytown”willlikelyhavemanyopportunitiestoexploreheridentity,
dreamofpossibilitiesforthefuture,contemplatewhatitmightbeliketoholdadult
responsibilities(butlikelybegratefulthattheseresponsibilitiesarenotuponherasyet),
andspendagreatdealoftimethinkingaboutherself.Incontrast,a20-year-oldwithafulltimejobandayoungfamilymaynotbeabletoengageintheseactivities.Ofcourse,there
aremanyscenariosinbetween,suchascollegestudentswhocommutetocampusfrom
theirfamilies’homesandstudentswhoworkfull-timewhileattendingcollege.Arnett’s
criteriaforemergingadulthoodmaymanifestthemselvesdifferentlyamongyoungpeople
whoarenotableto–orchoosenotto–delayadultresponsibilities,orwhoenjoylessthan
complete“freedom”(suchasthosewholiveathomewithfamilymembers;Arnett,inpressb;Syed&Mitchell,2013).AsArnett(2011,p.265)notes,thereare“manyemerging
adulthoods,”dependingonhowaspecificpersonnavigatesthisageperiod.Forexample,
someindividualsliveathomewiththeirparents,othersattendresidentialcolleges,and
stillothersmarryandbeginraisingfamilies.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch16
However,wemustkeepmindthatthisvariabilityisnotnecessarilybasedonchoices
peoplemake–itisoftenbasedonsocioeconomicstatusandethnicity(Schoonetal.,2012).
Youngpeopleinthe“forgottenhalf”whodonotattendcollegearedisproportionatelypoor
andnonwhite(Maggsetal.,2012).Ifwearenotcarefultotakeintoaccountallofthe
factorsthatdictatethespecificlifecourseagivenindividualfollows,wemightwindup
pathologizingpoorandminorityindividuals.Accordingly,aconcernexpressedbymany
criticsofArnett’sworkhasbeen“Towhatextentisthetheoryofemergingadulthooda
theoryaboutWhite,middle-classpeople?”AlthoughArnett(inpress-b)hasprovided
evidencethatthefivepillarsofhistheoryapplyequallyacrosssocioeconomicbrackets,
amonglow-incomeindividualsthesepillarsmaymanifestthemselvesinwaysthatareless
consistentwithmuchpriorresearchonemergingadulthood.Forexample,low-income
individualsmaybemorelikelytoexploretheiridentitiesthroughworkexperiencesthan
throughattendingcollege.
Onewaytoaddressthecriticismsofemergingadulthoodtheoryistoheedtheadviceof
SyedandMitchell(2013)anddistinguishemergingadulthood(thestage)fromemerging
adults(theindividualpeople).A20-year-oldwhoworksfull-timeandisraisingchildren
maynonethelessstillhavefriendswhoarelivingamore“typical”emergingadultlifestyle.
Ourhypothetical20-year-oldworkingparentmightthereforefindtimeoccasionallyto
socializewiththesefriends,andmaybeabletospendatleastsometimesamplingthe
emergingadultexperience.Sotheanswertowhetherornotour20-year-oldworking
parentisanemergingadultmaybemorecomplexthanwemightassumeatfirstglance.
Fromasociologicalperspective,emergingadulthoodrepresentsa“gap”betweenthe
realitiesofchildhood,suchasstructuredschoolingandlivingunderparentalauthority,and
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch17
therealitiesofadulthood,suchas“permanent”workandromanticpartnership(MacMillan,
2007).Asagroup,peopleages18-25tendtomoveresidencesmoreoften,aremorelikely
tochangejobsorbeunemployed,andarelesslikelytobemarriedortohavechildren,
comparedtopeopleintheirlate20sandbeyond(U.S.CensusBureau,2012).Theemerging
adultagegrouphasbeen,tosomeextent,“leftout”asthegulfbetweentheexternally
structuredlifestagesofadolescenceandadulthoodhaswidened.Sociologicallyspeaking,
thereisnofirm“place”forindividualsages18-25inmanycontemporaryWesternsocieties
(Côté,2000).Theyarenolongerminorsattendingsecondaryschool,andforthemostpart,
theyhaveyettoenterthefull-timeworkforceandtoassumeadultcommitmentssuchas
permanentpartnershipandparenthood.
