MOOD AND EXERCISE ENJOYMENT OF COLLEGE STUDENTS WHEN JOGGING AT
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITIES
Yu Zhang
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green
State University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
May 2013
Committee:
Dr. Bonnie Berger, Advisor
Dr. Lynn Darby
Dr. David Tobar
© 2013
Yu Zhang
All Rights Reserved
iii
ABSTRACT
Dr. Bonnie Berger, Advisor
A single session of exercise was associated with improvement of mood states (Berger,
Darby, Owen, & Carels, 2010; Ekkekakis, Hall, VanLanduyt, & Petruzzello, 2000; Petruzzello,
Snook, Gliottoni, Motl, 2009). In addition, many factors seem to influence mood changes after
exercise, such as exercise intensity and exercise enjoyment. One purpose of this study was to
examine mood changes when participants exercise at their preferred intensity levels. Two
additional purposes were to investigate the relationship between mood changes and exercise
enjoyment (state and trait exercise enjoyment). Two final purposes were to examine the
characteristics of the preferred intensity and to investigate possible sex differences in college
students. Undergraduate students (N = 55) from physical education general (PEG) classes at
Bowling Green State University with a mean age of 20.6 ±1.4 years participated in this study.
Participants completed 15 minutes of jogging at their preferred exercise intensity levels.
Immediately before and after exercise session, all participants completed the Profile of Mood
States Inventory. In additional, exercise enjoyment (both trait and state) have measured by the
Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale in the study. The major findings were as followings: (1)
desirable mood changes occurred when participants exercised (jog/walk) at their preferred
intensity levels for 15 minutes. (2) There was no support for the relationship between exercise
enjoyment and mood changes in this study. (3) Female students chose a higher level of exercise
intensity (80.8% of HRR) as their preferred intensity level than male students (75.5% of HRR),
but no difference was found for RPE. (4) College students exercised at a hard or very hard
exercise intensity level rather than a moderate exercise intensity level.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of several individuals. First of all, I would
like to thank my advisor, Dr. Bonnie Berger for her continual encouragement, guidance and
assistance throughout the entire process. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Lynn Darby and Dr.
David Tobar who served on my committee and offered their time, support, and suggestions.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents who gave me the opportunity to study abroad.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................
1
Mood and A Single Exercise Session ........................................................................
1
Exercise Factors Influence the Exercise and Mood Relationship..............................
3
The Proposed Study ..................................................................................................
6
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................
7
Theoretical Support of the Relationship Between Exercise and Mood Alteration ....
7
Hedonic Theory .............................................................................................
8
Self-determination Theory .............................................................................
8
Conclusion .....................................................................................................
9
Acute Exercise and Mood Changes ...........................................................................
10
Exercise Intensity and Mood Changes.......................................................................
12
Preferred Intensity and Mood Changes......................................................................
16
Exercise Duration and Mood Changes ......................................................................
22
Exercise and Mood Alteration: Possible Sex Differences .........................................
26
Exercise Enjoyment and Mood Changes ...................................................................
28
Summary
............................................................................................................
31
Operational Definitions..............................................................................................
31
Thesis Hypotheses .....................................................................................................
32
CHAPTER III. METHOD ....................................................................................................
34
Participants
............................................................................................................
34
Instruments
............................................................................................................
36
vi
General Information Questionnaire ...............................................................
36
Paffenbager Physical Activity Questionnaire ................................................
36
Profile of Mood States Inventory...................................................................
36
Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale................................................................
37
Rating of Perceived Exertion .........................................................................
37
Heart Rate ......................................................................................................
38
Procedure
............................................................................................................
39
Day 1: Orientation Session ............................................................................
40
Day 2: Continued Orientation: Use of Heart Rate Monitor
and Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale........................................................
40
Day 3: Exercise Testing, POMS, and Enjoyment ..........................................
41
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................
44
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS ....................................................................................................
47
Class Equivalence ......................................................................................................
47
Descriptive Data of Preferred Exercise Intensity in College Students ......................
50
Mood Changes Before and After Exercise: Hypothesis #1 .......................................
51
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment Trait: Hypothesis #2 ........
57
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment State: Hypothesis #3 .......
59
Comparison of Preferred Exercise Intensity in Male and Female Students:
Hypothesis #4 ............................................................................................................
60
Characteristic of Preferred Exercise Intensity for College Students:
Hypothesis #5 ............................................................................................................
61
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ...............................................................................................
63
vii
Significant Mood Changes Before and After Exercise ..............................................
63
Differential Mood Changes in Each of the Three Classes .............................
64
Multiple Influences on the Relationship Between Exercise
and Mood Changes .......................................................................................
64
The Sufficient Jogging Duration for Desirable Mood Changes:
15 Minutes .....................................................................................................
66
Desirable Mood Changes in A Naturalistic Setting .......................................
66
Decrease in TMD Scores ...............................................................................
67
Characteristic of Preferred Exercise Intensity in College Students ...........................
67
Comparing Preferred Exercise Intensity in %HRR and RPE ........................
69
Possible Sex Differences in Selecting Preferred Exercise Intensity ..............
70
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment..........................................
72
Limitations
............................................................................................................
73
Conclusions
............................................................................................................
74
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................
76
APPENDIX A. GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE ....................................
83
APPENDIX B. PAFFENAGER PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE..................
84
APPENDIX C. PROFILE OF MOOD STATES INVENTORY..........................................
86
APPENDIX D. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ENJOYMENT TRAIT SCALE ..........................
87
APPENDIX E. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ENJOYMENT STATE SCALE ..........................
88
APPENDIX F. RATING OF PERCEIVED EXERTION ....................................................
89
APPENDIX G. RECRUITMENT SCRIPT FOR STUDENTS............................................
90
APPENDIX H. PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM .....................................
91
viii
APPENDIX I. FORM FOR RECORDING RESTING HEART RATE ..............................
92
APPENDIX J. SCRIPT FOR USING HEART RATE MONITOR .....................................
93
APPENDIX K. FORM FOR RECORDING DATA DURING EXERCISE........................
94
APPENDIX L. HUMAN SUBJECTS REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL LETTER.............
96
APPENDIX M. RECEIPT OF PURCHASING PROFILE OF MOOD STATES
INVENTORY ............................................................................................
99
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
Classification of Physical Activity Intensity .............................................................
13
2
Participants’ Information by Class, Sex, Number, Age, and BMI ............................
35
3
Heart Rate Ranges for Different Intensities for A 20-year Old Participant ...............
39
4
The Schedule for the Study ........................................................................................
43
5
Initial Equivalence of Classes ....................................................................................
49
6
Range, 95% CI, and Mean %HRR and RPE .............................................................
50
7
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores in Class I and II ............................................
55
8
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores for Men and Women of Class III ..................
55
9
Means and Standard Deviation of TMD Scores ........................................................
56
10
Exercise Enjoyment Trait Level, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation,
and Number of Subjects .............................................................................................
11
Exercise Enjoyment State Level, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation,
and Number of Subjects .............................................................................................
12
58
59
Percent of College Students Who Chose Their Preferred Exercise
Intensity Levels into Five Categories ........................................................................
62
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1
Recruitment and Retention of Participants ................................................................
34
2
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores for Class I ......................................................
52
3
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores for Class II.....................................................
53
4
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores for Men of Class III.......................................
54
5
Pre- and Post-Exercise POMS Scores for Women of Class III .................................
54
6
Pre- and Post-Exercise TMD Scores for Each Class .................................................
57
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
The benefits of regular physical activity include improving physical and mental
health (Deslandes et al., 2009; Haskell, et al., 2007). Even though people realize the benefits
of regular exercise, 25.4% of adults in the United States have no leisure-time physical activity
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Those people who have low physical
activity level may need to be motivated by an immediate benefit or reward from exercise,
rather than the knowledge of long-term benefits from exercise. After a single session of
exercise, improved mood states can be one of the immediate rewards. Therefore, obtaining
positive mood changes may be a successful approach to encouraging people to start and
continue exercising (Berger, Pargman, & Weinberg, 2007, pp. 107-108). Mood states are
influenced by many exercise factors, and one of these factors is exercise intensity (Berger,
2009; Berger et al., 2007). Preferred exercise intensity may be associated with greater
exercise enjoyment, and exercise enjoyment may be related to mood states (Berger et al.,
2007, pp. 109-110). Therefore, one of the purposes of this study is to examine the relationship
between preferred exercise intensity, exercise enjoyment, and mood states after a single
session of exercise.
Mood and A Single Exercise Session
Many researchers have indicated that a single exercise session enhances the
participants’ mood states (Bahrke & Morgan, 1978; Berger, Darby, Owen, & Carels, 2010;
Berger & Owen, 1992; Ekkekakis, Hall, VanLanduyt, & Petruzzello, 2000; Johansson
&Hassmén, 2011; Petruzzello, Snook, Gliottoni, & Motl, 2009). Moreover, as little as 10
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
2
minutes of physical exercise can significantly improve mood states (Hansen, Stevens, &
Coast, 2001). These exercise-related changes in mood may last for a relatively brief duration
of two to five hours (Berger et al., 2007; Morgan, 1985). These immediate psychological
rewards of improved mood changes can be gained after a single session of physical exercise.
Improvements in mood states after a single exercise session have been examined in a
variety of populations, such as college students, middle-aged adults, obese women, and
individuals with chronic disease (Berger et al., 2010; Berger & Owen, 1998; Petruzzello,
Snook, Gliottoni, & Motl, 2009; Rokka, Mavridis, & Kouli, 2010; Szabo, 2003). College
students have reported desirable mood changes on each of the POMS subscales after 20
minutes of jogging (Berger & Owen, 1998). Another study of college students found that
participants who ran at a self-selected pace reported decreased psychological distress and
enhanced well-being levels similar to those who watched a stand-up comedy show (Szabo,
2003). Similar positive results on mood states were found in middle-aged adults. Middle-aged
adults had a significant improvement in mood alteration after a single dance exercise session
(Rokka et al., 2010). Specifically, the Profile of Mood States (POMS) scores showed these
middle-aged participants decreased their levels of Tension, Depression, Anger and Confusion,
and also increased their Vigor. Moreover, sedentary, obese women reported significant
decreases in Tension and Confusion on the POMS after a graded exercise test (GXT)
conducted at 75% of maximal heart rate (HRmax) (Berger et al., 2010). Another study
examined the effects of acute exercise on anxiety and mood states in individuals with
multiple sclerosis (Petruzzello et al., 2009). Results indicated that participants with high-trait
anxiety reported significant reduction in the total mood disturbance (TMD) after a single
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
3
exercise session. In conclusion, these studies all indicate that a variety of populations have
reported desirable mood changes after a single exercise session.
Exercise Factors Influencing the Exercise and Mood Relationship
Multiple exercise factors may influence mood states. Some of these factors include
exercise intensity, exercise duration, difference in sex of the exercisers, and exercise
enjoyment (Berger, 2009; Berger et al., 2007; Berger & Owen, 1992; Berger, Owen, Motl &
Parks, 1998; Rocheleau, Webster, Bryan, & Frazier, 2004).
Exercise intensity level may influence mood alteration when measured after a single
exercise session. Researchers have reported mood benefits immediately after a single session
exercise for low and moderate exercise intensity levels (Berger & Owen, 1998; Lind,
Ekkekakis, & Vazou, 2008; Parfitt, Rose, & Maekland, 2000). Berger and Owen (1998) have
reported that exercise at low intensity (55% of HRmax) and moderate intensity (75% and
79% of HRmax) can significantly improve mood states. Moreover, walking (low exercise
intensity) for only 10 minutes can improve mood states (Ekkekakis et al., 2000). It seems that
desirable mood changes can be observed in both low and moderate intensity exercise sessions.
For high exercise intensity level, Berger and Motl (2000) reviewed and synthesized studies of
mood alteration after exercise using the POMS. They found no evidence of acute mood
improvements when exercising at a high intensity level.
When comparing prescribed exercise intensity to preferred exercise intensity,
participants who exercised at preferred intensity reported more desirable mood changes (Lind
et al., 2008; Parfitt et al., 2000). In a comparison of the effects of 20 minutes of treadmill
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
4
exercise at a prescribed 65% VO2max intensity to a preferred exercise intensity (self-selected
pace and could change the pace after 5, 10, 15-minute exercise) on mood, the results showed
that participants who exercised at their preferred intensity gained more desirable mood
changes than those who exercised at 65% VO2max intensity (Parfitt et al., 2000). Another
study investigated 25 middle-aged, sedentary women who exercised on a treadmill in two
20-minute sessions (Lind et al., 2008). In the first session, they could select the speed. In the
second session, the speed was 10% higher than the self-selected pace. The results found that
even a small increase (10%) in exercise intensity beyond the self-selected level (preferred
intensity) could be associated with a decrease in pleasure measured by the Feeling Scale (FS;
Hardy & Rejeski, 1989).
Based on the studies reviewed, it seems that low and moderate exercise intensity
levels were associated with positive mood changes after a single exercise session. In addition,
preferred exercise intensity seems more effective for increasing desirable mood changes.
Further studies about preferred exercise intensity and mood alteration measured using the
POMS need to be conducted to provide additional information when designing exercise
programs to enhance mood states.
According to Berger (2009) and Berger et al. (2007), exercise duration also may
influence mood changes. In a study examining the relationship between exercise duration and
mood alteration, a 10-minute exercise session at 60% of estimated VO2max was sufficient to
increase Vigor, as well as decrease Fatigue and total negative mood (Hansen, Stevens &
Coast, 2001). Ekkekakis et al. (2000) also found that only 10 minutes of walking could
significantly improve mood states. Some studies focusing on the exercise and
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
5
mood-alteration relationship have found that a 20-minute exercise session improved mood
states (Parfitt, Rose, & Markland, 2000; Rendi et al., 2008; Rokka et al, 2010). Other studies
indicated that 30 minutes of exercising significantly increased mood states (Blanchard,
Rodgers, Courneya & Spence, 2001; Blanchard, Rodgers, Courneya & Spence, 2002). When
comparing 15 to 30 minutes of exercise duration, no differences for mood alteration were
present (Blanchard et al., 2002; Daley & Welch, 2004). These studies indicated that 10 to 30
minutes of exercise was enough to obtain desirable mood changes, and these changes were
similar for short and moderate durations.
Exercise enjoyment may be related to the acute mood changes associated with
physical exercise (Motl, Berger, & Leuschen, 2000). In a study by Motl, Berger, and
Leuschen (2000), an exercise group completed a rock-climbing session, while the control
group listened to a related rock-climbing lecture and watched a rock-climbing video. Results
found enjoyment scores mediated the total mood disturbance (TMD) changes. In summary,
higher exercise enjoyment was associated with greater desirable changes in mood. However,
in a recent study of obese women, Berger et al. (2010) examined the relationship between
mood changes and exercise enjoyment. Results suggest that there was no apparent
relationship between exercise enjoyment and the mood changes as measured before and after
an exercise session. This apparent contradiction in findings may reflect the different
characteristics of participants in these two studies. The first study focused on exercised
rock-climbers, participating in a self-selected activity. The second study focused on sedentary,
obese women in a weight loss study. The obese women may feel more pain of exertion during
physical exercise. Based on these studies, there are no consistent results for the relationship
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
between exercise enjoyment and mood alteration. Additional studies are needed to reveal
possible interactions between exercise enjoyment and mood alteration, and the other factors
could influence this relationship.