Atthesametime,whereaslifestagesrefertonormativeexpectationsforindividualsat
agivenpointinthelifecycle,thereisconsiderablevariabilityintermsofhowpeople
experiencethatlifestage.Social-classindicatorsarepowerfulpredictorsofhow–andthe
extenttowhich–youngpeopleexperiencethepillarsofemergingadulthood(seeMaggset
al.,2012;Schoonetal.,2012,forempiricalevidence).Itmaybemistakentoarguethat
individualswhodonotexperienceemergingadulthoodinspecificwaysthereforenot
experiencingemergingadulthoodatall(Arnett,inpress-b).Rather,itlikelybehoovesusto
studythediversewaysinwhichyoungpeoplenavigatethetransitionfromadolescenceto
adulthood–wheresuchstudiesdonotnecessarilycontraindicatetheexistenceof
emergingadulthoodatthesocietallevel.Althoughcollegestudentsareamongtheeasiest
groupsofemergingadultsforacademicresearcherstostudy,wemustbecarefulnotto
generalizetheirexperiencestothewholeofemergingadulthood(Arnett,inpress-a;
Mitchell&Syed,inpress).
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch18
Twoexamplesofcomparativeresearchareprovided:identitydevelopmentand
substanceuse.Regardingidentity,twostudies(Crocettietal.,inpress;Luyckx,Schwartz,
Goossens,&Pollock,2008)havecomparedcollegestudentsandworkingemergingadults.
Crocettietal.foundthat,amongItalianandJapaneseemergingadults,thoseenrolledin
collegeweresignificantlyhigherinidentityexploration,self-focus,andfeelinginbetween
comparedtothosewhowereemployedfull-time.Luyckxetal.foundthat,amongBelgian
emergingadults,thoseworkingfulltimeweremorelikelytoviewthemselvesasadults,
maintainedstrongeridentitycommitments,andengagedinlessruminativeand
unproductiveidentityexploration(e.g.,worryingwhetheronehasmadethecorrect
choice),comparedtotheircollegestudentcounterparts.Thesefindingssuggestthatcollege
studentsaremorelikelytoexemplifythefeaturesofemergingadulthoodthanaretheir
non-collegecounterparts.
Concerningriskyactivities,onlyalcohol-relatedbehaviorsaremoreprevalentamong
collegestudentsthanamongnon-collegeemergingadults.Collegestudentsconsumemore
alcohol(Whiteetal.,2006)andreportmoresymptomsofalcoholabuse(Slutske,2005)
comparedtotheirnon-collegecounterparts.However,althoughcollegemenreportedmore
drunkdrivingcomparedtonon-collegemen,theoppositepatternwasobservedforwomen
(Bingham,Shope,&Tang,2005).Further,Binghametal.foundstrongdifferencesbetween
collegecompletersandstudentswhostartedcollegebutdidnotfinish–generally,the
collegecompletersengagedinlessproblematicalcoholuse,andlessdrunkdriving,than
didcollegenon-completers.
Intermsofothertypesofriskybehavior,non-collegeemergingadultsmaybeatgreater
riskcomparedtocollegestudents.Forexample,marijuana(Binghametal.,2005)and
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch19
methamphetamine(Herman-Stahl,Krebs,Kroutil,&Heller,2007)usetendtobemore
prevalentamongnon-collegeemergingadults.Bailey,Haggerty,White,andCatalano
(2011)foundthatnon-collegeemergingadultsweremorelikelythancollegestudentsto
engageincasualsexandinunprotectedintercourse.
Thesefindingsforidentityandhealthriskbehaviorssuggestthatcollegestudentsand
non-collegeemergingadultsdifferinanumberofways.Furtherstill,collegecompleters
maydifferfromnon-completers.Usingcollegestudentsamples(generallyfirstandsecond
yearstudents)thereforeprovidesanunknowndegreeofgeneralizabilitytotheemerging
adultpopulation.Ofcourse,thisisnotanindictmentagainstcollegestudentresearch.
Rather,itissimplyawordofcautionthatcollegestudentsamplesshouldbelabeledand
discussedasjustthat–collegestudentsamples–andgeneralizedonlytotheuniverseof
studentsattendinginstitutionsofhigherlearning.Moreresearchisneededtocompare
collegestudentsagainstothertypesofemergingadults(andcollegecompletersagainst
studentswhodonotfinishtheirdegrees)intermsofotherimportantvariables,suchas
familyrelationships,peerassociations,andconceptionsofadulthood.Afullunderstanding
ofemergingadulthood–includingthewaysinwhichthewaysinwhichemerging
adulthoodrepresentsa“turningpoint”inthelifespan–requiresstudyingmanydifferent
segmentsoftheemergingadultpopulation.
EmergingAdulthoodinCross-CulturalContext
Afinalissuetobeaddressedhereistheextenttowhichtheapplicabilityofemerging
adulthoodtovarioussocieties,andtheformsinwhichitappearsacrosssocieties.Asnoted
byanumberofsociologistsandanthropologists(e.g.,MacMillan,2007;Schoon,McCulloch,
Joshi,Wiggins,&Bynner,2001),theWesterntransitionfromadolescencetoadulthoodhas
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch20
widenedasaresultofmassivesocialandeconomicchanges.Thisextendedtransitionto
adulthood,thegapinthelifespanthatithascreated,andtheneedforpost-secondary
educationalcredentialsandindividualizedlifetrajectoriesarewhathavegivenriseto
emergingadulthood.AperusalofArnett’s(2000,2007)pillarsofemergingadulthood
suggeststhatatleastsomeofthemarelargelyagency-based–suchasidentityexploration
(Schwartz,Côté,&Arnett,2005);andconsiderationoffuturepossibilities(Luyckx,Lens,
Smits,&Goossens,2010).Inatraditional,non-Westernsocietywhereentryintoadulthood
ismarkedbyspecificrituals,occursinthesamewayforeveryone,anddoesnotinvolve
individualizeddecisionmaking,emergingadulthoodmaynotexist(Arnett,2000,2011).
Forexample,isolatedtribesintheAmazonjungleslikelydonotexpecttheirmembersto
decidewhattodowiththeirlives,toexperimentwithdifferentsocialandsexual
relationships,ortofindtheirwayintotheworkforce.Indeed,theserolesandtrajectories
arelikelyscriptedformostmembersofthegroup.Gelfandetal.’s(2011)distinction
betweentightandlooseculturesisusefulhere–culturalcontextswhererulesarestrictly
enforced,wheremen’sandwomen’srolesaresharplydifferentiated,andwheredevianceis
nottoleratedmaybelesslikelytosupportaninherentlyamorphouslifestagelike
emergingadulthood.
Butwhataboutsocietiesthatareintransition–thatis,wheretightness-loosenessis
changingandwhereglobalizationistakinghold?Doesemergingadulthoodexistthere,and
ifso,inwhatformdoesitappear?Thereareanumberofsuchsocietiesthatcouldbeused
asexamples,butherewewillusetwoexamples–JapanandtheRepublicofGeorgia.
Japanwastraditionallyregardedasalargelycollectivistand“tight”country
(Matsumoto,2002).However,formorethanageneration,Japaneseculturehasbeen
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch21
shiftingtowardwhatMatsumotocalls“individualisticcollectivism.”Bythis,hemeansthat,
althoughyoungpeopleareexpectedtoberespectfulanddeferentialtotheirparentsand
otherelders,theyaremoreabletochoosetheirownlifepathsthanwereprevious
generationsofJapaneseadolescentsandyoungadults.Today’syoungJapanesepeople
mightbesaidtoexperienceemergingadulthoodbecausetheyarechargedwithfinding
theirwayintoatechnologicallyorientedlabormarket(Sugimura&Mizokami,2012).Asa
result,whereasemergingadulthoodmayhavebeenlessapplicabletoJapaninthe1980s,it
islikelyimportanttherenow(Crocettietal.,2015).
TheRepublicofGeorgiaprovidesanexampleofasocietythatisundergoingrapidsocial
change,andwherestabilityisdifficulttofind.GeorgiawasoccupiedbytheSovietregime
untilitscollapsein1991–atwhichtimeGeorgiabecameanindependentnation.Georgian
nationalidentityhasbeeninfluxinthetwo-plusdecadessince,foratleastthreereasons.
First,incontrasttothedenialofreligionthatwasenforcedduringtheSovietoccupation,
theOrthodoxChurchhasincreasedstronglyinimportancesincetheearly1990s(Froese,
2004).ContrarytowhathasoccurredinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,theyounger
generationofGeorgiansaremorelikelytoattendchurchthantheirparentsare.Second,as
aresultofglobalization,Georgiansocietyhasrapidlytransitionedfromanisolatedregion
oftheworldtoamemberoftheglobalcommunity–resultinginanuncomfortablemix
betweentraditionalandWesternvalues.Youngpeopleareexpectedtolivewiththeir
parentsevenaftertheyaremarried,andpremaritalsexisquiteuncommon(Bearinger,
Sieving,Ferguson,&Sharma,2004).Atthesametime,however,youngerGeorgiansare
morelikelytowanttoexploredifferentideologiesandrelationships,perhapsleadingto
clasheswithintheirfamilies(Pelkmans,2006).Third,Georgiaisalargelypoorcountry,
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch22
withfeweconomicopportunitiesforyoungpeople(Nichol,2013)–suggestingthatwhen
youngpeopledoexploretheiridentities,theywilllikelybeunabletoactualizethechoices
theyhavemade(Skhirtladze,Javakhishvili,Schwartz,Beyers,&Luyckx,inpress).