The Proposed Study
The relationship between a single exercise session and mood changes is complex,
and many exercise factors can influence the results of mood changes. One purpose of this
study was to examine mood changes when participants exercise at their preferred intensity
levels. Two additional purposes were to investigate the relationship between mood changes
and exercise enjoyment (state and trait exercise enjoyment). Two final purposes were to
examine the characteristics of the preferred intensity and to investigate possible sex
differences of preferred exercise intensity in college students.
6
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
7
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
Regular physical exercise is associated with important cardiovascular and mental
health benefits (ACSM, 2010; Berger et al., 2007; Deslandes et al., 2009; Haskell, et al.,
2007). However, approximately 25.4% of adults have no leisure-time physical activity
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Even though most of the general
population know of the benefits of regular physical exercise, they still are inactive (Deslandes
et al., 2009). Knowledge of exercise benefits does not necessarily encourage people to be
physically active (Berger, 2009). Long-term health benefits are difficult to achieve in a short
period of time. Thus, novice exercisers may feel disappointment with an apparent lack of
expected benefits and drop out from a regular exercise program. Hallgren, Moss and Gastin
(2010) suggested that novice exercisers may need to anticipate not only for long-term health
benefits, but also experience immediate psychological rewards such as improved mood states.
These immediate rewards could be noticeable and thus, motivate novice exercisers to
continue regular exercise. In addition, specific exercise factors such as exercise intensity and
duration need to be examined to determine the relationship between these exercise factors
and mood changes (Berger, 2009). Information about specific exercise factors will be useful
in designing exercise programs to maximize mood benefits from a single exercise session
(Berger & Tobar, 2011).
Theoretical Support of the Relationship Between Exercise and Mood Alteration
Hedonic theory and self-determination theory are two popular theories applied to
exercise science. Those two theories may explain the relationship of preferred exercise
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
8
intensity and mood changes.
Hedonic Theory
According to the hedonic theory, people seek to enhance or prolong pleasure and
avoid or minimize pain (Williams, 2008). People are more likely to make behavioral choices
that increase their pleasure and tend to avoid behavioral choices that decrease their pleasure
or induce displeasure. This theory can be applied to exercise choices. In Berger and Owen’s
(1998) study, students tended to jog at the 75%-79% of HRmax rather than the intensity
which researchers set for them. Students exercised at their preferred intensity to increase their
pleasure, and avoided displeasure. When people exercise at a prescribed intensity level, they
may feel less pleasure than when they exercise at their preferred intensity levels. Prior studies
support this hypothesis. According to those studies, both normal-weight and obese
participants felt less pleasure when they exercised at 10% higher than their preferred exercise
intensity (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006; Lind et al., 2008). Therefore, people are more likely to
participate in and find pleasure if they exercise at their preferred intensity, and they may
obtain desirable mood changes after exercise.
Self-determination Theory
The self-determination theory (SDT) focuses on the motivational implications of
self-selected (autonomous) and dictated (non-autonomous) behaviors (Vazou-Ekkekakis &
Ekkekakis, 2009). According to the SDT, autonomy is one of three basic psychological needs
(the others are competence and relatedness), which refers to the extent to which a person feels
free (perceives high flexibility and low pressure) to exhibit the behavior of his or her choice,
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
9
with an inner endorsement of his or her own actions. SDT suggests that the degree of
pleasure that individuals experience when they act autonomously (in this case, when they set
their own exercise intensity) will likely be higher than that experienced when behavioral
parameters are externally controlled (i.e., when the intensity is prescribed). This theory can
explain the difference of prescribed and preferred exercise intensity. In a study of comparing
the effects of 20 minutes exercise at prescribed exercise intensity and preferred exercise
intensity on mood (Parfitt et al., 2000), participants reported significant higher perceived
choice scores in the preferred exercise group which means participants in the preferred
exercise group felt that they had more choices. According to SDT, when participants can set
their preferred intensity, they will experience more pleasure and a more positive mood will
occur than when they exercise at prescribed intensity.
Conclusion
Based on the theories reviewed, the hedonic theory and the self-determination theory
both seem to be applicable to the relationship between exercise and mood changes. According
to hedonic theory, people tend to choose activities to maximize their pleasure. When people
exercise at preferred intensity, they will achieve maximum enjoyment, and when exercisers
feel more enjoyment, they may obtain more desirable mood changes. According to the
self-determination theory, when people can choose their preferred exercise intensity (act
autonomously), they will feel more pleasure, and may obtain more positive mood changes.
Therefore, exercise enjoyment may be a mediator between preferred exercise intensity and
mood states.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
10
Acute Exercise and Mood Changes
Researchers have indicated that a single exercise session can enhance the
participants’ mood states (Berger et al., 2010; Ekkekakis, Hall, VanLanduyt, & Petruzzello,
2000; Petruzzello et al., 2009). Those benefits have been reported for a variety of populations
(Berger et al., 2010; Berger & Owen, 1998; Petruzzello et al., 2009; Rokka et al., 2010), for
different fitness levels (Hallgren et al., 2010), for different exercise durations (Dishman et al.,
2010; Hansen et al., 2001; Johansson, Hassmén, & Jouper, 2008), and for different exercise
intensity levels (Berger & Owen, 1998; Lind et al., 2008; Rokka et al., 2010).
An early study showed that exercise and meditation had similar effects on reducing
anxiety (Bahrke & Morgan, 1978). In this study, 75 regularly exercising adult males were
randomly assigned to three different conditions. Participants in the exercise condition (n = 25)
completed 20 minutes of walking on a treadmill at 70% of self-prescribed maximal heart rate.
Participants in the meditation condition (n = 25) received tape-recorded instructions
describing the Benson's Relaxation Response and practiced the technique while sitting for 20
minutes. Participants in the control group (n = 25) sat quietly in a "Lazyboy" chair for 20
minutes. State anxiety was measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) before,
immediately following, and 10 minutes following each experimental condition. Researchers
found that state anxiety decreased across time for participants in the exercise, meditation, and
control conditions. This result indicated that mood benefits could be obtained equally from a
single exercise session, a meditation session, and a "relaxed" sitting session.
In a recent study of Qigong exercise, researchers found similar benefits of a single
exercise session (Johansson & Hassmén, 2011). Fifty-nine regular Qigong exercisers were
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
11
assigned into either a Qigong exercise group or a control group after matching for age, gender,
and training level. In the Qigong exercise group, participants did basic Qigong for 30 minutes.
Meanwhile, the control group listened to a 30-minute lecture of traditional Chinese medicine.
Before and after intervention sessions, all participants completed the POMS and STAI (only
measured state anxiety). Researchers found that State Anxiety ( p < .008), Depression (p
< .002), Anger (p < .0005), and Fatigue (p < .0005) were significantly reduced in the Qigong
exercise group, but not in the control group. This finding demonstrated that a 30-minute
Qigong exercise session could improve mood states and reduce state anxiety.
The mood benefits after exercise also have been observed for the individuals with
chronic disease. In one such study, Petruzzello et al. (2009) examined the effects of a single
exercise session on anxiety and mood states in populations with multiple sclerosis (MS).
Participants were 25 females with MS separated into two groups based on trait anxiety (TA)
scores measured by the STAI. Participants with TA scores greater than 44 (mean score in the
general population) were classified as the higher trait anxious group (HTA; n = 8) while
participants with TA scores below 44 were classified as the lower trait anxious group (LTA; n
= 17). Participants completed the trait measures of the STAI and the POMS immediately
before 20 minutes of cycling at 60% of VO2peak. After the submaximal cycling, participants
completed the state measure of the STAI and the POMS at 5, 20, and 60 minutes after
exercise. Petruzzello and colleagues (2009) found that participants’ state anxiety (SA) scores
were significantly reduced at 5, 20, and 60 minutes after exercise in the HTA group, and SA
scores were relatively unchanged in the LTA group. In addition, there were large reductions in
TMD at 5, 20, and 60 minutes after exercise in the HTA group, and small reductions in TMD
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
12
at 20 and 60 minutes after exercise in the LTA group. Therefore, positive mood changes were
found in both HTA and LTA groups, but the greater mood benefits were discovered in the
HTA group.
According to the above studies, desirable mood changes have been reported for a
variety of populations. Therefore, exercise habits and health states may not be crucial factors
that influence mood states after a single exercise session. Exercise factors, such as exercise
duration and exercise intensity, should be reviewed to determine the relationship between
those factors and mood alteration.
Exercise Intensity and Mood Changes
Exercise intensity is an important factor that may influence mood changes associated
with exercise. It is difficult to compare the results of studies examining the relationship
between exercise intensity and mood states, because investigators have employed a variety of
exercise intensity criteria (See Table 1 for different measures of exercise intensity). This
study operationally defined the specific percentage of heart rate reserve (%HRR) as the
indicator of exercise intensity. More specifically, 20-39% of heart rate reserve, 40-59% of
heart rate reserve, and 60-84% of heart rate reserve represents light, moderate, and hard
exercise intensity, respectively (ACSM, 2010, p.5).
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
13
Table 1
Classification of physical activity intensity
Intensity
VO2R (%)
HRR (%)
Maximal
HR (%)
RPEa
Very light
< 20
< 50
8-10
Light
20-39
50-63
11-12
Moderate
40-59
64-76
13-14
Hard
60-84
77-93
15-17
Very hard
≥ 85
≥ 94
18-20
Note. VO2R = oxygen uptake reserve; HRR = heart rate reserve; HR = heart rate;
RPE = rating of perceived exertion.
a
levels of RPE adapted from " Foundations of exercise psychology (2nd ed.)," by Berger, B.,
Pargman, D., and Weinberg, R.S., 2007, p.391. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information
Technology.
In a study examining the relationship between different exercise intensities and
mood alteration in college students who enrolled in body-conditioning classes, Berger and
Owen (1998) instructed 91 college students to walk or jog for 20 minutes at one of three
different intensities: 50%, 65%, and 80% aged-adjusted HRmax. However, in actuality, the
participants’ exercise heart rates were at 55% (low exercise intensity), 75%, and 79%
(moderate exercise intensity) of aged-adjusted HRmax. Participants completed the POMS
before and after exercise sessions. Participants, regardless of their exercise intensities (low or
moderate exercise intensity), reported significant mood changes on each of the six subscales.
Specifically, the univariate tests indicated that pre- and post-exercise POMS scores
significantly changed in desirable direction for Tension, Depression, Anger, Vigor, Fatigue,
and Confusion. These findings suggested that a single session of exercise can improve mood
states in college students. In addition, both low and moderate exercise intensity levels were
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
14
associated with desirable mood changes.
In a study of individuals who were fatigued, more positive mood changes have been
observed for low exercise intensity than moderate exercise intensity (Dishman et al, 2010).
Thirty-six college students who reported persistent fatigue were randomly assigned to one of
three groups: low intensity aerobic exercise (20 minutes of exercise at 40% VO2peak on a
cycle ergometer), moderate intensity aerobic exercise (20 minutes of exercise at 75%
VO2peak on a cycle ergometer), or no-treatment control. Participants in each group exercised
in the laboratory three times per week for a six-week period. Vigor and Fatigue mood states
were measured by the 30-item Profile of Mood State-Short Form (POMS-SF) (Curran,
Andrykowski & Studts, 1995) immediately before and 10 minutes after acute exercise for the
low and moderate intensity groups, and in the no-treatment control group during Weeks 1, 3,
and 6. The electroencephalograph (EEG) data also was recorded before and after the acute
exercise and no-treatment control group during each of the three weeks of testing.
Researchers found that higher Vigor scores were observed after both low and moderate
exercise intensity during Weeks 1, 3, and 6 in comparison to the no-treatment control group.
There was no difference between low and moderate exercise intensity on Vigor. EEG activity
in all regions and frequency bands did not account for the change in Vigor, except theta
activity in the posterior region. Lower Fatigue scores were found after low exercise intensity
during Week 3 and Week 6, but this finding was not explained by changes in EEG activity.
The findings indicated that both low and moderate intensity were associated with less Fatigue
and more Vigor on persistently fatigued college students.
Results of another study indicated that exercising at a high intensity level until
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
15
volitional exhaustion may decrease desirable mood changes (Hall et al., 2002). Before
exercising on a treadmill, college students (N = 30) were asked to complete the Feeling Scale
(FS), Felt Arousal Scale (FAS), and Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL).
AD ACL is a multi-item measure of the bipolar dimensions of Energetic Arousal (EA) and
Tense Arousal (TA). Then, participants warmed up on the treadmill for 3 minutes at 4.8
km/hour (0% grade). Once the warm-up was completed, the speed of the treadmill was
increased to 8 km/hour (0% grade). After this point, the workload was increased every two
minutes by alternating either an increase in speed by 1.6 km/hour or increase in grade by 2%.
This procedure was continued until each participant reached the point of volitional exhaustion.
During exercise session, participants reported the RPE, FA, and FAS every minute. The
average duration of exercise was 11.3 minutes (SD = 2.29). The average terminal RPE was
17.77 (SD = 1.89) which represents "very hard" to "very, very hard" exercise intensity level.
After exercising, the participants sat in a chair doing nothing for a recovery period of 20
minutes. Immediately after the cool-down, as well as 10 and 20 minutes later, the participants
completed the FS, FAS, and AD ACL again. Immediately after exercise, there was an increase
in EA compared to the pre-exercise. TA decreased at post-10 and 20 minutes. Also, compared
to pre-exercise levels, there was a significant improvement in FS scores across all
post-exercise time points. FAS scores showed a significant decrease at post-10 and 20
minutes. During the exercise session, the results of mood changes showed that FS scores
decreased from the second minutes after the VT and until exhaustion. FAS scores increased
throughout the exercise session. Exercise had positive influence on mood states; however, as
the exercise intensity level increased and beyond the VT, participants felt less pleasure.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
16
Although exercise intensity may be an important factor for mood changes based on
the results reported, there were no consistent results regarding the effects of exercise intensity
on mood states (Berger & Owen, 1998; Dishman et al, 2010; Rokka et al., 2010). Both low
and moderate exercise intensity levels were associated with desirable mood changes (Berger
& Owen, 1998; Lind, Ekkekakis, & Vazou, 2008; Parfitt, Rose, & Maekland, 2000). However,
there was no evidence of acute mood improvements when exercising at an extremely high
exercise intensity level (Berger & Motl, 2000; Hall, Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2002).
Preferred Intensity and Mood Changes
Because of inconsistent results regarding which exercise intensity most positively
enhance mood alteration, it may be inferred that preferred exercise intensity is the most
effective for enhancing mood states. Preferred exercise intensity means exercisers can choose
their exercise intensities rather than following a prescribed exercise intensity guideline.