WhatdothesetrendsmeanforemergingadulthoodinGeorgia?Skhirtladzeetal.(in
press)foundthatidentityexplorationinbreadth–sortingthrougharangeofpossible
alternativesbeforecommittingtooneormoreoftheoptionsconsidered–ismorestrongly
linkedwithruminationandanxietyinGeorgiathaninWesternEuropeanandNorth
Americancontexts.Identityexplorationandconsiderationofpossibilitiesmightbedifficult
giventhelackofopportunitiesformostyoungpeople,andself-focusmaybeincompatible
withthecollectivistandfamily-centeredvaluesthatcharacterizemainstreamGeorgian
culture.Likemanylow-socioeconomiccontexts(Mitchell&Syed,inpress),instabilityin
Georgiamayoccurnotbecauseofatransitionallifestage,butratherduetoaneedtomove
insearchofworkorbecauseone’scurrentresidenceisnolongeraffordable.Sowedonot
knowtheextenttowhichemergingadulthood,asdefinedbyArnett,existsinGeorgia.The
separationofadolescencefromadulthood,withthetransitionalperiodinbetween,maynot
haveoccurredinthiscontext.
Ofcourse,JapanandGeorgiaareonlytwoexamplesofnationalcontextsinwhich
emergingadulthoodmightexisttogreaterorlesserextents,andwheresocial,cultural,and
economicchangesmayormaynothaveushered(orbeushering)inthesocialand
economicgapbetweenadolescenceandadulthoodthatfacilitatesemergingadulthood.One
canimagineanumberofMiddleEastern,LatinAmerican,Asian,andAfricancountriesand
regionswhereemergingadulthoodmightbecontraindicatedbytightsocialnormsand
strictadherencetotraditionalcustomsandbeliefs.Thefreedomandamorphousnessthat
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch23
characterizesemergingadulthoodmaybemostcompatiblewith“loose”cultureswhere
individualchoiceanddiscretionareprioritizedoverallegiancetofamilial,national,or
othergroupexpectations.Indeed,thefreedomtoexploreone’sidentity,tofeelinbetween
adolescenceandadulthood,tospendtimeconsideringfuturepossibilities,andtofocuson
oneselfismostlikelytobepresentedwithinaculturalcontextwithrelativelyfewformal
rulesandahightoleranceforcounterculturalordeviantbehavior(Côté,2000).
Notcoincidentally,“tight”culturesthatmaycontraindicateemergingadulthoodare
generallycharacterizedbyhigherpovertyrates,moreoverpopulation,scarcernatural
resources,morenaturaldisasters,andmoredangerousness(e.g.,sectarianviolence)
comparedto“loose”cultures(Gelfandetal,2011).Theseprecarioussocialand
environmentalconditionslikelymakeitmoredifficulttoengageinidentityexplorationor
tospendtimethinkingaboutthefutureorfocusingononeself.Althoughtheextentto
whichtheseconditionscontraindicatetheexistenceofemergingadulthoodrequires
furtherstudy,itdoesstandtoreasonthatagapbetweenadolescenceandadulthoodmay
belesslikelytoexistinthesekindsofcontexts.Totheextenttowhichitdoesexist,its
existencemaybelargelylimitedtocollegestudentsandindividualsfromwealthy
backgrounds(Galambos&Martínez,2007;Nelson&Chen,2007).