One study compared the effects of 20 minutes of treadmill exercise at prescribed
exercise intensity (65% VO2max) and preferred exercise intensity on mood and exercise
enjoyment in regular exercisers (Parfitt et al., 2000). Undergraduate students (N = 26) who
self-reported as regular exercisers participated in this study. Each participant exercised at two
exercise intensity levels: 20 minutes at 65% VO2max, and 20 minutes at their preferred
intensity, adjustable at the beginning, 5, 10, and 15 minutes of exercising. Before and after
each exercise session, participants completed the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale
(SEES) which measured psychological affect including three subscales: positive well-being,
psychological distress, and fatigue. SEES also was measured in the last 45 seconds of each
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
17
5-minute period. After 20 minutes of exercise, participants completed the 21-item Intrinsic
Motivation Inventory (IMI) (McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989) which included five
subscales of interest-enjoyment, effort-importance, pressure-tension, perceived competence
and perceived choice. Investigators found that there was no significant improvement of SEES
scores in both exercise intensity groups; however, the scores changed from pre- to
post-exercise were in the desirable direction. In addition, there were no differences between
the prescribed exercise intensity and preferred exercise intensity on the SEES scores and on
the IMI scores. The only difference was that participants reported significant higher perceived
choice scores (IMI) in the preferred exercise group (p < .01) which means participants in the
preferred exercise group felt that they had more choices in this study.
Even slightly increased exercise intensity level beyond the preferred exercise
intensity can lead to a decrease in pleasure (Lind, Ekkekakis, & Vazou, 2008). Women (N
=25) who were sedentary for the previous 12 months participated in this study. The first
session determined peak oxygen uptake, peak heart rate and ventilator ability. In the second
session, all participants exercised on a treadmill for 20 minutes at self-selected intensity,
which means participants were able to set the speed at the beginning, 5, 10, 15 minutes of
exercising. In the third session, participants exercised at the prescribed intensity which the
speed of treadmill was adjusted to be 10% higher than what the participants had selected
during the second session. Affective responses were measured by the Feeling Scale (FS), and
activation was assessed with the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) during the second and third session
at the beginning, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes of exercising. The average of preferred intensity
selected by participants was near the high end of the range recommended by the American
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
18
College of Sports Medicine for the development and maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness
(ACSM, 2010). Compared to pre-exercise, the FS scores were significantly lower in the
prescribed intensity at 5 and 15 minutes of exercising. The FAS scores showed that the
preferred intensity condition had greater FAS scores at 10, 15, and 20 minutes of exercising
than the prescribed intensity condition. These findings indicated that a minor increase in
exercise intensity above the self-selected level can decrease the positive mood states.
Similar results were found when researchers examined overweight adults and
determined that they felt less pleasure than normal-weight adults when they exercised at 10%
higher than preferred exercise intensity (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006). Sixteen overweight (BMI
equal to or greater than 25 kg/m2) and nine normal-weight (BMI less than 25 kg/m2)
previously sedentary adults exercised on the treadmill for 20 minutes at preferred intensity
and then again for 20 minutes at 10% higher than preferred intensity. For preferred intensity,
participants set the speed they preferred and were allowed to adjust the speed every five
minutes of the 20-minute exercise session. For prescribed intensity, the researchers set the
speed to be 10% greater than the speed that participants self-selected. RPE and the FS scores
were obtained at minutes of 0:00, 4:45, 9:45, 14:45, and 19:45 of exercise by displaying a
poster-size version of the scales and asking the participant to indicate her response either
verbally or by pointing to a number.
In this study, the overweight group reported higher RPE and oxygen uptake than the
normal-weight group (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006). All participants, regardless of weight,
reported higher RPE ratings in response to the prescribed-intensity condition than the
preferred intensity condition. Furthermore, RPE increased continuously by time in both
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
19
conditions. However, RPE were significantly higher in the prescribed-intensity condition
compared to the preferred intensity condition at 10, 15, and 20 minutes. FS scores showed
there were no significant changes during the 20-minute exercise session, except when the
overweight participants exercised in the prescribed-intensity condition. In this condition, FS
scores showed a steady decline that was significant at 10, 15, and 20 minutes of exercise. The
difference between the normal-weight and overweight groups reached significance at 15
minutes. The findings indicated that an exercise intensity that was just 10% higher than what
overweight adults would have self-selected was associated with a significant decline in
reported pleasure.
The differences between preferred exercise intensity and prescribed exercise intensity
have been examined by Parfitt, Rose, and Burgess (2006). Sedentary males (N = 12) who
exercised less than once a week participated in this study. Each participant exercised for 20
minutes at three different exercise intensity levels: (1) below-lactate threshold exercise
intensity, (2) above-lactate threshold exercise intensity, and (3) preferred exercise intensity.
Setting the speed of treadmill for prescribed exercise intensity was based on the incremental
blood lactate tests. The preferred intensity was set by participant and he was able to change
the intensity after 5, 10, and 15 minutes of exercising if he wanted. The FS, FAS, heart rates
and RPE were recorded pre-exercise, and in the last 45 seconds of each 5-minute period
during exercise. Blood lactate was measured at 10 and 20 minutes during exercises. The FS,
FAS and heart rate were also recorded in the last 45 seconds of each 10-minute period after
the exercise session, up to and including 30 minutes.
During exercise, FS became less positive over time in the above-lactate threshold
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20
condition, but remained positive and stable in the two other exercise intensity conditions
(Parfitt et al., 2006). There was no significant difference between the below-lactate threshold
and self-selected conditions. FAS remained high and stable during exercise, and there were
no significant differences among three exercise intensity conditions. In addition, FS was more
positive from pre-exercise to 10, 20, and 30 minutes post-exercise, and FAS significantly
increased from pre-exercise to 10 minutes post-exercise for three exercise intensity
conditions. There were no significant differences among three exercise intensity conditions.
These indicated that participants felt better after exercising at three exercise intensity
conditions, even though they felt less pleasure during exercise at above-lactate threshold
condition.
In order to find additional evidence about preferred exercise intensity and mood
states, Szabo (2003) examined the relationship between preferred exercise intensity and mood
changes in a pilot field and a laboratory setting. In the pilot field study, colleges students (N =
96) jogged for 20 minutes at their preferred exercise intensity in a large sports hall. Heart
rates were recorded at 15 minutes of jogging for estimating their exercise intensities by using
Karvonen formula. All participants completed an abbreviated version of the POMS before
and after exercise session. This version of the POMS consists of a 40-item questionnaire
containing 7 subscales of which 2 measure positive affect (vigor and self-esteem) and 5
measure negative affect (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion) (Grove &
Prapavessis, 1992). Positive mood changes from pre- to post-exercise were statistically
significant for all 7 subscales of the POMS (Szabo, 2003). A total mood disturbance (TMD)
score was calculated by subtracting the sum of the ratings on the two positive subscales of the
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
21
POMS from the sum of the ratings on the five negative subscales. TMD scores showed that
that TMD decreased significantly from pre- to post exercise.
In the laboratory setting study, female students (N = 32) jogged on the treadmill for 20
minutes at their preferred intensities (Szabo, 2003). Participants were asked to set a pace at
which they felt like exercising on that day. Before and after the exercise session, participants
completed an abbreviated version of the POMS. Heart rate was measured by a Polar heart rate
monitor during 20 minutes of exercising. The results were similar to the first study, except that
Fatigue and Vigor did not change in the laboratory. For both studies, the range of individual
exercise intensities (%HRmax) was wide. In addition, the correlations between exercise
intensities and difference scores of POMS were not significant for any of the POMS subscales,
including TMD. This indicated that preferred intensity was different for each participant, but the
changes in mood states were similar across participants.
A similar study examined the mood changes before and after a single exercise
session at preferred intensity and other exercise-relevant measures, 80 participants were
assigned randomly into either a cycling or a running group (Rendi, Szabo, Szabo, Velenczei
& Kovacs, 2008). Each participant completed the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI)
five minutes before and after a 20-minute exercise session at self-selected workload
(preferred intensity). Participants wore a heart rate monitor for determining heart rate and
exercise intensity expressed in terms of percent of HRmax. In addition, perceived exercise
workload and perceived exercise enjoyment were measured with 7- and 5- point Likert scales,
respectively. Exercise distance and calories burned were read directly from the display of the
exercise equipment. EFI scores were significant increased from pre-exercise to post-exercise
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
22
in two different exercise groups, and there was no difference between two groups. In addition,
exercise intensity and the other indexes such as heart rate, perceived exercise workload,
distance completed and estimates of calories utilized were higher for participants in the
running exercise group compared to those in the cycling exercise group. These indicated that
better mood alteration occurred regardless of exercise intensity, exercise type, heart rate, RPE,
distance completed and estimates of calories utilized.
It seems that participants obtained greater mood benefits from preferred exercise
intensity rather than prescribed exercise intensity (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006; Lind, Ekkekakis,
& Vazou, 2008). Although preferred exercise intensity was different for each participant
(Szabo, 2003; Rendi et al., 2008), similar mood benefits were found regardless of exercise
intensity.
Exercise Duration and Mood Changes
Although a single exercise session can improve mood states, exercise duration may
be an important factor to determine the magnitude of mood changes (Berger, Pargman, &
Weinberg, 2007). Several studies suggested that only 10 minutes of exercise can significantly
improve mood states (Ekkekakis, Hall, VanLanduyt, & Petruzzello, 2000; Hansen et al.,
2001). Some studies of mood changes after a single 20-minute exercise session showed mood
states were improved (Berger & Motl, 2000; Dishman, Thom, Puetz, O’Connor, & Clementz,
2010; Parfitt, Rose, & Maekland, 2000; Petruzzello, Snook, Gliottoni & Motl, 2009). In
addition, some studies showed that 15 and 30 minutes of exercise duration had the same
impact on mood changes (Blanchard et al., 2002; Daley & Welch, 2004). Therefore, 10 to 30
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23
minutes of exercise seems sufficient to achieve mood improvement, and those mood changes
are similar for short and moderate exercise durations.
The minimal exercise duration for gaining significant better mood alteration was
examined (Hansen et al., 2001). College students (N = 21) ages 20-26 year completed four
different testing sessions: (1) sitting quietly (no exercise as a control session); (2) cycling for
10 minutes at 60% HR of estimated VO2max; (3) cycling for 20 minutes at 60% HR of
estimated VO2max; (4) cycling for 30 minutes at 60% HR of estimated VO2max. Before and
after each testing session, participants completed the POMS. The POMS scores suggested
that exercising for 10 minutes at 60% HR of estimated VO2max was sufficient for increasing
Vigor (p = .01), decreasing Fatigue (p = .013), and decreasing total negative mood state (p
= .007). In addition, Confusion (p = .014) improved after 20 minutes rather than at 10
minutes. This study indicated that 10 minutes of cycling could significantly improve mood
states.
Ekkekakis et al. (2000) also found that 10 minutes of walking can improve affect.
Seventy-five of the 135 undergraduate students were assigned to an exercise group which
participated in 10 minutes of outdoor walking at a self-selected pace. The remaining 60
participants were assigned to a control group which engaged in quiet reading. Immediately
before (pre-test), after (post-test), and 10 minutes post-participation, all students completed a
20-item Activation-Deactivation Adjective Checklist (AD ACL) which includes energetic
arousal (EA) and tense arousal (TA), and a 10-item abbreviated version of the State Anxiety
Inventory (SAI) after walking or reading. In the walking group, EA first increased and then
returned toward the pre-test value but remained relatively elevated compared to the pre-test.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
24
On the contrary, in the control group, EA first decreased and then remained stable, but still
below pre-test levels. In the walking group, TA remained stable immediately after the walk
and was reduced at the 10-minute post-test, but the post-test score was not different to the
pre-test score. In the control group, TA first declined and then remained stable at a level still
significantly lower than the pre-test. For SAI, there was a significant decrease followed by
time, but no apparent difference between the two groups. These results suggested that 10
minutes of walking were associated with significant positive changes toward higher EA and
lower state anxiety.
In another study of examining mood alteration and exercise duration (Blanchard et
al., 2002), female college students (N = 60) who were physically active were randomly
assigned to one of five conditions: no exercise control condition for 30 minutes, exercise at
50% HRR for 15 minutes, exercise at 50% HRR for 30 minutes, exercise at 85% HRR for 15
minutes, and exercise at 85% HRR for 30 minutes. Participants wore heart rate monitor when
exercising on the cycle ergometer. Workload on the cycle ergometer was adjusted to ensure
the exercise intensities were maintained throughout each exercise session based on the heart
rate. Participants completed the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI) before, during, and
after exercise. The EFI measures four distinct feeling states: revitalization, tranquility,
positive engagement, and physical exhaustion. A mixed-model MANOVA with repeated
measures showed that there were no main effects or interactions present involving duration.
Positive engagement and revitalization significantly increased from pre- to post exercise in
the 50% and 85% exercise intensity conditions. Physical exhaustion significantly decreased
in the 50% intensity, whereas there was no change in the 85% intensity condition. This result
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25
indicated that 15 minutes and 30 minutes of exercising had similar effects on mood changes.
Another study also compared the effects of two exercise durations, and no
significant differences were found between the 15 minutes and 30 minutes exercise durations
(Daley & Welch, 2004). Twenty-three active college students participated in this study. All
participants exercised for 15 minutes and 30 minutes on the cycle ergometer. The SEES was
completed on six occasions: before, during (7.5 minutes in 15-minutes condition; 15 minutes
in 30-minutes condition), and five minutes, 30 minutes, one hour and two hours after both
exercise conditions. RPE was reported every five minutes during each exercise condition.
Heart rate also was measured by heart rate monitor. RPE and heart rate were measured to
examine for exercise intensity. The mean RPE and heart rate for the two exercise conditions
indicated that participants perceived that they were exercising at moderate intensity during
the 15 minutes (M: RPE = 12.6, HR = 136) and 30 minutes (M: RPE = 12.4, HR = 135)
conditions. A series of repeated-measures revealed significant time effects, with subscales of
SEES scores improved after exercise. No significant differences were found between the 15
minutes and 30 minutes exercise duration.
It seems 10 minutes of exercise can significantly enhance participant’s mood states
(Ekkekakis et al., 2000; Hansen et al., 2001). Also, when compared to 15 and 30 minutes of
exercise duration, there were no differences on mood changes after exercise (Blanchard et al.,
2002; Daley & Welch, 2004). Therefore, when exercise duration is less than 30 minutes,
positive mood changes were not different after a single exercise session.
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Exercise and Mood Alteration: Possible Sex Differences
Sex differences are often considered as an important factor in physical activity and
mood state studies. According to Reason for Exercise Inventory, Davis et al. (1995) found
that women were more likely than men to exercise for weight control, while men exercised
more for fitness. In studies of examining mood changes after exercise, researchers (Berger &
Owen, 1992; Berger, Owen, Motl & Parks, 1998; Rocheleau, Webster, Bryan, & Frazier,
2004) discovered that women obtained greater mood benefits than men after a single exercise
session.
Women have reported lower scores on post-exercise negative mood (including
Tension, Depression, Anger, and Confusion) and exhaustion (including Fatigue and Vigor)
than men (Rocheleau, et al., 2004). In this study, participants attended either a cardiovascular
or a weight training exercise session. Results showed that women had lower post-exercise
negative mood than men (i.e., women felt better than men after exercising) in the weight
training exercise session, but no mood differences between sex emerged for those who
participated in the cardiovascular exercise session. In addition, exercise duration made little
difference in mood changes for men, whereas among women, increased workout duration
was associated with the benefit of lower post-exercise exhaustion scores. The increases in
Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) were associated with decreases in exhaustion for
women, while the results were opposite for men. Thus it is important to examine sex
differences in exercise-related mood changes.
In further support of sex differences, women reported greater mood benefits than
men (Berger, et al., 1998). Seventy-one college students (female = 39; male = 32) who
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27
enrolled in three body conditioning courses participated in this study. All participants
completed 15-minute jogging at three different exercise intensity levels (50%, 65%, and 80%
age-adjusted HRmax) in three class sessions. Immediately before and after exercise,
participants completed the POMS. The results showed combined female and male
participants reported improved POMS scores (significant in Tension, Depression, Anger, and
Confusion). For women, mood states were significant improved in all six sub-scales except
Fatigue. For men, mood states were not changed significantly, however, the pre- and
post-exercise mood changes were in desirable direction for most of POMS subscales.
Therefore, women reported greater desirable mood changes than men.
However, sex differences of mood alteration were not found after a single exercise
session when employed in the other questionnaires (Limbu, Sinha, Sinha, & Paudel, 2010).
Fifteen males and fifteen females (N = 30) participated in this study. All participants bicycled
at 50% of HRmax for 20 minutes. Before and after exercise session, participants completed
State-Trait Inventory Scale (STAI). The comparisons of pre- and post-exercise STAI scores
showed there were no statistically significant differences between males and females.
Although the STAI scores decreased from pre- to post-exercise, these decreases were not
significantly different between male and female participants.
It seems that males and females may differ in mood changes after exercise, and these
differences may change with type of exercise, exercise duration, and rate of perceived
exertion. However, there were no consistent results of sex differences in mood alteration.
Therefore, sex differences of mood states need to be examined in present study.
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Exercise Enjoyment and Mood Changes
Enjoyment is an affective product of experience and also is a psychological state that
is a major part of the experience itself (Berger et al., 2007, p. 58; Motl et al., 2000).
Furthermore, exercise enjoyment has been defined as a positive response to the movement
experience and is an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily
for its own sake (Raedeke, 2007). On the other hand, mood has been described as a host of
subjective feeling states that fluctuate in response to internal and external forces (Motl et al.,
2000).
Exercise enjoyment may be an internal motivation which encourages people to
pursue exercising and may play an important role in encouraging to be physically active.
Exercise duration, exercise intensity, exercise mode, and gender may affect mood states
through exercise enjoyment (Berger et al., 2007). However, the relationship between exercise
enjoyment and mood states are complicated and unclear.
Exercise enjoyment may be a moderator between physical activity and mood states.
Raedeke (2007) examined the relationship between exercise enjoyment and mood states.
Female undergraduate students (N = 105) from fitness classes participated in this study.
Participants completed the short version of the POMS before exercising. Then, they exercised
for 30 minutes of aerobic activity in the classes. After exercising, participants completed the
short version of the POMS and the PACES which was used to measure the state of exercise
enjoyment. Results showed pre-exercise mood states were not related to enjoyment except for
Fatigue. Participants who felt fatigued prior to exercise reported lower enjoyment than those
feeling less fatigued. Researchers also examined the relationship between the exercise
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29
enjoyment scores and the post-exercise POMS scores. Results revealed that decreases in
negative mood states were unrelated to enjoyment. However, enjoyment was related to
increases in Vigor. This study indicated that exercise enjoyment was related to mood states on
the POMS subscales of Fatigue and Vigor. In addition, the study suggested that exercise
enjoyment is not only related to pre-exercise mood states, but also related to post-exercise
mood states.
Male rock-climbers (n = 44) with a mean age of 25.5 and male students in a health
education class (n = 53) with a mean age of 21 years participated in this study (Motl et al.,
2000). Before the testing session, all participants completed a demographic questionnaire,
Lie-scale, PACES, and the POMS. The Lie-scale included nine items to reveal whether or not
an individual fakes good when responding to questionnaires. The average duration of
rock-climbing session for rock-climbers was 23.49 minutes (SD = 9.15). Students in health
education class listened to a 15-minute lecture on the health benefits of rock-climbing and
then watched a 15-minute video presentation on rock-climbing. After the testing session for
each group (rock-climbing or health education group), all participant completed the POMS
and PACES. Results indicated that rock-climbers reported lower tension and confusion as
well as higher vigor scores after exercise than did the health education students. Enjoyment
scores had a stronger direct effect (r = .46) than did type of activity (r = - .02) on TMD
change scores. Type of activity had a stronger indirect effect (r = .77) via PACES scores,
rather than a direct effect, on changes in mood states. Therefore, enjoyment appeared to
mediate the changes in mood states associated with rock-climbing and health education class.
In another study, Berger et al. (2010) examined the relationship among mood
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30
changes, exercise enjoyment, graded exercise test (GXT) duration and program success as
indicated by weight loss, body mass index (BMI), and percent of body fat. There were 25
women who completed a behavioral weight loss program (BWLP), which is emerging as a
common treatment for mild to moderate obesity. At the beginning of the study, the
participants completed the demographic questionnaire and were tested by using several
physical indexes, such as height, weight, skinfold measures, heart rate, and maximal oxygen
uptake (VO2). Before and after the BWLP, participants finished the graded exercise test
(GXT) measuring the duration that participants walked on the treadmill. And also, before and
after each the graded exercise test (GXT), participants completed the 65-item version of the
POMS which measured the mood alteration and 18-item version of PACES which measured
exercise enjoyment. The results showed that participants reported desirable mood changes
after a single exercise session. There was no significant difference on mood benefits after
six-month BWLP (p = .549). Participants who completed the six-month BWLP felt more
enjoyment than the dropouts at the end of the program (p = .004). Participants who dropped
from the BWLP reported fewer desirable mood changes compared to the participants who
completed the BWLP at the beginning of the program (p = .0047). Exercise enjoyment did
not relate with the program success, such as exercise duration, body weight, body mass index,
and percent of body fat (p > .4). There was no evidence of a relationship between exercise
enjoyment and mood changes (p = .53).
According to the above studies, exercise enjoyment may influence mood changes
after exercise. When participants enjoyed exercise, they reported greater mood changes.
Therefore, one of the purposes for this study is to examine the possible relationship between
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31
exercise enjoyment and changes in mood states associated with exercise.
Summary
Mood changes after a single exercise session were influenced by many exercise
factors, including fitness level, health state, exercise duration, exercise intensity, and sex.
Moreover, preferred exercise intensity may play an important role to enhance exercise
enjoyment and to enhance desirable mood changes. However, the relationships between
preferred exercise intensity, exercise enjoyment, and mood states are unclear and complicated.
In this study, the relationship of preferred exercise intensity, exercise enjoyment, and mood
state has been examined. For the purposes of this investigation, the following operational
definitions were employed.
Operational Definitions
1.
Exercise: participants jogged/walked on the track in the physical education general (PEG)
classes for 15 minutes.
2. Exercise intensity: exercise intensity was the percent of heart rate reserve (HRR).
According to ACSM (2010, p. 5), the formula for the percentage of HRR is as following:
%HRR = % (age-predicted maximal HR－resting HR) + resting HR;
The newer formula for predicting maximal heart rate was used to this study (ACSM,
2010, p. 155). The formula is as following:
Age-predicted maximal HR = 206.9 – (0.67 × age).
3.
Heart rate: heart rate was calculated and recorded by a Polar S120TM heart rate
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
32
monitor.
4.
Preferred intensity: participants selected their own exercise intensity, and heart rates
were recorded by the heart rate monitors during exercise.
5.
Mood change: differences in mood states were measured by the 65-item Profile of Mood
States (POMS) before and after exercise (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992).
6.
Exercise Enjoyment: enjoyment was reflected by scores on the Physical Activity
Enjoyment Scale (PACES) (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991).
7.
Rating of perceived exertion: Perceived exertion was measured by Borg’s (1998) Ratings
of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale (6-20 scale).
Thesis Hypotheses
One purpose of this study was to examine mood changes when participants exercise
at their preferred intensity levels. Two additional purposes were to investigate the relationship
between mood changes and exercise enjoyment (state and trait exercise enjoyment). Two
final purposes were to examine the characteristics of the preferred intensity and to investigate
possible sex differences of preferred exercise intensity in college students. Based on the study
purposes, the specific hypotheses include the following:
Hypothesis# 1: Participants who exercise at a preferred exercise intensity level will
report positive mood changes after 15 minutes of jogging.
Hypothesis# 2: Participants who report higher exercise enjoyment trait scores will
have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise enjoyment trait scores.
Hypothesis# 3: Participants who report higher exercise enjoyment state scores after
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33
15 minutes of jogging will have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise
enjoyment state scores.
Hypothesis# 4: Females will choose lower intensities as their preferred intensities
than males.
Hypothesis# 5: College students will choose a moderate intensity, rather than a high
or a low intensity level as their preferred exercise intensity.
34
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
CHAPTER III: METHOD
Participants
The participants in this study were students recruited from three undergraduate
Physical Education General (PEG)-jogging classes at Bowling Green State University.
Seventy-five students out of a total student enrollment of 90 signed the Participant Consent
Form (See Appendix H) and were willing to participate in this study. Fifty-five students (N =
55), including 28 males and 27 females, attended each of the three class sessions and
completed the entire study. See Figure 1 for details.
15 students
failed to attend
the first class
session
Two students' heart
rate monitors did
not work properly
90 students enrolled
in one of three
classes
75 students signed the
consent form
• 25 for class I
• 27 for class II
• 23 for class III
55 students completed
the questionnaires
• 19 for class I
• 22 for class II
• 14 for class III
53 students with heart
rate monitor scores
• 19 for class I
• 21 for class II
• 13 for class III
Figure 1. Recruitment and retention of participants.
20 students failed
to attend the second
or/and the third
class sessions
35
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
The mean age of the participants was 20.63 (SD = 1.40). There was approximately
the same proportion of female and male students in each class. In Class II, five male students
had a BMI that was over 30, which considered as obese; there were no female students with a
BMI over 30. In Class I and III, the number of obese (BMI > 30) male and female students
was 0. According to self-reported measure (See Appendix A), male students reported that
their mean exercise time was 300 minutes per week, while female students reported that their
mean exercise time was 276 minutes per week. See Table 2 for participants’ information by
class, sex, number, age, and BMI.
Table 2
Participants’ information by class, sex, number, age, and BMI
Age (yrs)
BMI (kg/m2)
Sex
Female
Male
n
9
10
M
SD
20.79 1.69
20.89 .95
M
SD
21.80 2.46
24.66 2.69
Exercise Time
(min/week)
M
SD
266
251
185
192
Female
Male
Class III Female
Male
Total
12
10
6
8
55
20.50
19.95
20.34
21.38
20.63
22.74
27.93
21.19
23.55
23.83
280
403
282
316
288
Class
Class I
Class II
1.44
1.41
1.56
1.32
1.40
2.74
6.11
1.08
2.60
3.98
206
227
173
257
221
Note. N= 55.
All participants met the inclusion criteria. They (1) were 18 years of age at the time
of the study, (2) were able to complete 15 minutes of jogging and/or walking continuously, (3)
had not reported health problems that precluded their participation. Twenty students did not
attend the second and/or third study sessions, thus 55 participants completed the study. Due to
Heart Rate monitor malfunctioning, complete data was available for 53 participants.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
36
Instruments
General Information Questionnaire
A questionnaire was developed to collect information from the participants.
Participants were asked about their sex, age, grade in college, and ethnicity. There also was a
question about their exercise time per week. This questionnaire provided information about
the students who selected to participate in the PEG-jogging classes. (See Appendix A for the
General Information Questionnaire.)
Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire
The Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire (PPAQ) is a self-report inventory
to calculate kilocalories expended by the participant per week (Pereira, 1997). There are a
total eight questions, including multiple choice and open-ended questions. An example of
these questions includes “How many city blocks or their equivalent do they normally walk
each day?” (See Appendix B for the questionnaire.) The results of PPAQ were used to
estimate the participant’s fitness level.
Profile of Mood States Inventory
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) was designed to measure mood states (McNair,
Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992). Since the POMS was commonly employed in exercise and mood
states studies, results can be compared with those from other studies. The POMS Standard
Form were employed in this study and contains 65 items rated on a 5-point scale (0 = not at
all, 1 = a little, 2 = moderately, 3 = quite a bit, and 4 = extremely). The six subscales include
tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia, and
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
37
confusion-bewilderment. The instruction for the state measure of the POMS is “How do you
feel right now?” (See Appendix C for the POMS inventory.) The internal consistency
estimates for the POMS range from .84 to .95. The test-retest reliability coefficients range
from .65 to .74 (McNair et al., 1992).
Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale
Exercise enjoyment was measured by the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale
(PACES) developed by Kendzierski and DeCarlo (1991). The PACES includes 18 items rated
on a seven-point bipolar scale (e.g., I enjoy it, I hate it; I feel bored, I feel interested). The
PACES reliability of internal consistency is .96. The test-retest reliability coefficient ranges
from .60 to .93 (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). Using different instructions, the PACES can
both measure the exercise enjoyment trait (exercise enjoyment in general, most of time) and
the exercise enjoyment state (exercise enjoyment at the moment). The instruction for the trait
measure of exercise enjoyment was “Please rate how you feel about most types of physical
activity in general, most of the time” (See Appendix D for the inventory). The instruction for
the state measure of exercise enjoyment was “Please rate how you feel at the moment about
the physical activity you have been doing.” (See Appendix E for the inventory.)
Rating of Perceived Exertion
Perceived exertion was measured using Borg’s (1998) Ratings of Perceived Exertion
(RPE) scale. Participants responded to the question “How hard are you working?” on the
RPE scale. The RPE scores ranged from 6 to 20 with verbal indicators (e.g., 6 = no exertion
at all; 20 = maximum exertion) (see Appendix F for the scale). The RPE scale is used to
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
38
measure an individual’s overall sensations and feelings of physical stress. Therefore, the
rating indicated by the individual represents the amount of overall exertion experienced (Borg,
1998).
Heart Rate
Heart rate was used to reflect exercise intensity and measured by a Polar heart rate
monitor (Polar Model S120TM) during exercise. The age-predicted maximal heart rate can be
calculated by the following formula (ACSM, 2010, p. 155).
Age-predicated maximal HR = 206.9 – (0.67 × age).
Exercise intensity were represented by the percentage of heart rate reserved (%HRR).
According to ACSM (2010, p. 5), the formula for %HRR is as follows:
%HRR = % (age-predicted maximal HR－resting HR) + resting HR;
Therefore, the % HRR (exercise intensity) can be calculated by using above formulas. For
example, a 20 year old college student’s age-predicted maximal HR is 194 beats/min. If this
college student’s resting heart rate (RHR) is 70 beats/min and his/her average heart rate
during 15 minutes of jogging is 140 beats/min, heart rate ranges for low, moderate, and high
exercise intensity can be calculated (See Table 3). Therefore, this student's exercise intensity
is moderate.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
39
Table 3
Heart rate ranges for different intensities for a 20-year old participant
Intensity
HRR (%)
Heart rate
Very light
< 20%
< 95
Light
20-39%
95-118
Moderate
40-59%
119-143
Hard
60-84%
144-174
Very hard
> 85%
> 175
Note. Resting heart rate = 70 beats/min
Procedure
Students in PEG-jogging classes met two days a week throughout the spring 2012
semester in the Perry Field House at Bowling Green State University. Three classes included
students in PEG-2630 (13033) which met on Mondays and Wednesdays from 10:30 a.m. to
11:20 a.m. and was taught by a graduate teaching assistant; PEG-2630 (13034) which met on
Mondays and Wednesdays from 11:30 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. and was taught by a part-time
faculty member; and PEG-2630 (13035) which met on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 11:30
a.m. to 12:20 p.m. and was taught by the same graduate teaching assistant.