Forthissamereason,findingsobtainedwithWesternsamplesshouldnotbe
generalizedtoindividualsfromotherpartsoftheworld.Arnett(2008)referstothis
problemasthe“neglected95%”.Hedoessobecausetheoverwhelmingmajorityof
researchsamplesinAmericanPsychologicalAssociationjournalsintheearly2000swere
fromtheEnglish-speakingworldorfromWesternEurope,withalmostnorepresentation
fromLatinAmerican,Asia,Africa,ortheMiddleEast.Henrich,Heine,andNorenzayan
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch24
(2010)refertothemajorityofresearchsamplespublishedininternationaljournalsas
“Western,Educated,Industrialized,Rich,andDemocratic(WEIRD)”.Theargument
furtheredbyArnettandbyHenrichetal.isthatWesternsamplesare,infact,takentobe
generalizabletotherestoftheworldeventhoughthereisconsiderableevidencethatsuch
generalizationsshouldnotbemade.Thereareimportantdifferencesincultural
tightness/looseness,availabilityofeconomicandnaturalresources,preparednessto
respondtonaturalandman-madedisasters,andoverpopulationbetweenWesternand
non-Westernnations(Gelfandetal.,2011).Indeed,thevastmajorityoftheworld’s
populationgrowthisoccurringinnon-WesterncountriessuchasChina,India,Pakistan,
Indonesia,andBrazil(InternetWorldStatistics,2015).
Emergingadulthoodresearchisplaguedbymanyofthesesameissues.Themajorityof
studiesonemergingadulthoodareconductedinWesternnations,withfarlessattentionto
theextenttowhichthefeaturesofemergingadulthood–aswellasthesocialandeconomic
separationbetweenadolescenceandadulthoodthatfacilitatestheemergenceofthese
features–generalizetonon-Westerncontexts.Addressingthisissueisofprimary
importanceifwearetounderstandthetypesofcontextsinwhichemergingadulthood
operates,aswellasthedifferencesinhowitoperatesacrossarangeofcontexts.Which
specificsocial,cultural,andeconomicfactorsaremostsupportiveoforinhibitivetoward
emergingadulthood?Isemergingadulthoodaspivotaland“two-faced”innon-Western
contextsasitisintheWest?Arethedifferencesbetweencollegestudentsandtheirnoncollegepeersevengreaterinsocietieswithfewerresourcesandmoredanger?Theseare
questionsthathavethepotentialtoguidethenextgenerationofemergingadulthood
research.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch25
Conclusion
Thisarticlehasaddressedthreekeyissuesinemergingadulthoodtheoryandresearch
–thetwo-facedcharacterofthislifestage(includingdiscussionoffactorsthatarelikelyto
influencewhetherlife“goesgood”or“goesbad”),differencesbetweencollegestudentsand
theirnon-collegepeers,andcross-culturalandinternationaldifferencesintheexistence
andmanifestationofemergingadulthood.Ofthesethreeissues,weprobablyknowthe
mostaboutthetwo-facedcharacterofemergingadulthood.Wehaveasenseofthewaysin
whichfamily,peers,andidentityinfluencepositiveandnegativepsychosocialandhealth
outcomesinemergingadulthoodandbeyond.Weknowfarless,however,abouthow
collegestudentsdifferfromtheirsame-agenon-collegepeersandhowemergingadulthood
generalizes(ordoesnotgeneralize)acrossimportantcultural,social,economic,and
environmentalfactorsthatdiffersystematicallybetweenWesternandnon-Western
nationsandregions.
Further,wehaveproceededfromtheassumptionthatemergingadulthoodresultsfrom
thesocialandeconomicgapthathasemergedbetweenadolescenceandadulthood(e.g.,
Arnett,2000,2007).Somewriters(e.g.,Côté,2014;Schoonetal.,2012)havearguedthat
thisgapbetweenadolescenceandemergingadulthoodcanexistwithouttheneedforan
emergingadulthoodstageasdefinedbyArnett,buttheopposingquestion–whether
emergingadulthood(oratleastsomeofitsfeatures)canexistintheabsenceofthegap
betweenadolescenceandadulthood–hasnotbeenexamined.In“tight”societieswithfew
economicornaturalresources,wherethemajorityofcitizensliveinpoverty,andwhere
autocratic,corrupt,orineffectualgovernmentsareinpower,domanyyoungpeoplesearch
foranidentity,thinkaboutarangeofpossibilitiesopentothem,viewthemselvesasbeing
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch26
inbetweenadolescenceandadulthood,focuslargelyonthemselves,andexperimentwitha
varietyoflifestyles?
Thefactthatwearereadytoposethekeyquestionsoutlinedinthisarticleisevidence
thatemergingadulthoodtheoryandresearchiscomingofage.Althoughtheconceptof
emergingadulthooddoeshaveitscritics,itiswidelyacceptedenoughthatitistimeto
explorethenuancesandwiderapplicabilityofthestage.Itishopedthatthisarticle
representsastepinthatdirection.
AdvancingEmergingAdulthoodTheoryandResearch27
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