Approval for the study was obtained from the School of Human Movement Sports
and Leisure Studies Executive Committee and from the Human Subjects Review Board
(HSRB) at Bowling Green State University. Before the study began, permission also was
obtained from the two PEG-jogging instructors who were asked to include their students in
the study. Participants exercised in each class as a group and completed the following three
testing sessions. See Table 4 for a summary of the three sessions.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
40
Day 1: Orientation Session
An orientation session was conducted during the 7th week of the spring semester in
order to recruit students for this study. At the beginning of the orientation, the purpose of this
study was explained to the students (See Appendix G for the recruitment script). Students
who decided to participate in the study then signed the Participant Informed Consent Form
(see Appendix H), as well as completed the General Information Questionnaire (See
Appendix A), Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire (See Appendix B), and Physical
Activity Enjoyment Trait Scale (See Appendix D). To protect personal privacy and to
encourage honest answers, each participant had a unique testing ID. The ID comprised of the
first two letters of the participant’s mother’s first name and the last four digits of the
participant’s telephone number. (See Appendix H.)
Day 2: Continued Orientation: Use of Heart Rate Monitor and Rating of Perceived
Exertion Scale
In the second orientation session, the researchers taught participants in a classroom
setting how to wear and use the heart rate monitors. (See Appendix J.) Each participant was
given a heart rate monitor. It included a transmitter, an elastic strap, and a wrist receiver. Then,
the researcher demonstrated how to wear, start, and end the heart rate monitor.
Participants’ resting heart rates were collected after learning how to use heart rate
monitor. While wearing the heart rate monitor, all participants sat in a chair quietly for three
minutes, and recorded their resting heart rates at 0:50, 1:50, 2:50, 3:50, and 4:50 minutes on
the recording paper. (See Appendix I.) The third recording (2:50) of resting heart rate was
used as participants' resting heart rates.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
41
After measuring resting heart rate, the researcher reviewed the RPE scoring system
with students. Then, participants practiced using heart rate monitors while they jogged at
their preferred intensity. Participants called out their RPE when they completed each lap
around the track and passed by the researcher. Throughout the process, participants became
familiar with the heart rate monitor, RPE scoring system, and the procedures of the study.
In order to avoid distraction, participants were asked to jog without mobile phones
and other sources of electromagnetic interference. Moreover, participants were instructed to
remain three feet away from each other to protect the accuracy of the monitor’s functioning.
Day 3: Exercise Testing, POMS, and Enjoyment
The exercise testing started during the 8th week of spring semester. Before exercising,
participants attached HR monitors and color tapes, and the researcher reviewed the RPE
scoring system again to refresh students' memory of scale usage. Participants then completed
the POMS indicating how they felt at the moment. Participants jogged and/or walked for 15
minutes at their preferred intensity levels which were instructed to select an exercise intensity
that they can sustain for 15 minutes and that they would feel happy to do on a regular basis
(Parfitt, Rose & Maekland, 2000).
All participants started and finished exercising at the same time based on the
researcher’s directions. The researcher blew a whistle in order to let students know when to
start and to stop exercising. At the same time, the researcher pushed the start button of the
timer to maintain constant jog or/and walk times across classes.
Participants were told to exercise by themselves, rather than keeping company with
their classmates. The purpose of this was to avoid the social effects of talking with others and
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
42
possible interference of other heart rate monitors. The researcher and research assistants
recorded the heart rate through the wrist receiver and their RPE when participants passed by
on the track each lap. (See Appendix K.)
Six researchers (the researcher trained research assistants) worked in pairs at three
different locations on the track to oversee approximately eight students. Each group of eight
student participants wore the same color labels displaying their testing ID for identification
purposes. Participants stopped exercising when the researcher blew the whistle and cooled
down by walking to the classroom. In the classroom, they completed the POMS and the
Physical Activity Enjoyment State Scale (See Appendix E). See Table 4 for the time lines.
43
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Table 4
The schedule for the study
Activity
Time
Orientation Session
The 7th week
(first class of the
week)
The 7th week
(second class of the
week)
1. Introduce this study and request for participating
2. Sign the informed consent form
3. Complete the General Information Questionnaire
and Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire
4. Complete the PACES-trait
10 min
5 min
15 min
1.
2.
3.
4.
10 min
5 min
5 min
25min
Introduce the heart rate monitor
Measure resting heart rate
Review RPE scoring system
Practice using heart rate monitors
5 min
Testing Session
The 8th week
1. PEG-2630(13033)
Monday
10:30-11:20
2. PEG-2630(13035)
Tuesday
11:30-12:20
3. PEG-2630(13034)
Wednesday
11:30-12:20
1. Introduce the procedures of the testing and
review RPE
2. Complete the POMS
3. Jog and/or walk for 15 minutes at preferred
intensity
4. Complete the POMS and the PACES-state
5 min
5 min
20 min
10 min
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
44
Data Analysis
The purposes of this study were (1) to examine whether desirable mood changes
would occur if the participants exercised at their preferred intensity levels, (2) to examine the
relationship between mood changes and exercise enjoyment (trait and state inventories), as
well as (3) to examine the preferred exercise intensity of college students.
In this study, the independent variables were Time with two levels (i.e., pre- and
post- exercise) and exercise enjoyment with two levels (i.e., scores were divided into two
levels based on a median split procedure; low and high). The dependent variables were mood
scores measured by the Profile of Mood State Scale (POMS) and the Total Mood Disturbance
(TMD) scores. The six subscales on the POMS can be combined into a TMD score by
summing the original scores for the five negative mood subscales (Tension, Depression,
Anger, Fatigue, and Confusion), and subtracting the score for Vigor (McNair, Lorr, &
Droppleman, 1992). In addition, the original scores of the six subscales of POMS were
converted into T-scores. POMS T-scores were calculated based on Z-scores using the formula
T = 10*Z + 50. The categorical variables were Sex and Class. Sex had two levels (i.e., male
and female). Class had three levels (i.e., three PEG-jogging classes).
Before analyzing the five hypotheses, a Chi-Square Test and several one-way
ANOVA were conducted to examine the class equivalence on sex, age, BMI, exercise time,
pre- and post-exercise POMS subscales, pre- and post-exercise TMD scores, PACES (trait
and state), %HRR, and RPE. In addition, the following five hypotheses were analyzed.
Hypothesis# 1: Participants who exercise at a preferred exercise intensity level will
report positive mood changes after 15 minutes of jogging. The statistical analysis was a 2
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
45
(Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Sex) with repeated-measures MANOVA on
the vector of the six POMS subscales. Also, 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2
(Sex) with repeated-measures ANOVA on TMD was performed.
Hypothesis# 2: Participants who report higher exercise enjoyment trait scores will
have more desirable mood changes than those who report lower exercise enjoyment trait
scores. Exercise enjoyment trait scores were divided into two levels: low (50% of scores
below the median) and high (50% of scores above the median). The statistical analysis was a
2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment Trait level: high and
low) with repeated-measures MANOVA on the six POMS subscales. Also, a 2 (Time: preand post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment Trait level: high and low) with
repeated-measures ANOVA on the TMD scores were examined.
Hypothesis# 3: Participants who report higher exercise enjoyment state scores after
15 minutes of jogging will have more desirable mood changes than those who report lower
exercise enjoyment state scores. Exercise enjoyment state scores were divided into two levels:
low (50% of scores below the median) and high (50% of scores above the median). The
statistical analysis was a 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise
Enjoyment State level: high and low) with repeated-measures MANOVA on the six POMS
subscales. Also, a 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment State
level: high and low) with repeated-measures ANOVA on the TMD scores were examined.
Hypothesis# 4: Females will choose lower exercise intensities as their preferred
intensities than males. The statistical analysis was a 2 (Sex) × 3 (Class) ANOVA on the
participants’ %HRR. In addition, a 2 (Sex) × 3 (Class) ANOVA on RPE was performed.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
46
Hypothesis# 5: College students will choose a moderate intensity, rather than a high
or a low intensity level as their preferred exercise intensity. According to ACSM (2010, p. 5),
very light exercise intensity is under 20% of HRR, light exercise intensity is ranges from 20
to 39% of heart rate reserve, moderate exercise intensity ranges from 40 to 59% of HRR, hard
exercise intensity ranges from 60-84% of HRR, and very hard exercise intensity is above
85% of HRR. The statistical analysis was the Chi-Square Test on 2 (Sex) × 5 (Preferred
Exercise Intensity levels: very light, light, moderate, hard, very hard) on participants’ heart
rates. In addition, five categories of RPE from very light to very hard were created based on
Berger et al. (2007, p. 391). Specifically, very light exercise intensity ranges from 8 to 10,
light exercise intensity ranges from 11 to 12, moderate exercise intensity ranges from 13 to
14, hard exercise intensity ranges from 15 to 17, and very hard exercise intensity ranges from
18 to 20. The statistical analysis was the Chi-Square Test on 2 (Sex) × 5 (RPE levels: very
light, light, moderate, hard, very hard) on participants’ RPE.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
47
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
One purpose of this study was to examine mood changes when participants exercise
at their preferred intensity levels. Two additional purposes were to investigate the relationship
between mood changes and exercise enjoyment (state and trait exercise enjoyment). Two
final purposes were to examine the characteristics of the preferred intensity and to investigate
possible sex differences in college students.
Based on the study purposes, the specific five hypotheses were: (1) participants who
exercise at a preferred exercise intensity level will report positive mood changes after 15
minutes of jogging; (2) participants who report higher exercise enjoyment trait scores will
have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise enjoyment trait scores; (3)
participants who report higher exercise enjoyment state scores after 15 minutes of jogging
will have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise enjoyment state
scores; (4) Female students will choose lower intensities as their preferred intensities than
males; (5) college students will choose a moderate intensity, rather than a high or a low
intensity level as their preferred exercise intensity. Before examining the five hypotheses,
class equivalence was investigated to identify the initial differences among the three intact
classes, in order to emphasize the results of the five hypotheses and to explain the possible
class differences.
Class Equivalence
A Chi-Square Test and several one-way analyses of variance were performed to test
for initial differences among the three intact classes. There was no evidence of a sex
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
48
difference [χ2 (2, N = 55) = .502, p = .778, Cramer's V = .096] for each class. As noted in
Table 4.1, classes did not differ on age (F = 1.372, p = .263), BMI (F = 2.113, p = .131), or
exercise time (F = 1.375, p = .262).
Classes also did not differ on five of the six subscales of pre-exercise POMS scores
(T-scores) on Tension (F = 1.085, p = .346), Depression (F = 1.230, p = .301), Vigor (F =
2.025, p = .142), Figure (F = 2.746, p = .074), and Confusion (F = 2.576, p = .086). Classes
did differ on Anger (F = 5.417, p = .007). For the post-exercise POMS scores (T-scores),
there were no significant differences on five of the six POMS subscales (Tension: F = .442, p
= .645; Depression: F = 1.771, p = .180; Anger: F = 2.382, p = .102; Figure: F = 2.560, p
= .087; Confusion: F = .128, p = .880). Class did differ on Vigor (F = 5.548, p = .007). For
the Total Mood Disturbance, both pre- and post-exercise TMD were not significantly
different between the three classes [pre-exercise TMD: (F = 2.114, p = .131); post-exercise
TMD: (F = 1.555, p = .221)].
Classes differed on the trait scores of exercise enjoyment (F = 3.416, p = .040), but
did not differ on the state scores of exercise enjoyment (F = .364, p = .696). For the
mean %HRR and RPE, no evidence was discovered for class differences (%HRR: F = .028, p
= .972; RPE: F = 1.963, p = .151). This indicated that exercise intensity was not significantly
different across the three classes. See Table 5 for details.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
49
Table 5
Initial equivalence of classes
Class I
Class II
Class III
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
p
Age (yrs)
20.84 1.31
20.25 1.42
20.94 1.47
.263
2
BMI (kg/m )
23.31 2.91
25.10 5.19
22.54 2.36
.131
Exercise time (min/week) 224
219
336
220
301
217
.262
Pre-exercise POMS T-scores
Tension
42.67 10.23
40.18 5.88
43.96 6.91
.346
Depression
42.51 9.37
39.61 3.62
42.41 5.72
.301
Anger
46.39 10.65
41.24 4.52
50.46 9.48
.007*
Vigor
44.39 9.77
43.72 8.14
49.42 8.04
.142
Fatigue
46.03 9.64
41.68 6.57
47.82 8.40
.074
Confusion
43.05 6.29
39.44 4.70
43.26 7.05
.086
Pre-exercise TMD
25.21 32.91
11.68 15.77
27.07 26.17 .131
Post-exercise POMS T-scores
Tension
41.60 5.75
40.61 6.28
39.71 4.78
.645
Depression
41.73 8.56
38.45 2.69
40.59 3.84
.180
Anger
45.26 10.97
40.14 4.59
43.03 5.14
.102
Vigor
51.40 9.57
47.16 10.35
57.64 6.22
.007*
Fatigue
46.73 5.42
42.89 7.01
43.09 4.20
.087
Confusion
38.15 5.80
37.45 4.04
37.49 4.34
.880
Post-exercise TMD
15.74 24.83
7.27
17.94
4.43
13.42 .221
1
PACES (Trait)
94.37 14.73
93.45 16.21
106.64 16.61 .040*
1
PACES (State)
90.11 15.30
93.55 18.39
94.36 11.11 .696
2
AVG %HRR
77.72 11.97
78.50 8.03
77.99 11.82 .972
2
AVG RPE
12.95 1.79
12.21 1.48
11.96 1.08
.151
1
2
Note. PACES-trait and PACES-state scores range: 18-126. Data included 53 of 55
participants, incomplete data for one participant from Class II and one participant from Class
III. AVG = average; * p < .05.
50
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Descriptive Data of Preferred Exercise Intensity in College Students
One purpose of this study was to examine the preferred exercise intensity which
college students selected when they jogged for 15 minutes. Therefore, the descriptive data of
preferred exercise intensity were calculated to define the preferred exercise intensity of
college students in this study.
Preferred exercise intensity level was represented by the %HRR and RPE in this
study. See Table 6 for the ranges, 95% confidence intervals, and mean %HRR and RPE for
each class and total participants. According to Borg's 6-20 rating scale of perceived exertion
(Borg, 1998), score of 11 represents light, and score of 13 represents somewhat hard. In this
study, participants reported their RPE between light and somewhat hard.
Table 6
Range, 95% CI, and mean %HRR and RPE
%HRR
Class
Range
95% CI
M
Class I
57.0-94.8 72.0-83.5 77.72
Class II 62.6-90.4 74.8-82.2 78.50
Class III 56.7-92.1 70.8-85.1 77.99
Total
56.7-94.8 75.2-80.9 78.10
Note. CI = confidence interval. N = 53.
RPE
SD
Range
95% CI
11.97 8.13-15.67 12.09-13.82
8.03 9.31-15.57 11.53-12.88
11.82 10.09-13.64 11.31-12.61
10.33 8.13-15.67 11.99-12.84
M
12.95
12.21
11.96
12.41
SD
1.79
1.48
1.08
1.55
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
51
Mood Changes Before and After Exercise: Hypothesis #1
To test the first hypothesis that exercisers would report desirable mood changes after
15 minutes of jogging, a 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Sex) with
repeated-measures MANOVA on the vector of the six POMS subscales was performed. A 2
(Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Sex) with repeated-measures ANOVA on
TMD scores also was performed. Testing time (pre- and post-exercise) was a within-subjects
variable, and class and sex were between-subjects variables.
Results of MANOVA on the six POMS subscales showed there was an interaction
between Time (pre- and post-exercise), Class, and Sex [Wilks's Λ =.606, F(12, 88) = 2.090, p
= .025, η2 = .222]. Since the three-way interaction was significant, follow-up analyses for
each class were conducted in a 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 2 (Sex) with
repeated-measures MANOVA on the vector of the six POMS subscales.
For the Class I, result of the MANOVA indicated that there was no significant
interaction between Time and Sex [Wilks's Λ =.611, F(6, 12) = 1.272, p = .339, η2 = .389].
There was no evidence that Sex was related to mood changes [Wilks's Λ =.696, F(6, 12)
=.874, p = .541, η2 = .304]. The main effect for Time was significant [Wilks's Λ =.268, F(6,
12) = 5.476, p = .006, η2 = .732]. In support of the hypothesis, both males and females in this
class reported significant mood changes after exercise. For the main effect of the Time,
follow-up univariate tests were performed to examine each of the individual POMS subscales.
Results indicated that exercisers reported significant increases in Vigor (F = 7.123, p = .016,
Cohen's d = .745) and decreases in Confusion (F = 18.078, p = .001, Cohen's d = .832). Mood
52
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
changes for other POMS subscales were not significant (p > .700). See Figure 2 for pre- and
post-exercise mood scores.
60
POMS T-scores
55
50
Pre-ex
Post-ex
45
40
35
T
D
A
V*
F
C*
Figure 2. Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores for Class I. n = 19.
For the Class II, results of the MANOVA indicated that there was no interaction
between Time and Sex [Wilks's Λ =.660, F(6, 15) = 1.291, p = .320, η2 = .340], and the main
effect for Sex was not significant [Wilks's Λ =.620, F(6, 15) = 1.531, p = .235, η2 = .380].
Time was significant [Wilks's Λ =.347, F(6, 15) = 4.712, p = .007, η2 = .653]. For each main
effect of six POMS subscales, follow-up univariate tests for the POMS subscales were
applied to examine the significance of the differences using the appropriate multivariate
criterion. Results indicated that the decreases in Depression, Anger, and Confusion were
significant (F = 6.992, p = .016, Cohen's d =.422; F = 7.052, p = .015, Cohen's d = .247; F =
13.090, p = .002, Cohen's d = .465), respectively. Mood changes for other POMS subscales
were nonsignificant (p > .700). See Figure 3 for pre- and post-exercise mood scores.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
53
60
POMS T-scores
55
50
Pre-ex
Post-ex
45
40
35
T
D*
A*
V
F
C*
Figure 3. Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores for Class II. n = 22.
For the Class III, the MANOVA results indicated that there was an interaction
between Time and Sex [Wilks's Λ =.231, F(6, 7) = 3.888, p = .049, η2 = .769]. Therefore,
one-way MANOVAs for males and females were conducted on the pre- and post-exercise
factor on the vector of the six POMS subscales. For men, there were no significant effects of
Time on mood alteration [Wilks's Λ =.256, F(6, 2) = .970, p = .588, η2 = .744]. The pre- and
post-exercise mood changes, however, were in desirable directions (See Table 4.4 and Figure
4.3). For women, Time was significant [Wilks's Λ =.000, F(5, 1) = 1515.465, p = .019, η2 =
1.000]. Follow-up univariate tests for the women's individual POMS subscales were
employed to examine the influence of exercise on the subscales using the appropriate
multivariate criterion. Results indicated that the decreases in Tension, Fatigue, and Confusion
were significant (F = 11.645, p = .019; F = 27.234, p = .003; F = 6.815, p = .048,
respectively). In addition, the increase in Vigor was significant (F = 18.116, p = .008). There
was no evidence of mood changes for the other POMS subscales (p > .300). See Figure 4 and
Figure 5 for pre- and post-exercise mood scores on men and women. See Table 7 and 8 for
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
the mean POMS scores of pre- and post-exercise in Class I, II, and III.
60
POMS T-scores
55
50
Pre-ex
Post-ex
45
40
35
T
D
A
V
F
C
Figure 4. Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores for men of Class III. n = 8.
60
POMS T-scores
55
50
Pre-ex
Post-ex
45
40
35
T*
D
A
V*
F*
C*
Figure 5. Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores for women of Class III. n = 6.
54
55
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Table 7
Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores in Class I and II
Pre
Mood
M
Tension
42.67
Class I
SD
M
Post
SD
M
Pre
Class II
SD
Post
SD
M
10.23 41.60
5.75
40.18
Depression 42.51
9.37
8.56
39.61* 3.62 38.45* 2.69
Anger
46.39
10.65 45.26
10.97
41.24* 4.52 40.14* 4.59
Vigor
44.39* 9.77
51.40* 9.57
43.72
8.14 47.16
10.35
Fatigue
46.03
46.73
41.68
6.57 42.89
7.01
Confusion
43.05* 6.29
41.73
9.64
5.42
38.15* 5.80
5.88 40.61
6.28
39.44* 4.70 37.45* 4.04
Note. * p < .05 when comparing pre- and post-exercise POMS scores.
Table 8
Pre- and post-exercise POMS scores for men and women of Class III
Pre
Male
SD
M
Post
SD
Mood
M
Tension
42.53 6.21 41.52 4.33
M
Pre
Female
SD
M
Post
SD
45.86* 7.90 37.30* 4.58
Depression 43.05 5.50 40.31 2.03
41.55
6.43 40.96
5.68
Anger
51.62 9.66 43.85 4.07
48.92
9.88 41.94
6.55
Vigor
50.23 9.30 55.91 7.33
48.33* 6.70 59.95* 3.76
Fatigue
45.66 8.16 43.27 3.72
50.69* 8.55 42.84* 5.13
Confusion
41.97 6.79 38.77 5.23
44.97* 7.64 36.49* 5.87
Note. * p < .05 when comparing pre- and post-exercise POMS scores.
Results of the ANOVA on TMD scores showed there was no interaction between
Time, Class, and Sex [Wilks's Λ =.925, F(2, 49) = 1.976, p = .149, η2 = .075]. Time and Class
interaction was significant [Wilks's Λ =.859, F(2, 49) = 4.023, p = .024, η2 = .141], while
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
56
Time and Sex interaction was not significant [Wilks's Λ =.934, F(1, 49) = 3.473, p = .068, η2
= .066]. Therefore, the follow-up analyses for each class were conducted in a one-way
repeated-measure ANOVA on TMD scores.
For the Class I, results of the ANOVA indicated that decrease of TMD scores did not
approach the significant level [Wilks's Λ =.849, F(1, 18) = 3.194, p = .091, η2 = .151]. For the
Class II, there was no significant decrease on TMD scores after exercise [Wilks's Λ =.921,
F(1, 21) = 1.807, p = .193, η2 = .079]. For the Class III, TMD scores significantly decreased
after exercise [Wilks's Λ =.488, F(1, 13) = 13.620, p = .003, η2 = .512]. See Table 9 for
means and standard deviation of TMD scores on the POMS. See Figure 6 for pre- and
post-exercise TMD scores on each class.
Table 9
Means and standard deviation of TMD scores
Class (N)
Pre-exercise TMD
M
SD
Post-exercise TMD
M
SD
Class I (19)
25.21
32.91
15.74 24.83
Class II (22)
11.68
15.77
7.27
26.17
4.43* 13.42
Class III (14) 27.07*
Note. * p < .05.
17.94
57
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
30
25
TMD scores
20
Class I
15
Class II
Class III
10
5
0
Pre
Post
Figure 6. Pre- and post-exercise TMD scores for each Class. TMD scores
significantly decreased only in Class III.
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment Trait: Hypothesis #2
To test the second hypothesis that participants who report higher exercise enjoyment
trait scores would have more desirable mood changes, a 2 (Time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3
(Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment-Trait level: high and low) with repeated-measures
MANOVA on the six subscales of POMS scores was performed. Also, a 2 (Time: pre- and
post-exercise) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment-Trait level: high and low) with
repeated-measures ANOVA on the TMD scores was performed. Time was a within-subjects
variable, and Class and Exercise Enjoyment Trait level were between-subjects variables.
Based on a median split of scores, low exercise enjoyment trait scores ranged from 65 to 100,
and the mean score was 83.54 (SD = 10.19); High exercise enjoyment trait scores ranged
from 101 to 126, and the mean score was 111.22 (SD = 7.28). See Table 10.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
58
Table 10
Exercise enjoyment trait level, range, mean, standard deviation, and number of subjects
Level Range
M
SD
n
Low
65-100
83.54
10.19 28
High
101-126 111.22 7.28
27
Note. N = 55
Analysis of the results of a MANOVA on the six POMS subscales indicated that
there were no evidence for an interaction between Time (pre- and post-exercise), Class, and
Exercise Enjoyment Trait level [Wilks's Λ =.725, F(12, 88) = 1.279, p = .246, η2 = .148]. In
addition, there was no evidence for an interaction between Time and Exercise Enjoyment
Trait level [Wilks's Λ =.919, F(6, 44) = .649, p = .691, η2 = .081]. Also, the univariate tests of
the interactions between Time and Exercise Enjoyment Trait level indicated that there were
no significant interactions between each of the six POMS subscales and Exercise Enjoyment
Trait level (Tension: F= .081, p = .777; Depression: F= .007, p = .935; Anger: F= .741, p
= .393; Vigor: F= .662, p = .420; Fatigue: F= .829, p = .367; Confusion: F= .405, p = .528).
Thus, the trait measure of exercise enjoyment did not seem to be related to mood changes
(reflected by the six POMS subscales) after 15 minutes of jogging.
Results of the ANOVA performed on TMD scores showed there was no support for
an interaction between Time, Class, and Exercise Enjoyment Trait level [Wilks's Λ =.978, F(2,
49) = .545, p = .583, η2 = .022]. In addition, there was no evidence for an interaction between
Time and Exercise Enjoyment Trait level [Wilks's Λ =.995, F(1, 49) = .240, p = .627, η2
= .005]. These analyses on TMD scores further support a lack of relationship between the
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
59
trait measure of exercise enjoyment and mood changes.
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment State: Hypothesis #3
To test the third hypothesis that participants who report higher exercise enjoyment
state scores would have more desirable mood changes, a 2 (time: pre- and post-exercise) × 3
(class) × 2 (exercise enjoyment state level: high and low) with repeated-measures MANOVA
on the six subscales of POMS scores was performed. Also, a 2 (time: pre- and post-exercise)
× 3 (class) × 2 (exercise enjoyment state level: high and low) with repeated-measures
ANOVA on the TMD scores was performed. Time (pre- and post-exercise) was a
within-subjects variable. Class and Exercise Enjoyment State level were between-subjects
variables. The range of low exercise enjoyment level was 60 to 93, and the mean score was
80.11 (SD = 9.46); the range of high exercise enjoyment level was 94 to 126, and the mean
score was 105.48 (SD = 8.40). See Table 11.
Table 11
Exercise enjoyment state level, range, mean, standard deviation, and number of subjects
Level Range
M
SD
Low
60-93
80.11
9.46 28
High
94-126 105.48 8.40 27
Note. N = 55.
n
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
60
Results of MANOVA on the six POMS subscales indicated that there were no
evidence for an interaction between Time (pre- and post-exercise), Class, and Exercise
Enjoyment State level [Wilks's Λ =.834, F(12, 88) = .696, p = .751, η2 = .087]. In addition,
there was no evidence for an interaction between Time and Exercise Enjoyment State level
[Wilks's Λ =.962, F(6, 44) = .291, p = .938, η2 = .038]. The univariate tests of the interactions
between Time and Exercise Enjoyment State level indicated that there were no significant
interactions between each of the six POMS subscales and Exercise Enjoyment State level
(Tension: F= .088, p = .768; Depression: F= .095, p = .759; Anger: F= .011, p = .915; Vigor:
F= 1.406, p = .241; Fatigue: F= .009, p = .923; Confusion: F= .478, p = .493). Thus, the state
measure of exercise enjoyment did not seem to be associated with mood changes after 15
minutes of jogging.
Results of the ANOVA on the TMD scores showed there was no support for an
interaction between Time (pre- and post-exercise), Class, and Exercise Enjoyment State level
[Wilks's Λ =.977, F(2, 49) = .582, p = .562, η2 = .023]. In addition, there was no evidence for
an interaction between Time and Exercise Enjoyment State level [Wilks's Λ =.991, F(1, 49)
= .436, p = .512, η2 = .009]. These analyses on TMD scores further support a lack of
relationship between the state measure of exercise enjoyment and mood changes.
Comparison of Preferred Exercise Intensity in Male and Female Students: Hypothesis #4
To test the fourth hypothesis that female students would choose lower exercise
intensities as their preferred intensities than male students, a 2 (Sex) × 3 (Class) ANOVA on
the mean %HRR was performed. Results of ANOVA indicated there was no evidence of
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
61
interaction between Sex and Class [F (2, 47) = .682, p = .510, partial η2 = .028]. Also, the
main effect for Class was not significant [F (2, 47) = .021, p = .979, partial η2 = .001]. There
was a significant main effect for Sex, F (1, 47) = 4.143, p = .047, partial η2 = .081, with
female students (M = 80.8%, SD = 7.1%) reporting significantly higher exercise intensities as
their preferred intensities than male students (M = 75.5%, SD = 12.3%).
In additional, a 2 (Sex) × 3 (Class) ANOVA on the RPE was performed. Results of
ANOVA indicated there was no evidence of an interaction between Sex and Class [F (2, 47)
= .246, p = .783, partial η2 = .010]. Also, the main effect for Class was not significant [F (2,
47) = 1.843, p = .170, partial η2 = .073]. There was no significant main effect for Sex [F (1,
47) = .005, p = .942, partial η2 = .000]. Thus, there was no evidence that male students (M =
12.396, SD = .305) and female students (M = 12.364, SD = .316) differed on RPE.
Characteristic of Preferred Exercise Intensity for College Students: Hypothesis #5
To test the fifth hypothesis that more college students would choose a moderate
intensity rather than a hard or light intensity level when exercising at a preferred exercise
intensity level, a 2 (Sex) × 5 (Exercise Intensity: very light, light, moderate, hard, and very
hard) Chi-Square Test of Independence on participants' heart rate reserve was conducted.
Results of the Chi-Square Test indicated that the relationship between Sex and Exercise
Intensity level was not significant [χ2 (2, N = 53) = .638, p = .603, Cramer's V = .603]. The
follow-up analysis was a Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test, combining male and female
students. The Goodness of Fit Test showed there was a significant difference when students
chose their own preferred exercise intensities [χ2 (2, N = 53) = 24.038, p = .000]. The
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
62
percentages of students who chose to exercise at the moderate, hard, and very hard exercise
intensities were 7.5%, 62.3%, and 30.2%, respectively. This indicated that no students chose
to exercise at very light and light exercise intensity. See Table 4.8 for details.
A 2 (sex) × 5 (Exercise Intensity: very light, light, moderate, hard, and very hard)
Chi-Square Test on participants' RPE also was performed. Results of the Chi-Square Test
indicated that the relationship between Sex and Exercise Intensity level was not significant
[χ2 (2, N = 53) = .638, p = .888, Cramer's V = .888]. The follow-up analysis was a Chi-Square
Goodness of Fit Test, combining male and female students. Results showed there was a
significant difference when all students RPE's were analyzed together [χ2 (2, N = 53) =
25.415, p = .000]. The percentages of students who reported the very light, light, moderate,
and hard exercise intensity using RPE were 13.2%, 47.2%, 35.8%, and 3.8%, respectively;
and no students reported their RPE as very hard. See Table 12 for details.
Table 12
Percent of college students who chose their preferred exercise intensity levels into five
categories
Level
%HRR
RPE
Very Light
0%
13.2%
Light
0%
47.2%
Moderate
7.5%
35.8%
Hard
62.3%
3.8%
Very Hard
30.2%
0%
Note. N = 53.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
63
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
One purpose of this study was to examine mood changes when participants exercise
at their preferred intensity levels. Two additional purposes were to investigate the relationship
between mood changes and exercise enjoyment (state and trait exercise enjoyment). Two
final purposes were to examine the characteristics of the preferred intensity and to investigate
possible sex differences of the preferred intensity in college students.
Based on the study purposes, the specific five hypotheses were: (1) participants who
exercise at a preferred exercise intensity level will report positive mood changes after 15
minutes of jogging; (2) participants who report higher exercise enjoyment trait scores will
have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise enjoyment trait scores; (3)
participants who report higher exercise enjoyment state scores after 15 minutes of jogging
will have more desirable mood changes than who report lower exercise enjoyment state
scores; (4) Female students will choose lower intensities as their preferred intensities than
males; (5) college students will choose a moderate intensity, rather than a high or a low
intensity level as their preferred exercise intensity. Using a field test design, all participants
completed the exercise activities in the regularly scheduled jogging classes.
Significant Mood Changes Before and After Exercise
Exercise participants who selected their own exercise intensity levels reported
desirable mood changes after 15 minutes of jogging. Although significant changes were not
found in all subscales of POMS scores for each of the three classes, the pre- and post-exercise
mood changes were in desirable directions. These results support the hypothesis proposed.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
64
Differential Mood Changes in Each of the Three Classes
Students in PEG-jogging classes "felt better" after exercising at their preferred
intensity levels than before. However, students reported desirable mood changes on different
POMS subscales for each class. In Class I, students reported decreases in Confusion and
increases in Vigor after 15 minutes of jogging. In Class II, students reported decreases in
Depression, Anger and Confusion. In Class III, female students reported decreases in Tension,
Fatigue, and Confusion and increases in Vigor, but mood states did not change significantly
for male students. Students in each class reported desirable mood changes on different POMS
subscales.
Sex differences on the six POMS subscales were found in Class III. Female students
reported significant decreases in Tension, Fatigue, and Confusion, and increases in Vigor.
However, there were no significant changes on mood after exercise for male students,
although the mean scores on the each POMS subscales changed in the hypothesized direction.
These findings support previous study. Women have reported lower scores on post-exercise
negative mood (including Tension, Depression, Anger, and Confusion) and exhaustion
(including Fatigue and Vigor) than men (Rocheleau et al., 2004). According to this study,
female students reported greater mood benefits than male students in Class III. However, sex
differences on mood states were only found in Class III. Due to the small sample size of
Class III (n = 14), results of sex differences should be explained carefully.
Multiple Influences on the Relationship Between Exercise and Mood Changes
Although mood benefits have been reported in this study, significant mood changes
were not found in all six subscales of POMS scores for each of the three classes. In this study,
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
65
students exercised at 78.1% of HRR when they were able to choose their exercise intensities.
Therefore, selecting a hard exercise intensity level (60-84% of HRR) as preferred exercise
intensity may influence the significant mood changes in all six subscales of POMS after
exercise.
As discussed in the literature review section, both low and moderate exercise
intensity levels were associated with desirable mood changes (Berger & Owen, 1998; Lind,
Ekkekakis, & Vazou, 2008; Parfitt, Rose, & Maekland, 2000). However, there was no
evidence of acute mood improvements when exercising at an extremely high exercise
intensity level (Berger & Motl, 2000; Hall, Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2002). It is possible that
mood benefits were not found in all six POMS subscales, because students exercised at a high
exercise intensity level (78.1% of HRR).
The personal goals of attending a PEG-jogging class and the effects of social
comparison may lead students to select a hard exercise intensity level (78.1% of HRR) as
their preferred intensity. Students attended a PEG-jogging class in order to achieve their
personal goals, such as weight loss, or fitness and health benefits. To achieve these goals,
students may believe that they have to exercise at a high intensity level. Additionally, students
tried to compete with other students, since all participants exercised together in this study. As
a consequence, students tended to exercise at a high intensity level rather than a preferred
intensity level. Therefore, significant mood changes were not found in all six subscales of
POMS scores for each of the three classes may be caused by a high exercise intensity level,
and a high exercise intensity level might be caused by the person goals and the effects of
social comparison.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
66
The Sufficient Jogging Duration for Desirable Mood Changes: 15 Minutes
The findings of this study further support previous studies. Desirable mood changes
have been reported in many other studies, when participants exercised at their preferred
exercise intensity levels for 20 minutes (Szabo, 2003; Rendi et al., 2008). For instance, Szabo
(2003) found that college students reported positive mood changes after 20 minutes of
jogging at their preferred exercise intensity levels. In another study of 20 minutes of jogging
(Szabo, 2003), female students exercised on a treadmill for 20 minutes at their preferred
paces. Mood benefits were found after comparing pre- and post-exercise POMS scores. In
another study, 80 participants were divided into a cycling and a running group (Rendi et al.,
2008). Mood states were significantly improved in both exercise groups after 20 minutes of
exercise at their self-selected workload. These studies indicated that participants have
reported significantly desirable mood changes after 20 minutes of jogging at a preferred
exercise intensity level. In the present study, college students have reported desirable mood
changes after 15 minutes of jogging at their preferred exercise intensity levels. These results
provide additional information to the previous studies. The findings of this study indicated
that a 15 minutes of jogging duration was sufficient to obtain desirable mood changes, when
participants jogged at their preferred exercise intensity levels.
Desirable Mood Changes in A Naturalistic Setting
In this study, students reported mood benefits after exercising for 15 minutes in a
class setting, rather than a laboratory setting. Contrary to this study, several studies have
discovered mood benefits after exercising at a preferred intensity level in a laboratory
(Ekkekakis & Lind., 2006; Lind et al., 2008; Parfitt et al., 2006; Rendi et al., 2008). Very few
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
67
studies have examined desirable mood changes after exercise in a naturalistic setting
(DaSilva et al., 2011; Szabo, 2003). Since the external validity may be questionable in a
laboratory setting, the findings of this study provide further supports to the previous studies
when participants exercised at a preferred intensity level in a naturalistic setting.
Decrease in TMD Scores
Results of this study showed that exercisers' TMD scores significantly decreased
only in Class III. Although TMD scores have not significantly changed after exercise in Class
I and Class II, the pre- and post-exercise TMD scores changed in desirable directions. A
possible explanation is that TMD scores were combined by summing the raw scores for the
five negative mood subscales (Tension, Depression, Anger, Fatigue, and Confusion), and
subtracting the raw scores for Vigor, which means six subscales of POMS combined into one
TMD score (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992). Therefore, loss of variability on data (i.e.,
mood scores) after combining six subscales of POMS may be a reason why that decreases in
TMD scores were not significant in Class I and II. The use of POMS subscales is highly
recommended in future studies.
Characteristic of Preferred Exercise Intensity in College Students
In this study, the ranges of preferred exercise intensity chosen by college students
were 75.2 to 80.9% of HRR (95% of confidence interval). This range represents a hard
(vigorous) exercise intensity level which ranges between 60 and 84% of HRR (ACSM, 2010,
p.5). According to ACSM (2010, pp. 166-167), this range meets the requirement to obtain
fitness and health benefits in regular exercisers. Therefore, mood benefits and fitness and
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
68
health benefits can be achieved when jogging at a preferred intensity level in college
students.
In the present study, when students were able to choose their exercise intensities, the
mean %HRR was 78.1% and the mean RPE was 12.41. The rating of RPE was equivalent
between "light" (11) and "somewhat hard" (13) on a 6 to 20 Borg's (1998) scale. Similar
results of preferred exercise intensity level have been discussed by Glass and Chvala (2001).
They examined three different types of exercise: treadmill, cycle ergometer, and stair-stepper
for 20 minutes at preferred levels of exertion. Results of exercise intensity for each type of
exercise were 74.8, 80, and 80.2% of HRR, respectively. The average RPE were 12.5, 12.6,
and 12.8, respectively.
However, the preferred exercise intensity level was lower in the exercise of walking
(Ekkekakis et al., 2000; Grant et al., 2002). Ekkekakis and colleagues (2000) found when
participants were able to adjust the speed of walking on the treadmill for 15 minutes,
their %HRR was 22%, and RPE was 9.9 at 8th minute. In a 10-minute walking session which
participants were free to adjust the speed, Ekkekakis and colleagues (2000) discovered that
their average exercise intensity level was 20% of HRR, and RPE was 9.6 at the end of
walking session. In another study of walking exercise (Grant et al., 2002), 12 participants
who were regular exercisers walked on an indoor track for 18 minutes at a comfortable pace.
The average exercise intensity was 60% of HRmax, 52% of VO2peak, and RPE was 10.
These results indicated that participants exercised (walk) at a light intensity level (20-39% of
HRR; 50-63% of HRmax) as their preferred exercise intensities. However, it seems that
students preferred a hard exercise intensity level (60-84% of HRR) rather than the other
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
69
exercise intensity levels in this study.
Comparing Preferred Exercise Intensity in %HRR and RPE
According to the results of this study, when participants were able to choose their own
exercise intensity levels, 62.3% of participants' heart rates ranged from 60 to 84% of HRR,
and 30.2% of participants' heart rates were over 85% of HRR. Thus 92.5% of participants'
exercise intensity levels were hard (62.3%) or very hard (30.2%). This result indicated that
participants chose a higher exercise intensity level (reflected by %HRR) than a moderate
exercise intensity level.
On the other hand, when asking participants to rate their level of perceived exertion,
83% of participants believed that their exercise intensity levels were light (47.2%) or
moderate (35.8%). Hence, results suggested that participants reported lower perceived
exercise intensity levels (reflected by RPE) compared to a physiologically based measure of
exercise intensity (reflected by %HRR) in a 15-minute jogging session.
It is interesting that students reported their ratings of perceived exertion lower than
their exercise intensity as reflected by %HRR. A possible explanation is misunderstanding of
RPE. Students did not completely understand that RPE is related to heart rates. For example,
if a person's heart rate is 130 beats/min during exercise, his/her RPE should be number 13
(Borg, 1998). In this study, students may underestimate their RPE, and did not relate their
RPE to heart rates. Therefore, a practice session of connecting RPE to actual heart rate should
be added in future study. Another explanation is the effects of social comparison. Students
may tend to report lower RPE than their actual perceived exertion, because they RPE verbally
in public. Since their classmates may hear their RPE, students may tend to report lower RPE
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
70
to impressive their classmates. In addition, because students exercised in a class setting, they
may be distracted by other students, instructors, researchers and the environment around them.
Therefore, students may not concentrate on their total, inner feeling of exertion. As a
consequence, students may underestimate their RPE.
Possible Sex Differences in Selecting Preferred Exercise Intensity
In the present study, female students selected a significantly higher level of exercise
intensity (80.8% of HRR) as their preferred intensity levels than male students (75.5% of
HRR). Although this result was contrary to the hypothesis, it supports the findings of
Browning, Baker, Herron, and Kram (2006) in a study comparing sex differences on
preferred exercise intensity between obese and normal weight participants. When participants
walked the same distance at a comfortable walking pace, obese female participants exercised
at a higher (50% of VO2max) intensity than obese male participants (40% of VO2max).
Normal-weight female participants also exercised at a higher (36% VO2max) intensity than
normal-weight male participants (25% of VO2max).
In a previous study of exercising at a preferred intensity level (DaSilva et al., 2011),
men self-selected a faster speed than women, however, their exercise intensity levels
(reflected by %HRR) were not significantly different. In the study, each participant exercised
individually. In this study, college students exercised together in the classes. According to
social comparison theory, people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing to others
(Festinger, 1954). A possible explanation which requires further study is female students
exercising at a higher intensity (reflected by %HRR) results from the effects of social
comparison. When male and female students exercise together, female students may compare
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
71
their jogging speed with the speed of male students, and try to maintain the same speeds.
Therefore, the step frequency for female students is very likely to be higher than male
students, since male students (M = 179.84, SD = 8.70) were taller than female students (M =
165.14, SD = 5.86). As a consequence, female students might be exercising more intense than
male students when they exercised together in this study.
Results of RPE in this study indicated that female (M = 12.36, SD = .32) and male (M
= 12.40, SD = .31) students reported similar level of perceived exertion (RPE) levels when
they exercised at a self-selected intensity. This result supports the previous study. DaSilva and
colleagues (2011) also found male and female participants were not different in RPE when
they walked at a self-selected pace. Although female students exercised at a higher intensity
as reflected by %HRR than male students in this study, they reported similar levels of
perceived exertion. According to social comparison theory, it is possible that female students
tended to report lower ratings of perceived exertion to compete with male students, because
all participants reported their RPE verbally when they passed by the researchers.
In conclusion, the effects of social comparison may influence the results of selecting
preferred exercise intensity (both reflected by %HRR and RPE), when college students
exercised together and reported their RPE verbally in public. In further study, participants
should be examined individually to avoid the effects of social comparison on selecting
preferred exercise intensity.
Relationship of Mood Changes and Exercise Enjoyment
Contrary to the hypothesis proposed, there was no support for the relationship
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
72
between exercise enjoyment (both trait and state) and mood changes after a single exercise
session. Therefore, desirable mood changes occurred after 15 minutes of jogging regardless
of a person's level of exercise enjoyment (low or high).
In contrary to the findings of this study, Motl et al. (2000) found exercise enjoyment
was associated to decreases in Tension and Depression, and to an increase in Vigor. Another
study (Raedeke, 2007) indicated that exercise enjoyment was related to increases in Vigor,
but unrelated to changes in negative mood. In the rock-climbing study (Motl et al., 2000),
data analysis on the relationship between exercise enjoyment and mood alteration was a
canonical correlation analysis. On the other hand, Raedeke (2007) have performed several
partial correlation analyses to examine the relationship between exercise enjoyment and
mood changes. In the present study, exercise enjoyment scores were divided into two levels
(high and low) based on a median split procedure. Then, a 2 (Time) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise
Enjoyment level: high and low) with repeated-measures MANOVA on the six POMS
subscales and a 2 (Time) × 3 (Class) × 2 (Exercise Enjoyment level: high and low) with
repeated-measures ANOVA on the TMD scores were conducted to examine the relationship
between exercise enjoyment and mood changes. Therefore, a lack of relationship between
exercise enjoyment and mood changes in this study may be caused by the different data
analysis.
Specifically, Motl and colleagues (2000) have employed a canonical correlation
analysis to examine the relationship between exercise enjoyment scores and difference scores
on the six POMS subscales. Similarly, Raedeke (2007) have conducted several partial
correlations between difference scores on each POMS subscale and exercise enjoyment
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
73
scores. Difference scores were calculated by subtracting post-test from pre-test subscales
scores. In both studies (Motl et al., 2000; Raedeke, 2007), original exercise enjoyment scores
(i.e., 18-126) were employed to examine the relationship of exercise enjoyment and mood
changes. In the present study, exercise enjoyment scores were divided into only two levels
(low and high) rather than the original scores. Therefore, loss of variability on exercise
enjoyment scores may explain the reason why there was no sufficient evidence showing the
relationship between exercise enjoyment and mood changes exists.
In conclusion, it is possible that the differences of data analyses may influence the
result of the relationship between exercise enjoyment and mood changes. A canonical
correlation analysis can be performed to examine the relationship of exercise enjoyment and
mood changes in future studies.
Limitations
First possible limitation was the generalizability of this study to all college students.
This research was conducted in the PEG-jogging classes at Bowling Green State University.
There were two class sessions per week, and the duration of each class session was 50
minutes. Participants had taken six weeks of classes before this study started. Also, students
self-reported their exercise time was 288.27 minutes per week. Therefore, the college
students in this study can be considered physically active. Results may differ in the college
students who are not physically active. Results of this study should be interpreted carefully
when applied to all college students.
Second possible limitation was that social effects may have occurred in this study.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
74
Students had taken the PEG-jogging classes twice a week for six weeks, since this study
began at the seventh week of the fall semester. They were familiar with each other. Because
students exercised and completed the questionnaires together, it was difficult to avoid social
effects between participants. For example, there were two female students who jogged
together during the testing session, and they reported similar RPE. In this case, they may not
have chosen their own preferred exercise intensity, but chose an intensity level adjusted to
both of them. In addition, when they jogged with each other, their mood changes were not
only influenced by exercise but may also have been influenced by the other person. In
addition, the effects of social comparison may influence the results of preferred exercise
intensity levels and mood changes. Because this study was a class setting design, all students
exercised on the track together, they may evaluate and adjust their exercise intensity by
comparing to others.
Third possible limitation was the effectiveness of the RPE orientation. Since students
may lack of understanding of relationship between RPE and heart rates, an additional practice
session for connecting RPE and heart rates should be added.
Conclusions
The present study examined (1) mood changes after a single exercise session, (2) the
relationship between exercise enjoyment and mood alteration, (3) characteristic of preferred
exercise intensity in college students.
The major findings were as follows. First, desirable mood changes occurred when
participants exercised at their preferred intensity levels for 15 minutes. Second, there was no
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
75
support for the relationship between exercise enjoyment as measured by state and trait
inventories and extent of mood changes after exercising. Third, female students tended to
exercise at a higher intensity level as reflected by %HRR than did male students when they
were able to choose their exercise intensity levels. However, no difference was found for RPE
reported by male and female students. Forth, college students exercised at a hard or very hard
exercise intensity level rather than a moderate exercise intensity level. Additionally, college
students reported their RPE in a light or moderate exercise intensity level.
The findings of this study have important implications for preferred exercise
intensity in college students. Firstly, college students met the exercise intensity requirement
of ACSM (2010) to achieve fitness and health benefits when they were able to choose their
preferred exercise intensity levels. In addition, the effects of social comparison should be
taken into account in future studies, when participants exercise together at a preferred
intensify level, since it may influence the results of people choosing their preferred intensity
levels. Finally, rating of perceived exertion should be explained carefully to participants, and
a training session should be added to practice connecting RPE and heart rates in further study.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
76
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Appendix A: General Information Questionnaire
Instruction: Read each of the following questions carefully and indicate the BEST response.
Be sure to respond to EACH item.
1. Gender (F/M)______
2. Birthday (mm/yyyy)________
3. I am a (circle one)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Freshmen
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Graduate student
Other
4. My ethnicity is (circle one)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Caucasian/European
Asian/Pacific Islander
African-American
Middle Easterner
Latino/Hispanic
American Indian/Alaskan Native/Hawaii Native
Other________
5. My weight _________pounds; my height _________inches.
6. How many days per week, and how many minutes on average per session have you
exercised in the past six months in your leisure time?
Days/week ________
Minutes/session ________
83
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Appendix B: Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire
84
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
85
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Appendix C: Profile of Mood States Inventory
86
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
87
Appendix D: Physical Activity Enjoyment Trait Scale
Please rate how you feel about most types of physical activity in general, most of the time.
Circle your response to each of the following items.
1. I enjoy it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I hate it
2. I feel bored
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I feel interested
3. I dislike it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I like it
4. I find it pleasurable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I find it unpleasurable
5. I am very absorbed in
this activity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I am not at all absorbed in
this activity
6. It’s not fun at all
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s a lot of fun
7. I find it energizing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I find it tiring
8. It makes me depressed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It makes me happy
9. It’s very pleasant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s unpleasant
10. I feel good physically
while doing it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I feel bad physically while
doing it
11. It’s very invigorating
invigorating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s very not at all
12. I am very frustrated
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I am not at all frustrated
13. It’s very gratifying
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all gratifying
14. It’s very exhilarating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all exhilarating
15. It’s not at all stimulating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s very stimulating
16. It gives me a strong
sense of accomplishment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It does not give me any
sense of accomplishment
17. It’s very refreshing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all refreshing
18. I felt as though I would
rather be doing something
else
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I felt as though there was
nothing else I would rather
be doing
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
88
Appendix E: Physical Activity Enjoyment State Scale
Please rate how you feel at the moment about the physical activity you have been done.
Circle your response to each of the following items.
1. I enjoy it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I hate it
2. I feel bored
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I feel interested
3. I dislike it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I like it
4. I find it pleasurable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I find it unpleasurable
5. I am very absorbed in
this activity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I am not at all absorbed in
this activity
6. It’s not fun at all
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s a lot of fun
7. I find it energizing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I find it tiring
8. It makes me depressed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It makes me happy
9. It’s very pleasant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s unpleasant
10. I feel good physically
while doing it
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I feel bad physically while
doing it
11. It’s very invigorating
invigorating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s very not at all
12. I am very frustrated
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I am not at all frustrated
13. It’s very gratifying
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all gratifying
14. It’s very exhilarating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all exhilarating
15. It’s not at all stimulating
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s very stimulating
16. It gives me a strong
sense of accomplishment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It does not give me any
sense of accomplishment
17. It’s very refreshing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
It’s not at all refreshing
18. I felt as though I would
rather be doing something
else
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I felt as though there was
nothing else I would rather
be doing
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89
Appendix F: Rating of Perceived Exertion
During the exercise test we want you to pay close attention to how hard you feel the exercise
work rate is. This feeling should reflect your total amount of exertion and fatigue, combining
all sensations and feelings of physical stress, effort, and fatigue. Don't concern yourself with
any one factor such as leg pain, shortness of breath or exercise intensity, but try to
concentrate on your total, inner feeling of exertion. Try not to underestimate or overestimate
your feelings of exertion; be as accurate as you can.
Choose the number that best describes your level of exertion.
6.
No exertion at all
7.
Extremely light
8.
9.
Very light
10.
11.
Light
12.
13.
Somewhat hard
14.
15.
Hard (heavy)
16.
17.
Very hard
18.
19.
Extremely hard
20.
Maximal exertion
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
90
Appendix G: Recruitment Script for Students
Subject Title: Relationship of Preferred Exercise Intensity on Mood States and Enjoyment in
College Students
Researcher: Yu Zhang, Graduate Student, School of HMSLS
Bonnie Berger, Ed. D., Professor, School of HMSLS
I am conducting a research study about the effects of exercise on how you feel. The
procedure of this study involves a series of questionnaires and a 15-minute session of
jogging/walking. Names will not be used, but I will ask you for some ID information. All the
research will be finished during the class periods, and will not intrude on your lives outside of
class.
The benefits of this study will be to provide information for designing exercise programs to
enhance your well-being. A specific advantage of participating in this project will be learning
how to use a heart rate monitor.
All data that you provide as a participant in this study will be confidential and will be kept in
a locked file cabinet in a locked room to protect your identity. Only the researchers will see
the data. Please note that any reference or identification of you is only through the testing ID
which you provide to me.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw consent and
terminate participation at any time during the study without any penalty in your PEG courses.
If you would like to participate in this study, please read the participant informed consent
form and sign it, and also complete the exercise questionnaire on the next page. If you are not
willing to participate in this study, please return this form back to me. Your decision to
participate or not participate in this study will have no impact on your grade in this class.
We appreciate your participation!
Thank you very much!
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Appendix H: Participant Informed Consent Form
Subject Title: The Effects of Exercise on How I Feel
Researcher: Yu Zhang, Graduate Student, School of HMSLS
Bonnie Berger, Ed. D., Professor, School of HMSLS
I have been asked to participate in a research study examining the effects of exercise on how I
feel. My involvement in this study includes filling out a series of questionnaires and one
15-minute session of jogging/walking in the PEG class. All the research will be finished
during the class periods, and will not intrude on my life outside of class.
All data that I provide as a participant in this study will be kept in a locked file cabinet in a
locked room to protect the confidentiality of my identity. Only the researchers will see the
data that I provide. It has been explained that any reference or identification of me is only
through the letters and numbers I provide on this form.
If I have any questions or concerns about this study, I may ask right now, or contact Yu Zhang,
[email protected] or Dr. Berger, [email protected]. I may also contact the Bowling Green State
University Human Subjects Review Board, [email protected], with questions or concerns about
my rights as a research participant.
My signature and return of this consent form indicates my consent to participate in this study
and that I have been informed of the following:
• I must be over the age of 18 in order to participate in this study,
• All information that I provide will be confidential,
• My decision to participate in this study is entirely voluntary and will have no impact
on my grades, class standing or relationship to BGSU in any way,
• The activities that will be requested of me: jogging/walking and completing
questionnaires,
• I may withdraw consent and terminate participation at any time during the study,
• A copy of this informed consent form will be provided to me, and
• Upon request, I will receive a summary of the findings of the study.
Signature: ______________________
Date: ______________________
Print Name: ____________________
First two letters of your mother’s first name ______
Last four digits of your telephone NO. ___________
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Appendix I: Form for Recording Resting Heart Rate
First two letters of your mother’s first name ______
Last four digits of your telephone NO. ___________
Heart Rate at 0'50" ___________
Heart Rate at 1'50" ___________
Heart Rate at 2'50" ___________
Heart Rate at 3'50" ___________
Heart Rate at 4'50" ___________
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PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
93
Appendix J: Script for using heart rate monitor
1. Use of heart rate monitors
The basic rationale for wearing a heart rate monitor while running or walking is to measure
heart rate. Heart rate is an indicator of exercise intensity. A heart rate monitor therefore
allows you to monitor and precisely control the intensity of your running. Beginning runners
often make the mistake of not sufficiently varying the intensity of their running. A heart rate
monitor can help you vary the intensity of your running appropriately.
2. How heart rate monitors works
The heart rate monitor includes three parts: the transmitter, the elastic strap, and the wrist
receiver. The transmitter detects your heart rate and transmits it to the wrist receiver. The
elastic strap holds the transmitter comfortably, yet firmly, in the correct position. The wrist
receiver displays your heart rate and other data during exercise. Enter your personal settings
into the receiver and analyze the exercise file after exercising.
3. How to wear the heart rate monitor
•
•
•
•
•
Attach the transmitter to the elastic strap.
Adjust the strap length to fit snugly and comfortably. Secure the strap around your chest,
just below the chest muscles, and buckle it.
Lift the transmitter off your chest and moisten the two grooved electrode areas on the
back.
Check that the wet electrode areas are firmly against your skin and Polar logo is in a
central, upright position.
Keep the wrist receiver within 3 feet/1 meter of your transmitter.
4. How to measure heart rate
•
•
•
Starting with the display showing the time of day, press OK (your heart rate appears in a
few seconds).
Press OK again. The stopwatch starts running. Your exercise data is now being recorded.
Press Stop twice to stop heart rate monitoring.
Attention: Be sure of the following
1. No one else using a heart rate monitor within 3 feet/1 meter.
2. Do not carry your mobile phones when you are using a heart monitor.
3. Researcher will show all the procedures of using heart rate monitor.
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Appendix K: Form for Recording Data During Exercise
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Form for Recording Data During Exercise
Testing ID
CL
Yellow A
Yellow B
Yellow C
Yellow D
Yellow E
Yellow F
Yellow G
Yellow H
Lap 1
Lap 2
Lap 3
Lap 4
Lap 5
HR (Pre-ex)
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
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Lap 6
Lap7
Lap 8
Lap 9
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
HR/RPE
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PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Appendix L: Human Subjects Review Board Approval Letter
96
DATE:
February 6, 2012
TO:
FROM:
Yu Zhang
Bowling Green State University Human Subjects Review Board
PROJECT TITLE:
SUBMISSION TYPE:
[292351-3] Relationship of preferred exercise intensity to mood state and
enjoyment in college students
Revision
ACTION:
APPROVAL DATE:
EXPIRATION DATE:
REVIEW TYPE:
APPROVED
February 1, 2012
January 9, 2013
Expedited Review
REVIEW CATEGORY:
Expedited review category # 4
Thank you for your submission of Revision materials for this project. The Bowling Green State University
Human Subjects Review Board has APPROVED your submission. This approval is based on an
appropriate risk/benefit ratio and a project design wherein the risks have been minimized. All research
must be conducted in accordance with this approved submission.
The final approved version of the consent document(s) is available as a published Board Document in
the Review Details page. You must use the approved version of the consent document when obtaining
consent from participants. Informed consent must continue throughout the project via a dialogue between
the researcher and research participant. Federal regulations require that each participant receives a copy
of the consent document.
Please note that you are responsible to conduct the study as approved by the HSRB. If you seek to
make any changes in your project activities or procedures, those modifications must be approved by this
committee prior to initiation. Please use the modification request form for this procedure.
You have been approved to enroll 75 participants. If you wish to enroll additional participants you must
seek approval from the HSRB.
All UNANTICIPATED PROBLEMS involving risks to subjects or others and SERIOUS and UNEXPECTED
adverse events must be reported promptly to this office. All NON-COMPLIANCE issues or COMPLAINTS
regarding this project must also be reported promptly to this office.
This approval expires on January 9, 2013. You will receive a continuing review notice before your project
expires. If you wish to continue your work after the expiration date, your documentation for continuing
review must be received with sufficient time for review and continued approval before the expiration date.
Good luck with your work. If you have any questions, please contact the Office of Research Compliance
at 419-372-7716 or [email protected]. Please include your project title and reference number in all
correspondence regarding this project.
-1-
Generated on IRBNet
This letter has been electronically signed in accordance with all applicable regulations, and a copy is retained within Bowling Green
State University Human Subjects Review Board's records.
-2-
Generated on IRBNet
PREFERRED EXERCISE INTENSITY, MOOD, AND ENJOYMENT
Appendix M: Receipt of Purchasing Profile of Mood States Inventory
99